KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE UTILISATION OF GROUND NUT SHELL ASH AND FLY

ASH AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT IN PLASTER

BY

ABITEGEKA NICHOLAS

15/U/154/EBD/GV

0777403971/0706175832

abitegekanicholas@hotmail.com

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND

ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BUILDING ECONOMICS OF KYAMBOGO
UNIVERSITY.

SUPERVISOR: MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIKI

JUNE 2019
 Declaration
I ABITEGEKA NICHOLAS declare that the work submitted in this report is original and it has
never been submitted to any other university or similar institution of learning for the award of
Bachelor of Science in Building Economics or any other related courses in the same field.

Signature……………………………………… …………………

Date……………………………………………………………….

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 Approval
I confirm that I have read this report and the information is as it was executed by ABITEGEKA
NICHOLAS under my supervision.

University supervisor

MR. AINOMUGISHA SAFIKI

Signature…………………………………………………………………….

Date…………………………………………...

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 Acknowledgement
In writing and completing this report, I am greatly indebted to the following people.

First, I want to thank my academic supervisor Mr. Ainomugisha Safiki for his continued guidance
right from topic selection up to writing the final copy, his advice, time and encouragement has
been of immense importance in this endeavor. Thank you very much sir.

Secondly, I would like to convey special thanks to my parents for the endless support in all aspects
that they have provided to me. I wouldn’t have made it to this far without you.

I thank the Lord almighty for the gift of life he has given me.

Lastly, I would like to appreciate my course mates and friends with whom we have been through
this struggle.

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 Dedication
This work is dedicated to the family of Mr. and Mrs. Kusemererwa

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 Table of contents
Declaration ........................................................................................................................................i
Approval........................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... iii
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... iv
List of figures ................................................................................................................................ viii
List of tables.................................................................................................................................... ix
List of acronyms and abbreviations .................................................................................................x
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ....................................................................................................... 3
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................. 4
1.4.1 Main objective .................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Specific objective ............................................................................................................... 4
1.5 HYPOTHESES ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE ....................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 6
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 6
2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Cement ............................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) ............................................................................... 6
Dry process .............................................................................................................................. 7
Wet process.............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.2 Hydration of cement ....................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Fly ash ....................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Properties of fly ash............................................................................................................ 9
2.3.2 Classification of fly ash...................................................................................................... 9

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2.4 Local agricultural wastes ........................................................................................................ 10
2.4.1 Ground nut shells ash ....................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1.1 Chemical and physical properties of ground nut shells ash....................................... 10
2.4.1.2 Chemical and physical properties of other agricultural wastes ................................. 11
2.5 Properties of the plaster mix ................................................................................................... 11
2.5.1 Bulk Density..................................................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 Sieve analysis ................................................................................................................... 12
2.5.3 Specific gravity ................................................................................................................ 13
2.5.3 Initial and final setting time of mortar ............................................................................. 14
2.5.4 Compressive strength ....................................................................................................... 14
2.6 Properties of local waste materials used as a partial replacement of cement ......................... 16
2.7 Overview of sustainability ...................................................................................................... 18
2.8 Local waste material usage in construction ............................................................................ 19
2.8 Current trend in Uganda.......................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 20
MATERIALS AND METHODS.................................................................................................. 20
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 20
3.2 Materials.................................................................................................................................. 20
3.2.1 Cement ............................................................................................................................. 20
3.2.2 Sand .................................................................................................................................. 20
3.2.3 Ground nut shells ash ....................................................................................................... 20
3.2.4 Fly ash .............................................................................................................................. 20
3.2.5 Water ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.3 Preliminary tests on ground nut shell ash, fly ash, fine aggregates ........................................ 21
3.3.1 Bulk density...................................................................................................................... 21
3.3.2 Sieve analysis ................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Mix designs ......................................................................................................................... 23
3.4 Tests on fresh properties of mortar .................................................................................... 23
3.4.3 Determination of initial and final setting time............................................................ 23
Determination of consistence ................................................................................................ 24
3.6 Tests on Harden Properties of plaster ..................................................................................... 26

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 3.6.1 Compressive strength ....................................................................................................... 26
3.7 Data analysis, processing and presentation............................................................................. 28
3.7.2 Statistical tests...................................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER FOUR......................................................................................................................... 30
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 30
4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Physical properties of ground nut shell ash, fly ash and fine aggregates ............................ 30
4.1.1 Sieve analysis................................................................................................................ 30
4.1.2 Bulk density, specific gravity and sieve analysis ......................................................... 33
4.2 Tests on mortar .................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.1 Consistence, initial and final setting time ..................................................................... 34
4.2.2 Compressive strength.................................................................................................... 35
4.3 Statistical analysis ............................................................................................................... 37
4.3.1 Prediction model for the compression strength ............................................................ 38
4.3.2 Correlations................................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 44
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................... 44
5.1 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................. 44
5.2 RECCOMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 47
APPENDIX 1: MY WORK PLAN 2018/2019 ............................................................................ 53
APPENDIX 2: RESEARCH EXPENDITURE ............................................................................ 54
APPENDIX 3: PICTURES .......................................................................................................... 55
APPENDIX 4: LABORATORY RESULTS ................................................................................ 59

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 List of figures
Figure 4.1 shows a schematic diagram of a vicat apparatus ......................................................... 26
Figure 4.2shows the particle size distribution of fly ash .............................................................. 31
Figure 4.3 shows the particle size distribution of groundnut shell ash ......................................... 31
Figure 4.4 shows the particle size distribution of fine aggregates ................................................ 32
Figure 4.5 shows consistency of the control and composite mortar mixes .................................. 34
Figure 4.6 shows initial and final setting ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 4.7 shows graphical representation of compressive strength results ................................. 36
Figure 4.8 shows compressive strength at 28 days ....................................................................... 37
Figure 4.9 shows regression between cement replacement and compressive strength................. 38
Figure 4.10 shows the correlation between initial setting time and cement replacement............. 40
Figure 4.11 shows the correlation between final setting time and cement replacement ............... 41
Figure 1 shows a mortar cube under compression testing ............................................................ 55
Figure 2 shows a measuring cylinder for measuring specific gravity .......................................... 55
Figure 3 shows a dry mix of cement, sand, groundnut shell ash and fly ash................................ 55
Figure 4 shows mortar cubes after demoulding ............................................................................ 55
Figure 5 shows a nest of sieves for sieve analysis ........................................................................ 56
Figure 6 shows casting of mortar cubes........................................................................................ 56
Figure 7 shows curing of mortar cubes ......................................................................................... 56
Figure 8 shows a cylinder for measuring bulk density ................................................................. 56
Figure 9 shows a weight of water and measuring cylinder being measured ................................ 57
Figure 10 shows the materials being oven dried in the oven ........................................................ 57
Figure 11 shows a mound of groundnut shells after being removed from the ponds ................... 57
Figure 12 shows open buring of the groundnut shells to ash........................................................ 57
Figure 13 shows a vicat apparatus with a needle for initial setting time ...................................... 58
Figure 14 shows the impressions left by initial and final setting needles..................................... 58
Figure 15 shows a sample in the top most sieve .......................................................................... 58
Figure 16 shows a sample in the cylindrical vessel for measuring bulk density .......................... 58

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 List of tables
Table 2.1 shows the expected compressive strength after a specific age. .................................... 15
Table 3.1 shows the mix proportioning of plaster ........................................................................ 23
Table 4.1 shows the sieve analysis of groundnut shell ash, fly ash and fine aggregates .............. 30
Table 4.2 shows results of the sieve analysis of fine aggregates .................................................. 32
Table 4.3 shows sieve analysis for fine aggregates ...................................................................... 32
Table 4.4 shows the bulk density, specific gravity and fineness modulus of the materials .......... 33
Table 4.5 shows the consistency, initial and final setting time..................................................... 34
Table 4.6 shows the compressive strength results ........................................................................ 36
Table 4.7 shows statistical analysis between compressive strength at 28 days and percentage
replacement of cement........................................................................................................... 38
Table 4.8 shows statistical analysis table between initial setting time, final setting time and
percentage replacement of cement ........................................................................................ 39
Table 4.9 shows correlation between percentage cement replacement and initial setting time .... 40
Table 4.10 shows correlation between cement percentage replacement and final setting time.... 41
Table 4.11 shows a cost analysis for different replacement levels ............................................... 42

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 List of acronyms and abbreviations

OPC Ordinary Portland Cement

GSA Groundnut Shell Ash
N/mm2 Newton per millimeters squared
ASTM American Standard Testing Method
BS British Standards
EN Euro code
DUS Draft Uganda Standards
US Uganda Standards
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientists
GFM Groundnut shell ash and fly ash mortar

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 Abstract
Cement sand plaster is a widely used finishing material on walls. In the present scenario, cement
production poses a great threat to the environment through pollution and degradation.

In a bid to improve sustainable construction, many waste products have been investigated for
pozzolanic properties. Groundnut ash is one of the agricultural waste materials satisfy the
pozzolanic properties of plaster of having silicon oxide, iron oxide, aluminium oxide greater than
70%. The aim of this research was to improve the properties of cement with groundnut shell ash
using fly ash as a builder in mortar.

Groundnut shells used in this research were subjected to controlled burning into ash. The materials
were tested for their physical properties to obtain data to be used in the mix proportioning and
comparison with the conventional materials. GSA and fly ash were used in partial replacement of
cement in percentages of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% in a cement-sand ratio of 1:3 and batched by
volume. Mortar of standard consistency was used to obtain the initial and final setting times.
Plaster mortar cubes were tested the compressive strength of the plaster mortar at 7, 14 and 28
days. The results obtained from the tests were analysed using descriptive and statistical means.

Bulk densities, specific gravities and fineness of the ashes were found to be different from cement,
the initial and final setting times were found to be higher than those of the control but at all
percentages ranging from 121 and 228 minutes for 10% to 162 and 296 minutes for 40% for initia l
and final setting times respectively and thus can be used as retarders in hot weathers. The setting
times were within the BS EN range of 75 and 600 minutes for OPC. The compressive strength
decreased with increase in replacement of cement at all curing ages; 27.84N/mm2 at 10% to
18.5N/mm2 at 40% for 28 days curing age.

The results showed that cement replacement up to 10% having a strength of 27.84N/mm2 can be
used to plaster masonry made of burnt clay bricks, cement replacement of 40% was appropriate to
plaster masonry walls made of soil stabilized bricks, concrete blocks that have very low minimum
required strength of 2.5N/mm2 and 3.5N/mm2 according to the DUS 849 that gives requireme nts
for bricks. Statistical analysis found out that the results could be explained based on cement
replacement levels and were statistically significant.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains the background which illustrates the magnitude of harm caused to the
environment by the building sector especially cement production and the studies done to mitigate
such harm in the realm of construction, the problem statement that highlights the urgency to
undertake this research, the scope of the intended study and objectives of the study that will guide
the research.

