Reel Bee (In S.1. Units)Published by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 58 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 laxmipublications.com fo@laxmipublications.com ©All rights reserved with the Author and the Publisher. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. GER, First Edition : 1993 ; Second Editioi Seventh Edition : 2009 ; Fighth Edition : 2010 OFFICES © Bangalore 080-26 61 15 61 © Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72 @Chennai —044-24 34 47 26 © Kolkata ‘ 033-22 27 43 84 ® Cochin 0484-237 70 04,405 13 03 © Lucknow 0522-220 95 78 © Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 2513881 ©Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 © Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 © Ranchi 0651-221 47 64 ETE-0609-750-THERMAL ENGG ‘C—900H 2109. Typeset at : Goswami Associates, Delhi Printed ot : Pririt Man (India)Contents Chapter Pages INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (:ociii) —000) 1.3. Thermodynamic Systems 1.4. Macroscopic and Microscopic Points of View 15. Pure Substance 1.6.__Thermodynamic Equilibrium 1.7. _ Properties of Systems 18.__State : 1.9__Process 1.10. Cycle Paine ina Tis, pa mail 1.13._ Temperature 1.14. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 1.15. The Thermometer _and Thermometric Property 1.16._Pressure 1.17._Specific Volume Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples 2. PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES 2.1. Definition of the Pure Substance & £ SESHRREBEES Seco mam noon b (vii)(viii)Chapter 4, 6. (ix) SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND ENTROPY 41. 42. 4.3. 44, 45. 4.6, 47. 48. 4.9. 412, 4.13. 4.14. 4.16. 4.16. 4.17. 4.18. 4.19. 4.10. 411. Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics and Introduction to Second Law Performance of Heat Engines and Reversed Heat Engines Reversible Processes Statements of Second Law of Thermodynamics Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind ‘Thermodynamic Temperature Clausius Inequality Carnot Cycle Carnot’s Theorem Corollary of Carnot’s Theorem Efficiency of the Reversible Heat Engine Entropy Entropy and Irreversibility Change in Entropy of the Universe ‘Temperature Entropy Diagram Characteristics of Entropy Entropy Changes for a Closed System Entropy Changes for an Open System ‘The Third Law of Thermodynamics Additional /Typical Worked Examples Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples AVAILABILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY 5.1. 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 55. 5.6. BL 5.8. Available and Unavailable Energy Available Energy Referred to a Cycle Decrease in Available Energy when Heat is Transferred Through a Finite Temperature Difference Availability in Non-flow Systems Availability in Steady Flow Systems Helmholtz and Gibbs Functions Irreversibility Effectiveness Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoreticel Questions Unsolved Examples THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS 6.1. 6.2. General Aspects Fundementals of Partial Differentiation Pages 218-294 218 218 219 220 221 222 222 224 226 228 228 243 245 246 248 248 249 255 256 279 288 289 291 292 295~329 295 295 297 299 300 300 301 302 395 326 327 327 330-364 330 330Chapter @ Some General Thermodynamic Relations Entropy Equations (Tds Equations) Equations for Internal Energy and Enthalpy Measurable Quantities Clausius-Claperyon Equation Highlights Objective Type Questions Exercises IDEAL AND REAL GASES 7.10. Zi. 7.12. Introduction The Equation of State for a Perfect Gas p--T Surface of an Ideal Gas Internal Energy and Enthalpy of a Perfect Gas Specific Heat Capacities of an Ideal Gas Real Gases Van der Waals’ Equation Virial Equation of State Beattie-Bridgeman Equation Reduced Properties Law of Corresponding States Compressibility Chart Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples GASES AND VAPOUR MIXTURES. BL. Bz. 8.6. Introduction Dalton’s Law and Gibbs-Dalton Law Volumetric Analysis of a Gas Mixture ‘The Apparent