1.2 BACKGROUND
Uganda is experiencing rapid urbanization at a rate of about of about 5.6% per annum (Vermeiren
et al., 2012). This squarely means increased demand for construction closely coupled with the
urban population growth that is expected to grow to 40 million in 2040 from 13 million in 2013
(World Bank, 2015). The construction of these buildings involves materials obtained from the
environment and yet agricultural waste disposal remains poor.

Plaster is a paste comprised of cement, fine aggregates and sometimes lime which hardens and sets
with time which is obtained by adding water to the mixture. Cement is an important component in
the mix because it offers binding properties to the plaster mix. Limestone and shale are raw
materials for cement production. These raw materials of cement production are obtained from the
environment. This comes with a cost to the environment because of the high demand of cement
since it also a widely used material in both building and civil construction. For example, production
of cement emits large amounts of greenhouse gases with carbondioxide emissions accounting for
about 5-7 % of the total emissions (Chen, 2010; Sarath, 2011). It is also well established that
production of one ton of cement consumes about 4GJ of energy, produces 0.5-1 ton of
carbondioxide in the air and requires about 1.7 tons of raw materials which leads to environme nta l
degradation and pollution problems (Malhotra, 1999; Mehta, 1999; Ashutosh, 2013). Increasing
concern for environmental protection, energy conservation with minimal impact on the economy
have been the key factors influencing the research on the alternatives to cement that are cost
effective and locally available.

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In response, Mehta (2002) reported that materials that use few natural resources, less energy and
minimize carbondioxide emissions should be used to make environmentally friendly concrete.
Thus the partial replacement of Portland cement by mineral by-products such as fly ash, slag, silica
fume from industrial processes can significantly reduce carbondioxide emission. Fly ash has been
widely used to replace cement and fly ash mortar has been found to provide satisfactory or higher
strength as compared with OPC mortar to a replacement level of about 40% (Moinul & Saiful,
2010; Sarath, 2011; Deotale et al., 2012; Pujari, 2016). Namagga (2009) observed that the richer
the mix, the higher the compressive strength at 28 days. However, the strength of fly ash mixes
was found to take much longer time than mortar without fly ash to achieve the compressive
strength (Namagga, 2009; Gengying et al., 2005; Sata et al., 2007; Freeda & Tensing, 2017).
Experimental studies by (Owen, 1979; Jiang, 2000; Malhotra, 2002) have shown that depending
on the quality of fly ash and amount of fly ash replaced, water reduction of 20% can be achieved.
The use of waste agricultural materials for partial replacement of cement has also been adopted
for example maize corn cob ash, rice husk ash, plantain peelings ash. Supplementary cementitio us
materials have been proved to be effective in meeting most of the requirements of durable mortar
and concrete and blended cement and are now used in any parts off the world. Shubham et al.
(2017) analysed the compressive strength, workability of concrete and initial and final setting time
of cement with cow dung ash and observed that a 10% replacement of cement with cow dung ash
gives a satisfactory result. Alireza et al. (2010) studied the contributions of rice husk ash to the
properties of mortar and concrete and observed that it demonstrated significant influence in
improving the mechanical and durability properties of mortar and concrete.

In 2017, mechanical properties of concrete using eggshell and ice husk ash as partial replacement
of cement were investigated by Nurul et al. (2017) and reported that overall the flexural and
compressive strength of the concrete with eggshell ah and rice husk ash replacement gained lower
strength compared to normal concrete using OPC only. Raheem et al. (2012) investigated the use
of saw dust as a replacement of cement and found out that the compressive strength was optimum
at 5% replacement. Ogunbode & Akanmu (2012) tested the strength of cassava blended cement in
laterite concrete and found a 46% reduction in the compressive strength as cassava plantain ash
increased in the laterite concrete. Cement was partially replaced with rice husk ash and it was
reported that workability reduced with increase in rice husk ash (Okoya, 2013).

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In all the researches that were carried out about partial replacement of cement with groundnut shell
ash, satisfactory levels were reported at 10% replacement levels (Buari et al., 2013; Nwofor, 2012;
Krishnan & Mohamed, 2016; Aneetha, 2016). This replacement level is still deficient according
to the agricultural waste generated in Uganda. In order to increase on the replacement levels of the
ground nut shell ash in plaster, fly ash was introduced in the mix to improve on the properties of
the plaster mix.

This study contributed to the knowledge base by examining the possibility of using groundnut
shells ash with fly ash as an environmentally friendly approach to partial replacement of cement
in plaster in line with the Switch Africa Green Project that seeks to achieve sustainab le
development by adoption of consumption and production patterns that protect and conserve the
environment and other natural resources (United Nations Development Programme, 2015).

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The need to optimize the use of scarce resources, reduce cost of materials and reduce
environmental pollution has necessitated the research into many waste materials that can replace
cement which is largely used as a binder in plaster, mortar and concrete mixes. Ground nut shells
a remain of ground nuts which are mainly grown in the eastern, northern and south western parts
of Uganda with the eastern part having the production (Okello, 2010) which after production
especially on large scale are either dumped into landfills or burnt in open air. About 58 tons of
groundnut shells are generated annually in the world (Nakoo, 1999). Ground nut shell ash is
assumed a good pozzolan since it contains some elements such as aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide
and iron II oxide found in good pozzolans and ordinary Portland cement. Fly ash has widely been
tested for its pozzolanic properties and all studies have found it high in terms aluminium oxide,
silicon dioxide and iron II oxide. Although some research has been conducted on the partial
replacement of ground nut shell ash with cement, this research intended to combine the ground nut
shell ash with fly ash to improve on the properties of plaster made with groundnut shells ash. From
the standpoint of sustainability which is a major world theme, use of groundnut shells ash would
aid protection of the environment from degradation arising from extraction of raw materials and
production of cement; reduce the cost of construction given the global economic recession and
market inflationary tendencies of cement since the shells are locally available as a waste.

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1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.4.1 Main objective

To determine the possibility of using groundnut shell ash and fly ash as a partial replacement of
cement in plaster.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

1. To determine the physical properties of groundnut shell ash, fly ash and fine aggregates.
2. To establish the initial and final setting time of plaster made with groundnut shell ash and
fly ash.
3. To determine the compressive strength of the plaster made with groundnut shell ash and
fly ash.
4. To establish the cost per square meter of plaster with groundnut shell ash and fly ash.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
1. Groundnut shell ash in the study possesses physical properties that are good for making
plaster.
2. There is a relationship between initial and final setting time of the plaster with groundnut
shell ash and fly ash as a binder in the partial replacement of cement.
3. There is a relationship between the compressive strength of plaster with groundnut shell
ash and fly ash as a binder in the partial replacement of cement.
4. There is a cost reduction in the cost per square meter when plaster is made with groundnut
shell ash and fly ash as a binder.

1.6 SCOPE
The research was carried out from August 2018 to June 2019. The experimental tests were carried
out from Teclab Uganda limited laboratory. The tests carried out included sieve analysis, bulk
density, specific gravity, initial setting time, final setting time, compressive strength test to
determine the optimum combination of ground nut shell ash and fly ash for plastering differe nt
materials used in masonry construction.

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1.7 SIGNIFICANCE
1. The research findings provide more information about the potential of using agricultura l
wastes with pozzolanic properties as a partial replacement of cement in plaster or
incorporation during manufacture of cement.
2. The outcome of this research illustrates an effective method of reducing the amount of
agricultural waste disposed in landfills where groundnut shells account for a high
percentage especially wastes from markets in upcountry markets (Okello, 2017).
3. The results of the research provide information to be used by contractors and designers in
obtaining the specified design requirements incorporating ground nut shells and fly ash in
the mix.

1.8 JUSTIFICATION

From environmental point of view, the use of waste products of both industries and agriculture as
materials for construction would help in the protection of environment against excessive pollutio n
emanating from the production process of cement; exploitation of limestone, shale which are
limited resources and are scared with depletion.

The experimental study establishes the suitability of groundnut shells ash for plaster production
since the prices of cement in Uganda remain very high and are unaffordable to some people and
the groundnut shells are readily available. Most people in rural and semi-rural areas end up living
in houses of masonry walls without plaster or render.

Therefore, owing to the pozzolanic composition of groundnut shell ash, the research provides a
cost effective binder in the plaster given the fact that groundnuts are a widely grown crop in
Uganda for both cash and home consumption. Most often, the processors lack gazetted places to
collectively dump the shells waste especially on a large scale and the local councils responsible
for waste collection are not fully equipped to handle the amount of waste generated (Stephen,
2017).

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION

On the global scale, the building industry is the largest contributor to pollution because of the
energy consumed during the production of raw materials. This has intensified research into the use
of waste materials which are low cost, environmentally friendly to minimize pollution and energy
consumption. This chapter presents a theoretical review on the physical, chemical, mechanica l,
production process of cement, groundnut shells ash and fly ash, methods of testing plaster.

2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW

Relevant literatures were reviewed from different text books, journals, conferences seminars
published and unpublished research works, lecture notes so as to articulate the existing
knowledge to utilize the use of agricultural waste in mortar and concrete production.

2.2.1 Cement
Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive materials which are capable of
bonding together particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass (Duggal, 2008). Cement
can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or artificially by using calcareous and
argillaceous materials. The examples of natural cements are Roman cement, Pozzolana cement
and Medina cement and those of artificial cement are Portland cement and special cements. For
constructional purposes, the meaning of the term ‘cement’ is restricted to the bonding materials
used with stones, sand, bricks, building blocks. Today cement finds extensive use in all types of
construction works; in structures where high strength is required for example bridge piers, light
houses, lofty towers, and large structures such as bridges, silos, chimneys and structures exposed
to the action of water, e.g. reservoirs, dams, dock yards. Cement mortar, concrete, reinforced brick
work, artificial stones, plastering, pointing and partition walls are routinely used in buildings.

2.2.1.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Portland cement is a cementing material obtained by pulverizing clinker produced by calcining to
incipient fusion, an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of argillaceous and calcareous
materials. OPC is produced in three grades; 32.5, 42.5, 52.5 with almost the same physical
properties except compressive strength. Portland cement is mainly composed of calcium oxide(60-

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65%) which controls the strength and soundness, its deficiency reduces strength and setting time ;
silicon dioxide (17-25%) which gives strength, excess of it causes slow setting; aluminium oxide
(3-8%) responsible for quick setting, if it is in excess it lowers strength; iron oxide (0.5-6%) gives
colour and helps in fusion of different ingredients; magnesium oxide imparts colour and hardness,
excess causes cracks in mortar and concrete and unsoundness (Duggal ,2008).

2.2.1.2 Manufacture of ordinary Portland cement

Portland cement is made primarily from a calcareous material, such as limestone or chalk, and
from alumina and silica found as clay or shale. Marl, a mixture of calcareous and argillaceo us
materials, can also be used. Raw materials for the manufacture of Portland cement are found in
nearly all countries and cement plants operate all over the world. The process of manufacture of
cement consists essentially of grinding the raw materials, mixing them intimately in certain
proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at a temperature of up to about 1450 °C until when
the material sinters and partially fuses into balls known as clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground
to a fine powder, with some gypsum added, and the resulting product is the commercial Portland
cement so widely used throughout the world. The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be
done either in water or in a dry condition; hence the names ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ processes. The actual
methods of manufacture depend also on the hardness of the raw materials used and on their
moisture content (Neville, 2011).

Dry process
The dry process is adopted when the raw materials are quite hard to get. The process is slow and
the product is costly. Limestone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed.
Water is added to make a thick paste. The cakes of this paste, which contain about 14 per cent of
moisture, are dried and are charged into rotary kiln. The product obtained after calcination in rotary
kiln is called clinker. The clinker is obtained as a result of incipient fusion and sintering at a
temperature of about 1400°-1500°C. Because ferric oxide has lower melting point than the other
oxides, it acts as a flux.

Aeration of cement clinker, which is commonly practiced to slake free lime, also causes absorption
of some moisture and carbon dioxide. Absorption of moisture tends to decrease the setting whereas
that of carbon dioxide accelerates setting. The clinker is cooled rapidly to preserve the metastable

7
compounds and their solid solutions, dispersion of one solid in another, which is made as the
clinker is heated. Clinker is then cooled and ground in tube mills, where 2-3% of gypsum is added.
Generally, cement is stored in bags of 50 kg. The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the cement
particles by interfering with the process of hydration of the cement particles. This retards the
setting of cement (Duggal, 2008).

Wet process
The operations in the wet process of cement manufacture are mixing, burning and grinding. The
crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill and a little water is added. On operating the ball mill,
the steel balls in it pulverize the raw materials which form slurry with water. This slurry is passed
to silos (storage tanks), where the proportioning of the compounds is adjusted to ensure desired
chemical composition. The corrected slurry having about 40 per cent moisture content is then fed
into rotary kiln where it loses moisture and forms into lumps or nodules. These are finally burned
at 1500-1600°C. The nodules change to clinker at this temperature. Clinker is cooled and then
ground in tube mills. While grinding the clinker, about 3 per cent gypsum is added. The cement is
then stored in silos from where it is supplied (Duggal, 2008)

2.2.2 Hydration of cement

These are reactions by virtue of which Portland cement becomes a bonding agent take place in a
water–cement paste. In other words, in the presence of water, the silicates and aluminates form
products of hydration which in time produce a firm and hard mass – the hydrated cement paste
(Neville, 2011).
2.3 Fly ash
Fly ash or pulverized fuel ash (PFA) is the residue from the combustion of pulverized coal
collected by mechanical or electrostatic separators from the flue gases or power plants. Fly ash is
a natural pozzolan, which means that it is a “siliceous or siliceous-and-aluminous material” which
chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide to form composites having cementitous properties. It
influences many properties of concrete in both fresh and hardened state. Fly ash has been found to
have numerous advantages for use in concrete including improved workability, reduced
permeability, increased ultimate strength, reduced bleeding, better surface and reduced heat of
hydration (Vinod, 2016). The use of fly ash in limited amounts as a replacement for cement or as
an addition to cement requires a little more water for the same slump because of fineness of the
fly ash. Since the pozzolanic action is very slow, an addition of fly ash up to 30 per cent may result

8
in lower strength at 7 and 28 days, but may be about equal at 3 months and may further increase
at ages greater than 3 months provided curing is continued. A 30 per cent substitution of fly ash
may result in an increase of initial setting time up to 2 hours (Duggal, 2008).

2.3.1 Properties of fly ash

Studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of fly ash. Deotale et al.
(2012) in his study on the effect of partial replacement of cement with fly ash, rice husk ash
investigated the chemical composition of fly ash with other materials and revealed that it contains
silicon oxide (40%:19.71%), aluminium oxide (25%:5.20%), iron oxide (6%) calcium oxide
(20%:3.73%), magnesium oxide (3.71%:2.54%), fly ash: cement.

Moinul &Saiful (2010) compared the physical properties of fly ash and Ordinary Portland Cement
as follows; fineness ASTM Type-1 cement 95% fineness using a 200 sieve and 99% for ASTM
class F fly ash, chemical analysis of fly ash as calcium oxide (8.6), silicon oxide (59.3), aluminium
oxide (23.4), iron oxide (4.8), magnesium oxide (0.6) for class F fly ash.

2.3.2 Classification of fly ash

Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The
chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content
in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of
the coal burned.

Class F fly ash: The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces
Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 20% lime (CaO).
Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a
cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water
in order to react and produce cementitious compounds (Morsy, 2011).

Class C fly ash: Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, in
addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence
of water, Class C fly ash hardens and gains strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains
more than 20% calcium oxide, lime (Morsy, 2011).

9
2.4 Local agricultural wastes
Uganda having agriculture as the backbone of its economy experiences large amounts of wastes
from the agricultural sector. The wastes are usually found in large amounts in agricultura l
processing plants, market places, and refuse collection points. These wastes largely pose a
nuisance in these areas as garbage collection in Uganda is at its minimum and most area councils
seem to be overwhelmed by such agricultural waste (Okello, 2017). The combustion of agricultura l
residues volatizes the organic matters and a silica-rich ash is produced. Of all the agricultura l
wastes, rice husk yields the largest quantity of ash with about 93 per cent silica which gives it
pozzolanic properties (Joel, 2010).

2.4.1 Ground nut shells ash

Ground nut (Arachis hypogea) is the second most important legume after beans in Uganda with
uses and importance cutting across in both the rural and urban areas (Okello, 2017). Ground nut is
the 13th important food crop in the world, the 4 th edible oil and 3rd most important protein (Nakoo,
1999). Before consumption, the seeds are removed from the pods by pressing between the index
and thumb-for small scale production or by using a crashing machine for large scale production.
The shells are then either collected and burnt in open air or dumped in landfills causing a nuisance.
The shell occupies 20-24% of the rough ground nut harvested and about 58 tons of ground nut
shells are generated annually in the world due to its many uses (Nakoo, 1999).

2.4.1.1 Chemical and physical properties of ground nut shells ash

A number of studies have been performed on its chemical composition and the ability to be used
as a pozzolan. A chemical analysis on ground nut shell ash and Ordinary Portland Cement by
(Nwofor, 2012) to reveal and compare their composition, found out that the percentage
composition of calcium oxide found in groundnut shell ash (1.80) was found to be less than that
in Ordinary Portland Cement (4.65). The total percentage composition of iron oxide (1.80), silicon
oxide (16.21) and aluminium oxide (5.93) was less than the minimum of 70% specified for
pozzolana by ASTM C618. The percentage of magnesium oxide as found to be much higher than
the minimum recommended. Specific gravity was revealed as 2.23 which is less than that of
cement which was 3.15 but falls within the range of 1.9 to 2.4 for pulverized fuel ash.

In 2017, a study on the partial replacement of ground nut shell ash with cement by Nadiminti &
Polinati found out the chemical composition of ground nut shell ash as silica (16.3%), ferrous

10
oxide (1.7%), calcium oxide (8.69%), Aluminium oxide (6%), magnesium oxide (7%), sodium
oxide (10%), potassium oxide (16%), sulphite (6.3%). Specific gravity as 2.15 and 2.21 for
groundnut and ripe plantain peel ash respectively was obtained in the study of the combined
strength characteristics of ground nuts and ripe plantain ash as cementitious replacement which
was within the British international standard range (Orlando & Salome, 2017). Sokolova (2012)
reviewed the agro-waste materials that can be used as materials for partial replacement and
reported the physical and chemical properties as follows ground nut shell ash 1.54 specific gravity,
bulk density 254.55kg/m3 , water absorption at 1.61% and moisture content 0.4%.

2.4.1.2 Chemical and physical properties of other agricultural wastes

Aliyu (2018) in his analysis of plantain peel ash found that it contained the major constitue nts
found in cement with the exception of calcium sulphate which included silica (12.249%), iron
oxide (3.988%), alumina (2.653%), and calcium oxide (7.897%). More so it contains
approximately 12.25% silicon oxide as compared to cement with 17.25% hence the low pozzolanic
properties to react with the free lime in cement. In 2013, Bamaga reported that the chemical
analysis of a palm oil fuel ash yielded 59.9% silicon oxide, 7.64% of potassium oxide along with
other minor oxides. The sum of percentages of silicon oxide, aluminium oxide and ferrous oxide
which forms the major oxides at 75.43% thus being classified as pozzolana in accordance with
ASTM (1978) that specifies 70% minimum for the sum of the oxides.

Oyejobi et al. (2015) carried out a chemical analysis of palm oil fuel ash and reported that the
total sum of silicon oxide, aluminium oxide and ferrous oxide in the processed Palm Oil Fuel Ash
was 77.60% that satisfied the requirements of a pozzolana according to ASTM C618(1978). The
silica enables the concrete to have a good strength and durability while alumina will make the
concrete to be corrosion resistant as well as impacting quick setting quality to the concrete. Iron
oxide helps in fusion of raw materials during cement production as well as assisting in colour,
hardness and strength. The chemical analysis was as follows silicon oxide (53.52%), aluminium
oxide (11.40%), iron oxide (12.68%), calcium oxide (4.62%).

2.5 Properties of the plaster mix

Plaster is a finishing material and is mainly composed of fine aggregate, cement and water
which are mixed in a particular proportion to get an actual strength. After mixing together of these
components, they form a fluid mass that is applied on the walls that hardens on setting to form the

11
plaster finish. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest of the
ingredients together. Mortar used for plastering is governed by BS EN 998:1. In engineer ing
construction the main qualifications demanded of plaster mixes are permanency of structure,
strength, and a rate of setting suitable to the functionality of the structure. This include the bond
strength, compressive strength, initial and final setting, consistency, bulk density, sieve analysis,
drying shrinkage, workability. A detailed account of some of these is here below expounded;

2.5.1 Bulk Density

Bulk density is the mass of the material related to a specific volume. It is normally expressed as
kilograms per cubic meter. It reflects the volume taken up by a material and any air trapped
between the particles. It is used in both weight and volume batching since it measures the volume
that the graded aggregates will occupy in the mortar or concrete to establish weight-vo lume
relationships. It depends upon how densely packed the material is. It is used to convert the
quantities by mass to volume. It also depends on the size, distribution and shape of the particles.
During mix design, when batching, it is necessary to know the mass of the specimen that will fill
the container of unit volume. If the bulk density is known, it is easy to determine the mass required
to fill a unit volume container. The whole ideal of bulk densities is to show how dense the particles
are packed.