Molecular Weight and Gas Constant Specific Heats of a Gas Mixture Adiabatic Mixing of Perfect Gases 8.7. Gas and Vapour Mixtures Highlights Objective Type Questions ‘Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples PSYCHROMETRICS 9.1. Concept of Psychrometry and Psychrometries 9.2. Definitions 9.3. Psychrometrie Relations 9.4. Psychrometers Pages 332 333 334 335 342 B62 363 364 365—399 z 365 365 368 368 369 370 370 379 379 380 381 381 396 397 397 398 400—437 400 400 402 403 406 407 408 433 433 434 434 438—475 438 438 439 444(ai) 476-531 ATS 10. FUELS AND COMBUSTION (Including Cher eg = 476 LLL. Introdue ‘11.2. Classification.(aii) Chapter (12.(iit) Chapter Pages 15.5. Reheat Cycle . 658 15.6. Binary Vapour Cyclo : 666 ‘Additional / Typical Worked Examples F 673 Highlights : : 683 “Objective Tepes Suction 683 Theoretical ¢ 684 Unsolved eee 685 General Aspects of Heat Engines Definition and Classification of a Reciprocating Steam Engine Steam Engine Parts and their Description Working of a Steam Engine Steam Engine Terminology Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram Actual Indicator Diagram and Diagram Factor Methods of Reducing Condensation 9. Mean Effective Pressure (m.ep. or p,) 16.10. Engine Indicators E 16.11. Indicated Power LP.) 0 16.12, Brake Power (B,P,) 2222 16.13. Efficiencies of Steam Engine a 705 16.14. Mass of Steam in Cylinder 706 16.15. Saturation Curve and Missing Quantity és 708 16.16. Governing of Steam Engines Fe 709 16.17. Valves 712 16.18. Heat Balance Sheet 16.19. Performance Curves 8 Worked Examples "i 718 Additional / Typical Examples z 740 Highlights i 743 Objective Type Questions a 745 Theoretical Questions 5 745 Unsolved Examples i 746 (OMPOUND M_ENGII Ls 17.1._Introduetion 749 17.2. Advantages of Compound Steam Engines i 749 17.3. Classification of Compound Steam Engines 750 17.4. Multi-cylinder Engines 154 17.5. Estimation of Cylinder Dimensions (Compound Steam Engines) 755 17.6. Causes of Loss of Thermal Efficiency in Compound Steam Engines 757 17.7. The Governing of Compound Steam Engines 757 17.8. Uniflow Steam Engine i) Worked Examples “760 Additional / Typical Examples = 173Chapter 18. 19. 20. (iv) Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples STEAM NOZZLES 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 18.4. 185. 18.6. Introduction ; Steam Flow Through Nozzles Nozzle Efficiency Supersaturated or Metastable Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle General Relationship Between Area, Velocity and Pressure in Nozzle Flow Steam Injector Worked Examples Highlights Objective Type Questions ‘Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples STEAM TURBINES 19.1. 19.2. 193. 19.4, 19.5. 196. 197. 198. 19.9. 19.10. 19.11. 19.12. 19.13. 19.14, 19.15. 19.16, Introduction. Classification of Steam Turbines Advantages of Steam Turbine Over Steam Engines Description of Common Types of Turbines ‘Methods of Reducing Wheel or Rotor Speed Difference Between Impulse and Reaction Turbines Impulse Turbines. - Reaction Turbines ‘Types of Power in Steam Turbine Practice “State Point Locus” and “Reheat Factor” Reheating Steam Bleeding Energy Losses in Steam Turbines Steam Turbine Governing and Control Special Forms of Steam Turbines Highlights Objective Type Questions Theoretical Questions Unsolved Examples STEAM CONDENSERS 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. Introduction ‘Vacuum Organs of a Steam Condensing Plant Pages WT 7 718 719 781—827 781 182 786 788 790 793 795 824 825 826 826 828-916 er 828 = 928 830 830 833 836 836 875 885 885 902 905 905 906 906 909 910 gil 913 914 917-957 917 918 918iw) Pages Classification of Condensers oo 918 Sources of Air in Condensers b 924 Effects of Air Leakage in a Condenser Ei 925 Methods for Obtaining Maximum Vacuum in Condensers 925 Vacuum Measurement 926 Vacuum Efficiency 926 . Condenser Efficiency 927 _Dalton’s Law of Partial. Pressures ; 927 .. Determination of Mass of Cooling Water a 928 . Heat Transmission Through Walls of Tubes of a Surface Condenser 929 . Air Pumps a 930 . Cooling Towers = 933 