2.5.2 Sieve analysis

This is a practice of allowing a material to pass through a series of sieves of progressively smaller
mesh sieves and weighing the amount of material stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole
mass.
It involves a simple operation of dividing a material sample of aggregate into fractions, each
consisting of particles of the same size. In practice, each fraction contains particles between
specific limits, these being the openings of standard test sieves. All sieves are mounted in frames
which can nest. It is thus possible to place the sieves one above the other in order of size with the
largest sieve at the top, and the material retained on each sieve after shaking represents the fraction
of aggregate coarser than the sieve in question but finer than the sieve above.

Finer the cement, more is the strength since surface area for hydration will be large. With increase
in fineness, the early development of strength is enhanced but the ultimate strength is not affected.
An increase in the fineness of the cement increases the cohesiveness of the concrete mix and thus

12
reduces the amount of water which separates to the top of a lift (bleeding), particularly while
compacting with vibrators. However, if the cement is ground beyond a certain limit, its
cementitious properties are affected due to the prehydration by atmospheric moisture. Finer cement
reacts more strongly in alkali reactive aggregate. Also, the water requirement and workability will
be more leading to higher drying shrinkage and cracking. Because the strength of fully compacted
concrete with a given water/cement ratio is independent of the grading of the aggregate, grading
is, in the first instance, of importance only in so far as it affects workability. As, however, achieving
the strength corresponding to a given water/ cement ratio requires full compaction, and this can be
obtained only with a sufficiently workable mix, it is necessary to produce a mix that can be
compacted to a maximum density with a reasonable amount of work.

It should be stated at the outset that there is no one ideal grading curve but a compromise is aimed
at. Apart from the physical requirements, the economic aspects must not be forgotten: concrete has
to be made of materials which can be produced cheaply so that no narrow limits can be imposed
on aggregate. It has been suggested that the main factors governing the desired aggregate grading
are: the surface area of the aggregate, which determines the amount of water necessary to wet all
the solids; the relative volume occupied by the aggregate; the workability of the mix; and the
tendency to segregation.

2.5.3 Specific gravity

This is the ratio of the weight of any volume of substance to the weight of an equal volume of a
standard substance usually water at a specified condition of temperature and pressure. This is
accomplished by measuring the mass of a unit volume of a materia l and the mass when the material
is submerged in water. The specific gravity is used in mixture proportioning calculations to
determine the absolute volume that a given mass of material will occupy in the mixture. Absolute
volume of a material refers to the space occupied by the material particles alone; that is the volume
of the solid matter and the internal material pores not including the voids between particles.
Substituting the material for another in the mix when the materials have different specific gravities
will cause the yield or volume of the concrete or mortar to increase or decrease if batch masses
remain constant. Within an aggregate source, a variation in the specific gravity may indicate a
change in the aggregate characteristics.

13
2.5.3 Initial and final setting time of mortar
Setting refers to the change from a fluid to a rigid state. This is caused by a selective hydration of
C3 A and C3 S for practical purposes. Since hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it
is the total surface area of cement that represents the material available for hydration. Thus the rate
of hydration depends on the fineness of cement particles; the higher the fineness of cement
particles, the higher the rate of hydration but the long term strength is not affected. Early strength
development is better if at least 50% lie between 3 and 30µm. It is important to distinguish between
setting and hardening. When water is added to the mix, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain
strength and lose consistence simultaneously.

The beginning of the solidification is the initial set and it marks the point when the paste has
become unworkable. The time taken to solidify completely marks the final set which should not
be too long in order to resume construction activity within a reasonable time after the plastering or
placement of concrete. It is important to know the initial setting time because of loss of useful
properties of cement if the cement mortar is placed in moulds after this time. The importance of
final setting time lies in the fact that the moulds can be removed after this time. The former defines
the limit of handling and the latter defines the beginning of development of mechanical strength.

The initial and final setting time is affected by the composition of the mix, percentage of retardant,
degree of calcination, fineness of grinding, aeration subsequent to grinding clinker, percentage of
water used to make the cement paste, the temperature of the mixing water, amount of manipula tio n
the paste receives.

For the determination of initial and final setting time, it is necessary to determine for any given
mix, the water to cement ratio of the mix which will produce the desired consistency. It is measured
using the vicat apparatus using a 10mm diameter plunger fitted into the needle holder.

2.5.4 Compressive strength

Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface without
any crack or deflection. Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix design. A material
under compression tends to reduce the size, while in tension, size elongates. It is applicable for
production control performance and compliance testing.
Compressive strength of plaster depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement
strength, mix ratio of the plaster, quantity and type of release agent used, quality control during

14
production of the mix. By this test, the quality and the quantity of plaster can be controlled and the
degree of adulteration can be checked. Test for compressive strength is carried out either on cube
or prisms. Various standards provide for the use of different sizes for testing compressive strength
of mortar. BS EN 1015-11 provides for the use of 40mm x 40mm x 160mm long prisms, ASTM
C109 provides for the use of 2-inch (50mm) cubes.

The compressive strength is influenced by a number of factors in addition to the water/cement

ratio and degree of compaction. These are;
The type of cement and its quality – both the rate of strength gain and the ultimate strength may
be affected.
Efficiency of curing – loss in strength of up to 40% may result from premature drying out.
Temperature – in general, the initial rate of hardening is increased by an increase in temperature
but may lead to lower ultimate strength. At lower temperatures, the crushing strength may remain
low for some time, particularly when cements of slow rate of strength gain are employed, but may
lead to higher ultimate strength, provided frost damage does not occur.
Age – when moisture is available, strength will increase with age, the rate being greatest initia lly
and progressively decreasing over time. The rate will be influenced by the cement type, cement
content and internal temperature.
The expected compressive strength after a specific age are as required below The strength increases
with age.
Table 2.1 shows the expected compressive strength after a specific age.
Age Strength percent(of
the desired strength)
1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%
Source: (Duggal, 2008)

15
Moisture condition – plaster allowed to dry will immediately exhibit a higher strength due to the
dry process but will not gain strength thereafter unless returned to and maintained in moist
conditions. Dry plaster will exhibit a reduced strength when moistened.

2.6 Properties of local waste materials used as a partial replacement of cement

In response to the need for sustainable construction, a number of studies have been conducted on
the use of agricultural waste as a possible replacement of cement. Mixtures of Portland cement
with a pozzolana are called pozzolanic cements. Theses cements have the following advantages;
good chemical resistance attack, low heat of hydration, economy, improvement of workability,
reduction of bleeding and greater impermeability and have a disadvantage of slower rate of
strength development and increased shrinkage (Seeley, 1993).

Many of the scholars in attempting to partially replace cement at varying percentages to obtain an
optimum ratio have found out the following; In 2010, Alirezi et al. studied the mechanica l,
durability and fresh properties of concrete/mortar containing rice husk ash and found out that the
rice husk ash blend improved the workability of concrete, the initial and final setting time of
cement pastes, significantly reduce water permeability by decreasing the porosity, improve the
compressive strength as well as tensile and flexural strength of concrete. Tests on the compressive
strength, workability, initial and final setting of mortar with cow dung ash were done and it was
observed that with 10% replacement of cement may be used as a partial replacement to cement in
mortar because it gave a satisfactory result because compressive strength increased up to 10%,
workability reduces while mortar retarded in setting times with the use of cow dung ash (Shubham
et al., 2017). Berenguer et al. (2006) analysed the potentials of using sugarcane bagasse ash as a
partial substitution of Portland cement to produce mortars and found out that compressive and
tensile strength tests showed excellent results in terms of immediate strength.

In 2016, Nurul et al. mixed egg shell ash with rice husk ash admixture in different proportions
(2%:8%, 4%:6%, 6%:4%) to increase the strength of the admixture using rice husk ash because
of its pozzolanic activity, and carried out tests on workability and compressive strength. He found
out the rice husk ash and eggshell replacement concrete was more workable than the normal G30
concrete; compressive strength of the replacement increased with reduction of percentage of rice
husk ash while 4% eggshell and 6% rice husk ash is the best optimum usage for flexural strength.
Manasseh (2010) analysed the chemical composition of different agricultural wastes to find out

16
their similarity to cement using Bogue’s model and found out that none of the agricultural waste
materials (acha husk ash, bone powder ash, Bambara groundnut shell ash, ground nut shell ash,
rice husk ash and wood ash) satisfied the CaO:SiO 2 of 3.13, silica ratio and alumina ratio of 1.7-
3.5 and 2.44 respectively hence they cannot act as a substitute of cement but can only be used as
partial replacement. Only rice husk ash and ground nut shell ash satisfied the requirement of greater
than 70% composition of SiO 2 , Al2 O3 , and FeO3.

In 2010, Moinul & Saiful replaced cement with 10%, 20%, 30%,40%, 50% and 60% class F fly
ash by weight and carried out compressive and tensile strength tests on the mortar at 3,7,14,28,56
and 90 days. They found out that strength increases with the increase of fly ash up to an optimum
value of about 40% beyond which the strength value starts decreasing with further addition of fly
ash which provides 14% higher compressive strength and 8% higher tensile strength as compared
to Ordinary Portland Cement mortar. Freeda & Tensing (2010) studied the effect of class F fly ash
as partial replacement with cement and fine aggregates in mortar mix proportions of 1:3, 1;4.5, 1:6
at 0%, 10%, 20%, 25%, and 30% replacement levels by weight of cement and found out that the
richer the mix, the higher the compressive strength for cement replacement and a significa nt
improvement in strength properties of mortar with fly ash replacement with fine aggregates (20%)
and cement (10%) in the cement: mortar mix of 1:6. A study by Vinod (2016) on the compressive
strength and workability of concrete with fly ash as a partial replacement of cement revealed that
for 10% to 20% replacement of fly ash by weight of cement, compressive strength is increased and
reduced with further increase in percentage of fly ash and slump loss of concrete went on
increasing with increase of quantity of fly ash.

In 2017, Orlando & Salome studied the combined strength characteristics of groundnut and ripe
plantain ash as a cementitious replacement to cement in sandcrete blocks. The results showed that
plantain peel ash and groundnut shell ash contained cementitious properties and can be used as a
replacement to cement in sandcrete blocks but the compressive strength of blocks produced
decreased with increasing percentage replacement of waste ash with cement. The best achieved
replacement was 10% hence the blocks could only be used for minor works and not in areas with
a lot of water. In the study by Aliyu et al. (2018), the effect of plantain peel ash on the mechanica l
properties of concrete by partially replacing cement at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% with plantain
peel ash was analysed. The consistency, setting time and soundness of cement–plantain peel ash

17
increased with increase in plantain peel ash content. The compressive strength increased with
curing time and decreased with cement replacement and a 10% replacement of cement with
plantain peel ash gave the highest strength for all curing ages up to 28 days.

In the study on the partial replacement of groundnut shell ash with cement in concrete, strength
was evaluated at 0% to 30% at intervals of 5% adopting a mix ratio of 1:2:4. It was observed that
10% replacement of ground nut shell showed the highest strength values and 15% replacement
showed the optimum replacement for compressive and flexural strength (Nadiminti & Polinati,
2017). Alabadan (2006) studied the potentials of ground nut shell ash as an admixture with
Ordinary Portland Cement from 0% to 70% in concrete and found out that the compressive
strengths of the control and those of other combinations increased with curing age but decreased
with increased ash percentage. Though, the strength of the control was higher, replacement of
cement with ash up to 30% would be more suitable than others. In 2006, Ketkukah & Ndububa
examined properties of ordinary Portland cement and ground nut shell ash at 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%
and 10% replacement levels and reported that the consistency and setting times increased with a
proportional increase in ground nut shells ash content, initial and final setting times increased with
the increase in the ground nut shell ash content, compressive strength decreased with the increase
in ground nut shell ash, densities slightly decreased as the percentage of ash increased.

2.7 Overview of sustainability

Sustainability is one of the world’s greatest aims but its meaning is always interpreted in differe nt
ways and often treated superficially. The need of a built environment that offers environme nta l
benefits, financial benefits and social benefits is the main reason underlying sustainable building
materials and methods. In order to address the imbalance created by the construction industry to
the environment, efforts have been made to come up with techniques aimed at harmonizing the
construction methods and materials that reduce the negative impact on the environme nt.
Sustainable construction is not just about the creation of a building that has a low environme nta l
impact but also improves the way people live and build in terms of cost reduction, improved health,
waste minimization, better use of materials, noise avoidance, creating a new market, unlocking
new potentials and creating room for experimentation.

18
2.8 Local waste material usage in construction
The use of agro and industrial wastes has gained interest in many parts of the world due to the
pozzolanic properties that they possess. The increased advocacy for green building and sustainab le
construction that aims at adopting construction materials and methods with benefits such as
reduced energy consumption for lighting, heating and cooling, longer life cycles, better
mechanical, chemical and physical properties, less impact on the environment has led to
experimentation of different waste materials.

2.8 Current trend in Uganda

Most houses in Uganda are built of soil stabilized bricks, concrete blocks, burnt clay bricks. These
masonry walls are either left not plastered and not rendered; or plastered with cement/sand and/or
lime and cement/sand render in varying mixes. The composition of such mixes involves materials
that are obtained by extraction on the natural resources in the environment. For example, cement
involves the use of limestone as a raw material which in addition to being obtained from the
environment, is also scarce. This creates a threat to the environment because of likely depletion
coupled with the high population growth. The scarcity also causes the prices of the product- cement
to be high. The production process also releases poisonous fumes into the atmosphere which are a
threat to human health. Thus the blend of groundnut shell ash and fly ash as a partial replacement
of ordinary Portland cement can provide a solution that is eco and financially friendly.

19
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction
This research employed experimentation to determine the appropriate proportion of cement,
ground nut shell ash and fly ash that can be used in plaster mixes. This chapter presents the
materials and methods that were used in the study to fulfill the set objectives, the procedures used
in accordance with the appropriate standards and the methods used for data analysis.

3.2 Materials
The materials used in this study for the production of the plaster were groundnut shell ash, fine
aggregates, fly ash, cement and water.

3.2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement manufactured by Tororo cement of strength 32.5N complying to US:
310-1: 2001 was used as a binder in the plaster mix. This cement was obtained from the hardware
store in Natete.

3.2.2 Sand
Locally sourced river sand satisfying the specified upper and lower limit percentages of the sand
passing each sieve and passing through a 475µmm sieve as per BS EN 13139: 2013. The sand was
around the laboratory area.

3.2.3 Groundnut shells ash

Groundnut shells were obtained from the groundnut mills in Hoima Central Market. The shells
were packed in bags and transported to the site and sundried. The shells were burnt on an iron
sheet in open air to ash. The ashes were packed in bags and stored on timber runners to avoid
contact with moisture. The ash used for casting cubes was passed through a 75µmm BS sieve as
per BS EN 196-6:1989.

3.2.4 Fly ash

Fly ash used conformed to BS EN 450-1 that specifies pulverized fly ash to be used in projects
where strength and durability is fundamentally important and in particular not more than 12%
should pass through the 0.425mm sieve and loss of ignition of 5.0%. BS EN 450-1 deals with
definitions, specifications and conformity criteria for siliceous fly ash which is produced by

20
burning of pulverized coal with or without co-combustion materials and collected in a dry state or
which is processed by classification, selection, sieving, drying, blending, grinding or carbon
reduction or by a combination of these processes.

3.2.5 Water
Potable water in the laboratory supplied by National Water and Sewerage Cooperation complying
with BS EN 1008:2002 was used for the whole work. There is no requirement for testing of potable
water before use according to BS EN 1008:2002.
3.3 Preliminary tests on ground nut shell ash, fly ash, fine aggregates
The physical properties tested included specific gravity test, bulk density and gradation or sieve
analysis.

3.3.1 Bulk density

The test was carried out in accordance with BS EN 1097-3:1998 which gives the procedure for
determination of bulk density as illustrated below.
Apparatus
Weighing balance.
Tamping rod measuring cylinder
Scoop
Procedure
1. The empty, dry and clean cylindrical container was weighed and the dimensions recorded.
2. The container was placed on a horizontal surface and filled to overflowing using a scoop.
Whilst filling the container, minimize segregation by resting the scoop on the top rim. At
no time shall the edge of the scoop be more than 50 mm above the rim of the container.
3. The container was filled in three equal layers with each layer being compacted 25 times
using a tamping rod falling freely from a height of 50 mm above the surface of the sample .
4. Any surplus material was carefully removed from above the top of the container ensuring
that the surface spread is even to avoid segregation.
5. The surface of the aggregate was leveled with the straight-edge, taking care not to compact
any part of the upper surface.
6. The filled container was weighed and recorded its mass to 0.1 %.
Bulk density was calculated from the following equation.
( weight of container+compacted material ) −(weight of empty container)
Bulk density=
volume of the container

21
3.3.2 Sieve analysis
The test was conducted in accordance to BS EN 933-1:1997 that gives the procedure for
determination of particle size distribution using the sieving method as illustrated below.
Procedure
1. The material was oven dried at 105±5̊C until a constant mass was obtained and then cooled.
2. The sample of the material to be sieved was weighed.
3. The individual sieves were placed on top of each other to form a nest of sieves. Sieve apertures
of size (mm) 2.0, 1.18, 0.60, 0.30, 0.15, 0.075 were used.
4. The test sample was placed in the top sieve and the sieves were agitated until material ceased
to pass the sieves.
5. Sieves were removed starting with the largest aperture size and the retained material weighed
for the sieve with the largest aperture size and its weight recorded.
6. The weighed material was poured into the next sieve in the sieving column in the order of
decreasing aperture sizes with the pan and lid.
7. The process was repeated commencing with the largest aperture size opening and shaken
manually ensuring no material is lost by using, for example, a pan and lid and the material
residue weighed.
8. The results were tabulated and the gradation curve plotted in relation with the specified upper
and lower limits.
3.3.3 Specific gravity

This test was conducted in accordance with BS EN 1097-7 that gives the procedure for
determination of particle density using the pyknometer method as illustrated below.
Procedure
1. The empty pyknometer was weighed and the weight recorded as W1.
2. It was then filled with the sample material to about three quarters of the pyknomter and
weighed as W2.
3. The pyknometer containing the ash was topped up with water and left to stand for 24 hours
and weighed as W3.
4. The content of the pyknometer was then poured out and rinsed with water.
5. The pyknometer was then filled with water and this was measured as W4.
The specific gravity of the sample is then determined from the following formula.

22
 𝑊2−𝑊1
Specific gravity =(
𝑊2−𝑊1) −(𝑊3−𝑊4)

3.4 Mix designs

The calculation of the amount of groundnut shell ash and fly ash used as a supplementar y
cementitious material began by testing of materials to determine their physical properties. The
calculation as in appendix 5 was made for the control mix and the amounts of the materials for the
replacement levels were obtained for partially replacing the weights of the cement using
percentages.
Control (CM) that is (i.e.) cement + water + fine aggregate (0% cement replacement).
Groundnut shell ash, fly ash plaster (GFM10) i.e. cement + water + sand + fine aggregate (90%
cement + 10% groundnut shells and fly ash)
GFM20 i.e. cement + water + sand + fine aggregate (80% cement + 20% groundnut shells and fly
ash)
GFM30 i.e. cement + water + sand fine aggregate (70% cement + 30% groundnut shells and fly
ash)
GFM40 i.e. cement + water + sand + fine aggregate (60% cement + 40% groundnut shells and fly
ash)
Table 3.1 shows the mix proportioning of plaster
MIX PROPORTIONS
CEMENT
% OF

ID

(grams)
CEMENT

(grams)
ASH
SHELL
NUT
GROUND

(grams)
FLY ASH

(grams)
ATES
AGGREG
FINE

(grams)
WATER

100% CM 525 0 0 1407 213

90% GFM10 472.5 26.25 26.25 1407 213
80% GFM20 420 52.5 52.5 1407 213
70% GFM30 367.5 78.75 78.75 1407 213
60% GFM40 315 105 105 1407 213

3.4 Tests on fresh properties of mortar used for plaster

3.4.3 Determination of initial and final setting time

This test was carried out in accordance with BS EN 196-3:2006 that gives the methods of testing
cement; determination of setting times and soundness. In order to carry out this test, the amount
of mixing water was first determined that produces a standard consistency.
23
Determination of consistence
 500g of cement and a quantity of water say 125g were weighed
 The mixture was batched before water was added
 After adding water, the “zero time” was recorded which is the time when the water was added
to the mixture to form a paste. The total mixer time should be 3 minutes.
 The paste was immediately transferred to the lightly oiled mould placed on the lightly oiled
base plate and filled to excess without undue compaction or vibration.
 Any voids in the paste were removed by gently tapping the slightly overfilled mould against
the ball of the hand.
 The excess mortar was removed by a gentle sawing motion with a straight edged imple me nt
to leave the paste filling the mould and having a smooth upper surface.
 The vicat apparatus was adjusted with the plunger attached in advance of the test by lowering
the plunger to rest on the base plate to be used and adjusting the pointer or the scale to read
zero.
 The plunger was raised to a standby position. Immediately after levelling the paste, the mould
and the base plate were transferred to the vicat apparatus and positioned centrally under the
plunger.
 The plunger was lowered until it was in contact with the paste.
 The plunger was paused in that position for about 2 seconds to avoid initial velocity or forced
acceleration of the moving parts
 The moving parts were released quickly and the plunger allowed to penetrate vertically into
the paste. The release of the plunger occurs within 4min ±10s after zero time.
 The scale is read at least 5s after penetration has ceased. The scale reading is recorded which
indicates the distance between the bottom face of the plunger and base plate together with the
water content of the paste expressed as a percentage by mass of the cement. The plunger is
cleaned immediately after each penetration.
 The test was repeated with pastes containing different water contents until one is fund to
produce a distance between plunger and base plate of (6±2)mm.
 The water content of that paste is recorded to the nearest 0.5% as the water for standard
consistence.