Worked Examples 2 935 Highlights 954 Objective Type Questions 954 ‘Theoretical Questions i 956 Unsolved Examples fe 956 21, GAS POWER CYCLES 958—1033 Definition of a Cycle o 958 Air Standard Efficiency 958 The Carnot Cycle 959 Constant Volume or Otto Cycle 967 Constant Pressure or Diesel Cycle 983 Dual Combustion Cycle 993 Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion Cycles 1009 Atkinson Cycle 1011 Ericsson Cycle 1014 ). Brayton Cycle 1015 Additional /Typical Examples 1028 Highlights 1030 Objective Type Questions 1031 Theoretical Questions 1032 Unsolved Examples 1032 22. VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEATS. 1034—1047 22.1. General Aspects = 1034 22.2. Change of Internal Energy and Enthalpy During a Process with Variable Specific Heats 1037 Heat Transfer During a Process with Variable Specific Heats 1038 Isentropic Expansion with Variable Specific Heats 3 1039 ‘Entropy Change’ During a Process with Variable Specific Heats - 1040 Effects of Variable Specific Heats on Air Standard Efficiencies of Otto and Diesel Cycles ass 1040 Worked Examples oe 1041 Highlights “ 1045Chapter (wi) Pages Objective Type Questions 1045 Theoretical Questions 1046 Unsolved Examples 1046 23. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 1048-1201 Heat Engines 3048 Development of I.C. Engines 1049 Classification of I.C. Engines 1049 Applications of 1.C. Engines 1050 Basic Idea of LC. Engines ¥ 1050 Different Parts of IC. Engines 1051 Terms Connected with I.C. Engines 1075 Working Cycles 1076 Indicator Diagram 1077 ). Four-stroke Cycle Engines 1077 |. Two-stroke Cycle Engines 1083 . Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Cycle Engines 1085 . Comparison of Spark Ignition (S.1.) and Combustion Ignition (C.1.) Engines 1086 |. Comparison Between a Petrol Engine and a Diesel Engine 1087 . How to Tell a Two-stroke Cycle Engine from a Four-stroke Cycle Engine ? 1088 . Ignition System 1088 '. Fuel Injection System 1092 Electronic Fuel Injection 1093 |. Cooling Systems 1094 |. Lubrication Systems 1100 . Governing of 1.C. Engine 1105 Liquid Fuels for Reciprocating Combustion Engines 1106 ‘Combustion Phenomenon in S.I. Engines 1107 |. Pre-ignition 1109 . Detonation or “Pinking” sbEBN . Factors Affecting Knock 1112 . Performance Number (PN) 1112 Desirable Characteristics of Combustion Chamber for S.I. Engines 1113 |. Combustion Chamber Design—S.I. Engines 1113 . Octane Number 1114 |. Turbulence in S.1. Engines 1115 , Combustion Phenomenon in C.1. Engines 1116 |. Delay Period (or Ignition Lag) in C.I. Engines 1119 . Diesel Knock 1119 . Cetane Number 1119 ;. Basic Designs of C.I. Engine Combustion Chambers 1120 23.37. Supercharging 1122 23.38. Dissociation 1125 23.39. Performance of ILC. Engines 1125(wii) Chapter Pages 23.40. Engine Performance Curves 1135 23.41. The Wankel Rotary Combustion (RC) Engine 1137 \2, Stratified Charge Engines and Duel-fuel Engines 1138 Worked Examples 1138 Highlights 1193 Objective Type Questions 1194 Theoretical Questions 1197 Unsolved Examples _1198 24. AIR COMPRESSORS 0011012211220 94292 93.49 24.1. General Aspects 1202 24.2. Classification of Air Compressors 1203 24.3. Reciprocating Compressors 1204 24.4. Rotary Compressors 1279 24.5. Comparison Between Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors 1324 24.6. Comparison Between Reciprocating and Rotary Air Compressors 1325 24.7. Comparison Between Centrifugal and Axial Flow Compressors 1325 Highlights 1333 Objective Type Questions 1334 Theoretical Questions 1336 Unsolved Examples _ 1338 25. GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION 1342-1419 25.1._Gas Turbines—General Aspects 1342 25.2. 25.6. Uses of Gas Turbines 1359 25.7. Gas Turbine Fuels 1359 26.8. Jet Propulsion 1393 Highlights 1415 Objective Type Questions 1415 Theoretical Questions 1417 Unsolved Examples 1417 26. REFRIGERATION 00000 20 1484 26.1, Fundamentals of Refrigeration 1420 26.2. Air Refrigeration System 1422 26.3. Simple Vapour Compression System 1437 1448, A471 1478 Objective Type Questions 1479Chapter Pages Unsolved Examples es 148i 27. AIR-CONDITIONING 1485—1517 27.1. Introduction aay 1485 27.2. Air-conditioning Systems oe 1485 1495 1508 1513 1514 1516 1518-1596 1518 1519 1552 1555 1572 1591 1592 1594 1594 29.1. Introduction. — 1597 29.2. Wind Power Plants 1598 29.3. Tidal Power Plants fa 1605 29.4. Solar Power Plants 1608 29.5. Geothermal Power Plants we 1618 29.6. Bio-gas Plants 1623 Highlights. 