24
Initial and final setting time
 The vicat mould was filled with mortar of standard consistency
 The mould and base plate were placed under the needle of the vicat apparatus
 The needle was lowered gently until it was in contact with the paste
 The needle was paused in that position for between 1 or 2 seconds
 The moving parts were released quickly and the needle allowed to penetrate vertically into
the paste.
 When the penetration had ceased, the scale reading was taken.
 The scale reading was recorded which indicates the distance between the end of the needle
and the base plate together with the time from the “zero”
 The penetration on the same specimen was repeated at conveniently spaced positions, not less
than 8mm from the rim of the mould or 5mm from each other and at least 10mm from the last
penetration position at least 10mm interval and the interval reduced as the resistance
increases.
 The vicat needle was cleaned immediately after each penetration
 The elapsed time from the zero time and the time at which the distance between the needle
and the base plate is (6±3)mm is the initial setting time and the time is recorded to the nearest
5 minutes.
 The mortar was smoothened so that the tests for the final setting to be made.
 The needle was gently lowered until it was in contact with the paste and it was paused in that
position for about 2 seconds.
 The moving parts were quickly released and the needle was allowed to penetrate vertically
into the paste.
 The scale was read when penetration had ceased
 The penetrations were repeated on the same specimen at conveniently spaced positions and
spaced time intervals.
 The vicat needle was cleaned immediately after each penetration
 The time at which the needle first penetrates only 0.5mm into the specimen was recorded.
This is the time when the ring attachment first fails to mark the specimen and may be

25
 accurately established by reducing the time interval between penetrations near the final
setting time.
 The final setting time was confirmed by repeating the test in two other positions and the time
recorded to the nearest 15 minutes.

--

Figure 3.1 shows a schematic diagram of a vicat apparatus

3.6 Tests on Harden Properties of plaster

At hardened stage, the mortar samples were tested for compressive strength at the end of 7, 14and
28 days curing period.

3.6.1 Compressive strength

This test was carried out in accordance to ASTM C109. Different plaster mixes were made from
the cement-sand mix with cement being partially replaced by groundnut shell ash, fly ash in the
mix. Three sets of specimens were cast and tested at various ages. Cubes were tested at 7, 14 and
28 days of curing age.

Casting of Cubes

1. The specimens were cast in iron moulds of size 50mm x 50mm x 50mm.
2. The moulds were tightened with bolts and nuts to avoid leakage; mould oil was applied on
inner surface of the molds in order to prevent bond between the mould and the plaster.

26
3. The moulds were filled in three layers; each being compacted with a tapping rod 25 times to
overflowing and excess plaster removed.
4. Surface finishing was then done by means of a trowel.
5. The test specimens will then be left in the molds undisturbed for 24 hours and cured at a
temperature of 27±5o C up to the age of test in a container.
Procedure for testing
1. After curing the cubes for the specified period, they were removed and wiped to remove
surface moisture in readiness for compression test.
2. The plaster cubes were tested for compressive strength using the universal testing machine to
determine the crushing load of the hardened plaster.
3. The dimension of the cube was measured, weighed and loaded in the compression test
machine with troweled faces perpendicular to the vertical axes to the Universal Testing
Machine.
4. The load was applied at a constant rate of stress of approximately equal to 0.6 N/mm2 per
second to failure. The readings on the screen was recorded for each cube.
5. The results were recorded to the nearest 0.05 N/mm2 and the average recorded to the nearest
0.01 N/mm2 . The compressive strength was calculated using following equation:

CS=P/(B*L)
Where:

CS: Compressive strength (KN/mm2 ),

P: Maximum load (N),

L: Length of sample (mm),
B: Width of sample (mm).

27
 Figure 3.2 shows a schematic diagram of the compressive strength test

3.7 Data analysis, processing and presentation

Descriptive and statistical methods of data analysis were used. SPSS software was used to analyse
the collected data.

3.7.1 Descriptive analysis

The data obtained was analysed using mean. Mean was used to analyse the data of compressive
strength of test cubes at different curing ages by summing the strength of the cubes for the sample
plaster and control specimen for a particular age and divide it by the number of cubes. The
arithmetic mean is the central tendency of collection of numbers taken as the sum of numbers
divided by the size of the collection.

The results were presented in form of tables and graphs using Microsoft excel.

3.7.2 Statistical tests

Correlation analysis was used to test if there was a significant correlation between the initial and
final setting of plaster with groundnut shell ash and fly ash as a binder and the confidence interva l
was set at 99% and 95% respectively for initial setting time and final setting time. This test is used

28
to test if there is any significant correlation between the independent and dependent variable
plotted as Y against X.

Regression analysis was used to ascertain the relationship between compressive strength and
percentage replacement of cement using linear regression analysis at 95% confidence interva ls.
Regression analysis is important in enabling predictions of the dependent variable given the values
of independent variable using the formulated regression equation in the form of Y=β+Xβ 1 .
Regression analysis also gives the value of R squared that explains the goodness of the model.

29
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction
The results presented in this chapter were based on the tests carried out to assess the physical and
mechanical properties of plaster made with groundnut shell ash and fly ash as a partial replacement
of cement.
4.1 Physical properties of ground nut shell ash, fly ash and fine aggregates
The physical properties of ground nut shell ash, fly ash and fine aggregates determined included
bulk density, sieve analysis and specific gravity.
4.1.1 Sieve analysis
Table 4.1 presents the results of the sieve analysis which was used to plot the gradation curve.
Table 4.1 shows the sieve analysis of groundnut shell ash, fly ash and fine aggregates
Sieve analysis for groundnut shell ash
Sieve size % Retained Cumulative % Cumulative %
Retained Passing
2.00 4.56 4.56 95.4
1.18 7.26 11.82 88.2
0.60 10.57 22.39 77.6
0.30 17.52 39.91 60.1
0.15 24.30 64.21 35.8
0.075 30.22 94.43 5.6
Sieve analysis for fly ash
Sieve size % retained Cumulative % Cumulative %
retained passing
2.000 0.50 0.50 99.5
1.180 1.00 1.50 98.5
0.600 3.00 4.50 95.5
0.425 4.50 9.00 91.0
0.300 6.00 10.50 89.5
0.150 9.50 20.00 80.0
0.075 13.00 33.00 67.0
Source: primary data

30
Groundnut shell ash had finer particles than fly ash passing through the sieve size of 0.075mm, the
BS recommended sieve for cementitious materials. The fly ash used in this study was class F fly
ash since the residue on the 0.425 sieve 9% was below the 12% maximum required by BS EN 450-
1:2005 and fell in grade I of the physical and chemical requirements since the percentage residue
on the 0.425mm sieve was 4.5% less than that of DUS 2115:2018 that has the maximum percentage
residue of 12%.

The percentage passing for each material was used to calculate the cumulative percentage passing
which was used to draw the gradation curve for each material to show the particle size distributio n
of each material as shown in the figures below.

110
100
90
Percentage Passing (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing
(%)

Figure 4.1 shows the particle size distribution of fly ash

110
Percentage Passing (%)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing…

Figure 4.2 shows the particle size distribution of groundnut shell ash

31
Table 4.2 shows results of the sieve analysis of fine aggregates which were used to calculate the
fineness modulus of the fine aggregates and plotting of the gradation curve in between the upper
and lower limits of percentage passing provided in BS EN 12620:2013 as shown in figure 4.4.

Table 4.2 shows sieve analysis for fine aggregates

Sieve analysis for fine aggregates
Sieve size % retained Cumulative % Cumulative %
retained passing
10.00 0.00 0.00 100.0
5.00 0.68 0.68 99.3
2.00 7.12 7.80 92.2
1.18 14.40 22.20 77.8
0.60 45.51 67.71 32.3
0.30 21.68 89.39 10.6
0.15 8.95 98.34 1.7
Source: primary data

110
100
Percentage Passing (%)

90 Percentag
80 e passing
70
60 Lower
50 limit
40 Upper
30 limit
20
10
0
0.10 1.00 10.00
Sieve Size (mm)
Figure 2.3 shows the particle size distribution of fine aggregates
The sand satisfied the overall grading limits as provided in BS EN 12620:2013 and thus was fit to
be used for the study. The fineness modulus of the fine aggregates was 2.68 and this indicates that
the average size of the particles was between the second and third sieve of aperture size 0.30 and

32
0.60mm. ASTM C33-80 provides 2.3 to 3.1 as the range for fineness modulus of fine aggregates
thus the fineness modulus of the fine aggregates used in this study was within the limits.

4.1.2 Bulk density, specific gravity

Table 4.3 shows the bulk densities and specific gravities of the groundnut shell, fly ash and fine
aggregates.

Table 4.3 shows the bulk density, specific gravity of the materials
Physical properties Fine aggregates Groundnut shell ash Fly ash
Bulk density 1510kg/m3 840kg/m3 1240kg/m3
Specific gravity 2.56 2.24 2.54
Source: primary data

Specific gravity of the sand determined was 2.56 which is the same as that reported by (Oyejibi et
al., 2015). The specific gravity of groundnut shell ash was 2.24 that closely relates with that by
Nwofor (2012) at 2.23 but it is higher than that by Orlando & Salome(2017). The specific gravity
of fly ash was at 2.54 which was slightly lower than that by reported at 2.6 by Pujari & Pomala
(2016). The specific gravity of groundnut shell ash was within the range of 1.9-2.4 while that of
fly ash was above the range for pulverised fuel ash according to (Neville, 2011).

The bulk density of the fine aggregates was 1510kg/m3 which was in the range specified by BS
EN 12620 that states the range for normal weight aggregates to be between 1280 and 1920 kg/m3
(for bulk density). Groundnut shell ash had a bulk density of 840kg/m3 which is higher than that
by Nwofor (2012) reported at 678kg/m3 but too low compared with that of cement which is
1440kg/m3 . Fly ash had a bulk density of 1240kg/m3 which is lower than that reported by Sarath
at 2310kg/m3 and satisfied the requirement of the DUS 2115:2018 for fly ash used in cement and
concrete which specifies that it should not be greater than 2.6g/cm3 . The bulk densities of
groundnut shell ash and fly ash were lower than of cement given in the range of 1440 kg/m3 -
1500kg/m3 .

33
4.2 Tests on plaster

4.2.1 Consistence, initial and final setting time

The consistency, initial setting time and final setting time of the control plaster and the other
composite plaster mixes were determined as shown below.
Table 4.4 shows the consistency, initial and final setting time
Cement Water Initial setting Final setting
Consistence(%)
replacement demand( g) time (minutes) time (minutes)
0% 125 25 95 155
10% 125 25 121 228
20% 130 26 132 237
30% 130 26 150 254
40% 135 27 162 296
Source: primary data

27.5
27 27
consistency (% )

26.5
26 26 26
25.5
25 25 25
24.5
24
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
% cement replacement
Consistency(%)

Figure 4.4 shows consistency of the control and composite mortar mixes
The control plaster had lower consistency than the samples where cement has been partially
replaced. As cement was replaced; more water was required to produce a paste of standard
consistency. The consistency of the cement replacement paste at each replacement level gave
consistency values which were within the limits provided in BS EN 196-3; which states that when
the vicat needle should penetrate to a point 5-7mm from the bottom of the vicat mould for a mix
is of standard consistency. The increase in the water requirement was due to the high fineness of
fly ash with 67% passing through the 0.075mm BS sieve that provides a good packing effect in
between the aggregate mixture filling the voids therein; increased cement- ash content as the ashes
have lower densities than that of cement(1440kg/m3 ) and volume per unit mass and increased

34
amount of silica in the mixture to facilitate the silica- lime pozzolanic reaction in addition to
hydration of cement.

500
450 296
400 254
237
Time(minutes)

350 228
300
250 155
200
150 150 162
121 132
100 95
50
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
% cement replacement

Initial setting time (minutes)

Final setting time (minutes)

Figure 4.5 shows initial and final setting

The initial and final setting time increases with the increase in percentage replacement of cement.
The control experiment had an initial setting time of 95minutes, 10% cement replacement had 121
minutes, 20% had 132 minutes, 30% had 150 minutes, 40% had 162 minutes. All the initial setting
times were above the BS EN 197 recommended initial setting time of 75 minutes. The increase in
setting time can be attributed to the increase in carbon content as more cement is being replaced
by the ashes, the slower rate of heat induced evaporation of water from the paste (Dakroury et al.,
2008).

4.2.2 Compressive strength

The study was carried out on 50mm plaster cubes with cement being replaced by groundnut shell
ash and fly ash and the compressive strength of the plaster cubes tested at 7, 14 and 28 days. The
results are as shown in table 4.5 and figure 4.6 and 4.7 below.

35
Table 4.5 shows the compressive strength results
% Average crushing Average compressive
Age Replacement Identity load(KN) strength(N/mm2 )
7 days 0% CM7 62.1 24.84
10% GFM1-7 44 17.6
20% GFM2-7 31.25 12.5
30% GFM3-7 28.65 11.46
40% GFM4-7 20.85 8.34
14 days 0% CM14 69.5 27.8
10% GFM1-14 52.25 20.9
20% GFM2-14 49.65 19.86
30% GFM3-14 47.15 18.86
40% GFM4-14 41.2 16.48
28 days 0% CM28 85.1 34.04
10% GFM1-28 69.6 27.84
20% GFM2-28 57.7 23.08
30% GFM3-28 54.1 21.64
40% GFM4-28 52 20.8
Source: primary data

40 34.04
compressive strength

30 27.8 27.84
24.84 23.08
20.9 19.86 21.64 20.8
17.6 18.86
20 16.48
12.5 11.46
8.34
10

0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
% Replacement

28 DAYS 14 DAYS 7 DAYS

Figure 4.6 shows graphical representation of compressive strength results

36
 compressive strength 40 34.04
35
27.84
30 23.08
25 21.64 20.8
20
15
10
5
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
28 DAYS
% replacement
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Figure 4.7 shows compressive strength at 28 days

At 28 days, the results showed that the compressive strength of 10% was 27.8 and it reduced to
23.1 at 20%, 21.6 at 30% and 20.8% for 40% as shown in figure 4.7. These strength test results
were lower than that of OPC plaster by 18%, 39%, 54% and 61% for 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%
respectively at 7, 14 and 28 days and it reduced further as the amount of groundnut shell ash and
fly ash increased as shown in figure 4.6 above. At all percentages the compressive strength was
above the maximum strength requirements for plastering walls made with burnt clay bricks,
concrete blocks, stabilized soil bricks. The ternary mixture (groundnut shell ash and fly ash) had
higher compressive strength than the individual groundnut shell ash as investigated by Nwofor
(2012) that had strength of 7.5N/mm2 at 28 days of 40 % groundnut shell ash of cement. This
could be due to the pozzolanicity as fly ash provides adequate lime needed to react with the
pozzolans in the hydration process increasing the water cement ratio (Neville 2011) as standard
consistency is achieved with more water as more of the cement is replaced and ability of the very
small fly ash particles to fit in between the cement particles and groundnut shell ash (Neville 2011).
Sarath (2011) also points out that more water consumption decreases the compressive strength of
the plaster.

4.3 Statistical analysis

Statistical methods are necessary to assess whether findings are due to randomness and
coincidence or a representative of the true or underlying effect using the p value and confidence
intervals.

37
4.3.1 Prediction model for the compression strength
SPSS was used for developing the prediction model between compressive strength and the partial
replacement of cement using regression analysis. Table 4.6 shows the coefficients for the model
equation, the p-value and figure 4.6 shows the curve for linear regression and the R squared value.

Table 4.6 shows statistical analysis between compressive strength at 28 days and
percentage replacement of cement

Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig.

Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 32.016 1.700 18.831 .000
CEMENT
1
PERCENTAGE -.327 .069 -.939 -4.708 .018
REPLACEMENT
a. Dependent Variable: COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 28 DAYS

32.016-0.327*x

Figure 4.8 shows regression between cement replacement and compressive strength
Model; Compressive strength= 32.016-0.327*cement percentage replacement
According to the above model equation, when the cement percentage replacement is zero, then the
compressive strength of plaster is 32.016. A unit increase in the cement percentage replacement
would on average lead to a 0.327 decrease in compressive strength keeping other factors constant.

38
The relationship is statistically significant since the p-value (0.018)>0.05, thus the null hypothesis
is rejected and hence the compressive strength depends on cement percentage replacement. This
answers the third research hypothesis.
The R square is 0.881, this implies that 88.1% of the variations in compressive strength can be
explained by cement percentage replacement hence it was a good fit.

4.3.2 Correlations
This was used to measure the relationship between the initial and final setting times and the
percentage replacement of cement in the plaster.
Graphical approach using the scatter plot and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to show
the relationships as shown below.

Table 4.7 shows statistical analysis table between initial setting time, final setting time and
percentage replacement of cement
INITIAL SETTING COMPRESSIVE
TIME STRENGTH 28 DAYS
Pearson
1 -.963**
INITIAL SETTING Correlation
TIME Sig. (2-tailed) .009
N 5 5
Pearson
-.963** 1
COMPRESSIVE Correlation
STRENGTH 28 DAYS Sig. (2-tailed) .009
N 5 5
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: primary data
From table 4.7 above, the correlation coefficient is -0.963 meaning there is a negative strong
relationship between the initial setting time and compressive strength at 28 days. The negative
implying that the variables are moving in opposite directions; as initial setting time is increasing
the compressive strength at 28 days is decreasing and as compressive strength at 28 days is
increasing, initial setting time is decreasing. The relationship is statistically significant since the
p-value (0.009) <0.01 and therefore the compressive strength at 28 days depends on the cement
percentage replacement and only 0.9% of the results were due to some other chance event.

39
Table 4.8 shows correlation between percentage cement replacement and initial setting time
CEMENT PERCENTAGE INITIAL
REPLACEMENT SETTING TIME
CEMENT Pearson Correlation 1 .989**
PERCENTAGE Sig. (2-tailed) .001
REPLACEMENT N 5 5
Pearson Correlation .989** 1
INITIAL SETTING
Sig. (2-tailed) .001
TIME
N 5 5
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: primary data

Figure 4.93 shows the correlation between initial setting time and cement replacement
It can be seen from table 4.9 above that the correlation coefficient between initial setting time and
cement percentage replacement is 0.989, this implies that there is a high positive relations hip
between initial setting time and the cement percentage replacement and since the coefficient is
positive it means that as more of the cement is replaced, the initial setting time also increases and
this relationship is statistically significant at 1% level of significance since the p-value (0.001)
<0.01. There is a significant relationship between the initial setting time and cement percentage
replacement as only 1% of the results of compressive strength can be due to some other factor than
the cement percentage replacement.

40
Table 4.9 shows correlation between cement percentage replacement and final setting time
FINAL SETTING CEMENT PERCENTAGE
TIME REPLACEMENT
Pearson
1 .949*
FINAL SETTING Correlation
TIME Sig. (2-tailed) .014
N 5 5
Pearson
CEMENT .949* 1
Correlation
PERCENTAGE
Sig. (2-tailed) .014
REPLACEMENT
N 5 5
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Source: primary data

Figure 4.40 shows the correlation between final setting time and cement replacement

From table 4.10 above, it can be seen that the correlation coefficient between final setting time and
cement percentage replacement is 0.949, this implies that there is a high positive relations hip
between final setting time and the cement percentage replacement and as more of cement is being
replaced, the final setting time increases. This relationship is statistically significant at 5% level of
significance since the p-value (0.014) <0.05 thus the null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusio n
made is there is a significant relationship between the initial setting time and cement percentage
replacement. This answers the second research hypothesis.