1626 Theoretical Questions oe 1626 COMPETITIVE OBJECTIVE TYPE EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS. 1627—1674 INDEX 1675—1680 STEAM TABLES AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM (i) (xxii)Foreword It is a pleasure for me to write these few words on Shri R.K. Rajput’s latest book on Written by a highly experienced and gifted teacher of our pace-setting Polytechnic, this book deals with Thermodynamics and Heat Engines besides having an additional chapter on Non-Conventional Power Generation. I have no doubt that it will prove extremely useful for students of engineering institutions in our country. Among the several distinctive features of this book, special mention may be made of the following : development of the subject in a logical and coherent manner, neat and simple diagrams to explain the text, large number of worked examples as well as unsolved examples for practice, numerous objective-type questions and the consistent use of SI units. As is well known to his peers, the author of this volume has written a number of popular books earlier on various engineering subjects for the benefit of students in Polytech- nics and Engineering Colleges. As is to be expected, a great deal of systematic and meticulous work has gone into the writing of this book. I wish the author and his book all success. Professor Dr. 'T.R. ANANTHARAMAN Director, Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology & Thapar Corporate Research & Development Centre PATIALA-147 001Preface to The Eighth Edition 1am pleased to present the Eighth Edition (Two Colours) of this standard treatise. The warm reception which the previous editions and reprints of this book have enjoyed all over India and abroad, has been a matter of great satisfaction to me. ‘The entire book has been thoroughly revised ; besides adding a large number of “Additional/Typical Worked Examples” jn various chapters. It is hoped that the book in this comprehensive and complete form will prove to be of immense use for the students preparing various ‘Universities’ and Competitive Examinations (eg., UPSC, GATE ete.) The author's thanks are due to his wife Ramesh Rajput for extending all cooperation during preparation and proof reading of this revised manuscript. Any suggestions for the improvement of this book will be thankfully acknowledged and incorporated in the next edition. —AuthorPreface to The First Edition On the subject of“Thermal Engineering” several books are available in the market but most of them either lack in proper subject treatment or the solved examples are small in number and their solutions are too difficult to understand. The purpose of writing this book is to bridge these gaps and to present such a book to the students which should be easy to understand and assimilate comprehensive treatment of the subject matter in simple, lucid and direct language. The book comprises of 26 Chapters, dealing with ‘Thermodynami and ‘Non-Conventional Power Generation’. Each chapter contains adequate text supported by simple and self explanatory figures, large number of Worked Examples both in SI and MKS units, Highlights, Theoretical Questions and several Unsolved Examples. The book wijl prove to be of great help to the students preparing for engineering degree, AM.LE. (India), diploma and other competitive examinations. The author's grateful thanks are due to Smt. Ramesh Rajput (wife) for extending full co-operation during the preparation of the manuscript. The author is also thankful to Mr. Rakesh Syal for drawing neat diagrams for this book. In the end, the author wishes to express his grateful thanks to M/s Laxmi Publications for taking extra pains in printing the book at