41
4.4 Cost analysis
Cost analysis was performed for all the percentage replacements on the materials and the rates and
savings on each percentage replacement with respect to conventional mortar are shown in the table
below. The calculations for the rates per square meter of the materials are shown in appendix.
Table 4.10 shows a cost analysis for different replacement levels
0% 10% 20%
Unit Quantity Quantity Quantity
Rate Amount Amount Amount
m3 per m3 per m3 per m3

Cement Bags 32,000 9.36 299,520 8.42 269,568 7.49 239616

Sand Ton 35,000 1.47 51,529 1.47 51,529 1.47 51,529

Groundnut
Ton 3,225 0.01 44.02125 0.03 88.0425
shell ash
Fly ash Ton 400 0.02 8.06 0.04 16.12
Total cost 351,049 321,149 291,249
Cost/m2
7,021 6,423 5,825
(UGX)
saving(UGX) 598 1,196

30% 40%
Unit Quantity Quantity
Rate Amount Amount
m3 per m3 per m3

Cement Bags 32,000 6.55 209664 5.62 179712

Sand Ton 35,000 1.47 51,529 1.47 51,529

Groundnut shell
Ton 3,225 0.04 132.06375 0.05 176.085
ash
Fly ash Ton 400 0.06 24.18 0.08 32.24
Total cost 261,349 231,449
Cost/m2 (UGX) 5,227 4,629
saving(UGX) 1,794 2,392

42
The rate per square meter was found to reduce with the increase in the amount of groundnut shell
ash and fly ash with the percentage saving increasing from 8.5%, 18.6%, 30.8% and 45.8% for
10%, 20%, 30% and 40% respectively.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS
This study examined the use of groundnut shell ash and fly ash as a partial replacement of cement
for plastering. The materials that were used to partially used to replace cement were tested for their
physical properties and the plaster was tested for initial and final setting of the cementitio us
materials used and of their compressive strength. Based on the experimental results obtained from
this study, observations and analysis, the highlight of the major findings are;

1. Basing on the experiments that were carried out, the fine aggregates had a bulk density of
1510kg/m3 , specific gravity of 2.56, fineness modulus of 2.86. All these values are within
the ranges as per the Uganda standards, Eurocode and British standards.
2. The physical properties of the groundnut shell ash and fly ash were different from the
conventional cementitious materials. Groundnut shell ash and fly ash had specific gravities
of 2.24 and 2.54 respectively which are lower than that of cement that is 3.15 and only that
of groundnut shell ash lies in the range of 1.9 to 2.4 recommended for pulverized fuel ash
by (Neville, 2011), bulk densities of 840kg/m3 and 1240kg/m3 respectively which are lower
than 1440kg/m3 of cement; 30.22% and 13% retained on the 0.075mm BS sieve
respectively which compared to that of cement not exceeding 22%, groundnut shells ash is
more suitable.
3. More of the materials would be required to match up the equal proportion of cement. The
physical properties were useful in designing mix ratios and this is the main reason behind
specific objective one.
4. The consistency increased from 25% to 26% as more of cement was being partially
replaced by groundnut ash and fly ash. The water cement ratio increased from 0.50-0.60
for 10% to 40% cement replacement from the conventional 0.50 which means the
composite plaster requires more water as more of the cement is being replaced.
5. Addition of groundnut shell ash and fly ash increased the initial and final setting times for
the plaster from 121 and 228 minutes respectively for 10% to 162 and 296 minutes
respectively for 40% cement replacement but all the setting times were within the BS EN

44
 196 range of 75 and 600 minutes for initial and final setting time. This answers specific
objective number two.
6. Replacement of cement with groundnut shell ash and fly ash led to a decrease of
compressive strength as compared with the conventional plaster from 27.84N/mm2 to 8.34
N/mm2 at 28 days for 10% and 40% replacement of cement respectively. This answers
specific objective three of this study.
7. Groundnut shell ash and fly ash in plaster did not show a satisfactory compressive strength
to be used for plastering walls made of engineering bricks whose strength as provided by
the standard specifications for ministry of works and transport is 20N/mm2 ; concrete blocks
(3.5 N/mm2 ), stabilized soil bricks (2.5 N/mm2 ) as per the Uganda standards which are
based on the Kenya standards, British standards since replacement levels had high
compressive strengths compared with the strength of the burnt clay bricks, concrete blocks,
stabilized soil bricks.
8. From the statistical studies, there is a significant relationship between the percentage
replacement of cement and the initial setting time, final setting time and compressive
strength at 28 days and all the results can be explained by the different variations in the
cement replacements and thus hypothesis two and three of this study are accepted.
9. The cost analysis showed that the material cost rate per square meter reduced with increase
in the amount of groundnut shell ash and fly ash across all percentages of cement
replacement hence when adopted would reduce the cost of construction.
10. The research provides experimental confirmation of the promising potential of a utilizing
more of the groundnut shells as a construction material for plastering that would reduce the
cost of construction and produce a greener plaster and this confirms the first hypothesis
that groundnut shells ash contains physical properties appropriate for plastering.

5.2 RECCOMENDATIONS
The above study showed that groundnut shell ash and fly ash have potentials of being used in
plastering as partial replacement of cement. The following recommendations are therefore made;

1. More research should be done on the ternary blend of groundnut shells ash and fly ash
beyond 40% for the optimum replacement that would be suitable for plastering masonry
walls made of concrete blocks, adobe bricks, soil stabilized bricks.

45
2. More research should be done on plaster made with groundnut shell ash and fly ash using
other cement-sand ratios of 1:4, 1:6 to obtain the optimum percentage replacement for
different masonry materials at increased ages due to the pozzolanicity of the groundnut
shell ash and fly ash from literature review.
3. Further research should be carried out to assess the water absorption, durability of the
hardened plaster made with groundnut shell ash and fly ash as a binder partially replacing
cement.
4. Plaster with cement partially replaced with groundnut shell ash and fly ash should be
adopted as a cost effective solution in construction as less of the cement is required without
compromising quality.
5. Contractors can use plaster with cement replaced with groundnut shells ash judiciously on
substrates where continuity of working is not desirable because of the increased setting
time.
6. Designers can specify the use of plaster made with cement replaced by groundnut shell ash
and fly ash in hot areas as retarders because of the increased setting times.

46
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52
APPENDIX 1: MY WORK PLAN AS EXECUTED
2018 2019
ACTIVITY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY

SELECTION OF
TOPIC
LITERATURE
REVIEW
PROPOSAL
WRITING
PROPOSAL
PRESENTATION
DATA
COLLECTION
DATA ANALYSIS
INTERPRETATION
OF RESULTS
REPORT WRITING
PROJECT
PRESENTATION

53
APPENDIX 2: RESEARCH EXPENDITURE
S/No ITEM AMOUNT(USHs)
1. Communication and internet 50,000
2. Travel 200,000
3. Data analysis 100,000
4. Printing and binding 100,000
5. Materials 100,000
6. Bulk density test 37,500
7. Gradation test 37,500
8. Specific gravity test 37,500
9. Compressive strength tests 250,000
10. Initial and final setting time test 60,000
11. Miscellaneous 50,000
TOTAL 1,022,500

54
APPENDIX 3: PICTURES

Figure 1 shows a mortar cube under Figure 5 shows a measuring cylinder for
compression testing measuring specific gravity

Figure 36 shows a dry mix of cement, Figure 4 shows mortar cubes after
sand, groundnut shell ash and fly ash demoulding

55
 Figure 6 shows casting of mortar cubes
Figure 5 shows a nest of sieves for sieve
analysis

Figure 8 shows a cylinder for measuring bulk

density
Figure 7 shows curing of mortar cubes

56
Figure 9 shows a weight of water and Figure 10 shows the materials being
measuring cylinder being measured oven dried in the oven

Figure 12 shows open burning of the

groundnut shells to ash
Figure 11 shows a mound of groundnut shells
after being removed from the ponds

57
Figure 13 shows a vicat apparatus with a Figure 14 shows the impressions left by initial
needle for initial setting time and final setting needles

Figure 15 shows a sample in the top Figure 16 shows a sample in the cylindrical
most sieve vessel for measuring bulk density

58
APPEDIX 4: RATE ANALYSIS
Quantity in m3 of mortar

0%

1 1440
Cement: X 1.33=0.325m3 X X32000= 299,520
4 50

3 1510
Sand:4 X 1.33= 0.975m3 X 1000 X 35000= 51,529

Total cost= UGX 351,049/m3

1 m2 of mortar equals 0.02m3

0.02 m3 of mortar costs 351,049 X 0.02 = 7,021

Rate = UGX 7,021

10%

0.9 1440
Cement: X 1.33=0.2925m3 X 1000 𝑥 50 X32000= 269,568
4

3 1510
Sand:4 X 1.33= 0.975m3 X 1000 X 35000= 51,529

0.05 1240
Fly ash: X 1.33 =0.01625m3 X 1000 X 3225= 8.06
4

0.05 840
Groundnut shell ash: X 1.33 =0.01625m3 X X 400= 44.02
4 1000

Total cost= UGX 321,149

0.02 m3 of mortar costs 321,149 X 0.02 = 6,423

Rate = UGX 6,423

Saving= UGX 598

20%

0.8 1440
Cement: X 1.33=0.26m3 X X32000= 239,616
4 50

59
 3 1510
Sand: X 1.33= 0.975m3 X X 35000= 51,529
4 1000

0.1 1240
Fly ash: X 1.33 =0.0325m3 X 1000 X 3225= 16.12
4

0.1 840
Groundnut shell ash: X 1.33 =0.0325m3 X 1000 X 400= 88.04
4

Total cost= UGX 291,249

0.02 m3 of mortar costs 291,249 X 0.02 = 5,825

Rate = UGX 5,825

Saving= UGX 1,196

30%

0.7 1440
Cement: X 1.33=0.2275m3 X X32000= 209,664
4 50

3 1510
Sand:4 X 1.33= 0.975m3 X 1000 X 35000= 51,529

0.15 1240
Fly ash: X 1.33 =0.04875m3 X X 3225= 24.18
4 1000

0.15 840
Groundnut shell ash: X 1.33 =0.04875m3 X 1000 X 400= 132.06
4

Total cost= UGX 261,349

0.02 m3 of mortar costs261,349 X 0.02 = 5,227

Rate = UGX 5,227

Saving = UGX 1,794

40%

0.6 1440
Cement: X 1.33=0.195m3 X X32000= 179,712
4 50

3 1510
Sand:4 X 1.33= 0.975m3 X 1000 X 35000= 51,529

60
 0.2 1240
Fly ash: X 1.33 =0.0625m3 X X 3225= 32.24
4 1000

0.2 840
Groundnut shell ash: X 1.33 =0.0625m3 X 1000 X 400= 176.09
4

Total cost= UGX 231,449

0.02 m3 of mortar costs 231,449 X 0.02 = 4,629

Rate = UGX 4,629

Saving = UGX 2,392

61
APPENDIX 5: MIX DESIGN CALCULATION
Considering ASTM C109 cube of 50mm

Volume of one cube= 50*50*50

=125000mm3

Ratio= 1:3:0.5(cement: sand: water)

1+3+0.5=4.5

4.5 parts of plaster contain 125000mm3

1 part of plaster contain 1/4.5 *125000mm3

Cement= 1/4.5 *125000= 27,778mm3

4.5 parts of plaster contain 125000mm3

3 part of plaster contain 3/4.5 *125000mm3

Sand =4/4.5 * 125000= 83,333mm3

Mass of cement for one cube= 27,778/10^6*1,000*3.15

=87.5g

For 6 cubes= 87.5*6= 525g

Mass of sand for one cube=83,333/10^6* 1,000*2.56

=213.33g

For 6 cubes= 213.33*6* 1.1= 1407.98g

Cement: sand: water = 525: 1408: 213

62
APPENDIX 6: LABORATORY RESULTS

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