a rapid pace and very systematically. Although every care has been taken to make the book free of errors both in text as well as in solved examples, yet the author shall feel obliged if errors present are brought to his notice. Constructive criticism of the book will be warmly received. ’, Heat Engines’ —AuthorIntroduction to SI Units and Conversion Factors 7.4) INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS SI, the international system of units are divided into three classes : 1. Base units 2. Derived units 3. Supplementary units. From the scientific point of view division of SI units into these classes is to a certain extent arbitrary, because it is not essential to the physics of the subject. Nevertheless the General Confer- ence, considering the advantages of a single, practical, world-wide system for international rela- tions, for teaching and for scientific work, decided to base the international system on a choice of six well-defined units given in Table 1 below : Table 1. SI Base Units Quantity ‘Name Symbol length metre m mass kilogram kg : | electric current ampere A thermodynamic temperature kelvin K luminous intensity candela ed amount of substance mole mol The second class of SI units contains derived units, .e., units which can be formed by combin- ing base units according to the algebraic relations linking the corresponding quantities. Several of these algebraic expressions in terms of base units can be replaced by special names and symbols can themselves be used to form other derived units. Derived units may, therefore, be classified under three headings. Some of them are given in Tables 2, 3 and 4. (xxiii)Table 2. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed in terms of Base Units ‘SI Units Quantity Name Symbol area square metre mm? volume cubic metre mi speed, velocity ‘metre per second m/s acceleration metre per second squared ms* wave number 1 per metre ms density, mass density ‘kilogram per cubic metre kg/m* concentration (of amount of substance) | _—mole per cubic metre mol/m? activity (radioactive) 1 per second st specific volume cubic metre per kilogram m*/kg luminance candela per square metre cd/m? Table 3.SI Derived Units with Special Names SI Units Quantity Name Symbol Expression | __ Expression in terms of | __ in terms of other SI base units units frequency hertz Hz - st force newton, N = mkg.s? pressure pascal Pa Nim? mhkgs? energy, work, quantity of heat power | joule a N.m radiant flux quantity of electricity watt w aS mikg.s* electric charge coloumb c As 8A electric tension, electric potential volt v WA mikgs?At capacitance farad F ov mikglst electric resistance ohm a VIA mikgs 3A? conductance siemens s AV mr. kgsA? ‘magnetic flux weber Wb vs. m?kg.s?.A magnetic flux density tesla T Wi/m? kgs? inductance henry H WWA mikgs 2A? luminous flux lumen Im = ed.sr ica lux ik - | mted.srINTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (Gam) Table 4. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed by means of Special Names ‘SI Units Quantity Name Symbol dynamic viscosity pascal second Pa-s moment of force metre newton Nm surface tension newton per metre Nim heat flux density, irradiance watt per square metre Wim? heat capacity, entropy joule per kelvin wK specific heat capacity, specific | joule per kilogram kelvin Tkeg.K) entropy specific energy joule per kilogram Jeg ms? thermal conductivity watt per metre kelvin Wim.K) m.kg.s*.K* energy density joule per cubic metre dim? mr hLkgs? electric field strength volt per metre Vin m.kg.s*.A+ electric charge density coloumb per cubic metre Chm? msA electric flux density coloumb per square metre Chm? m*s.A permitivity farad per metre Fim m kgs! current density ‘ampere per square metre Alm? = | magnetic field strength ampere per metre Aim = permeability henry per metre Him mkg.s2.A? molar energy joule per mole Jmol m*kg.s*mol molar heat capacity joule per mole kelvin Womol.K) | m2kgs-®.K-Lmol The SI units assigned to third class called “Supplementary units” may be regarded either as base units or as derived units. Refer Table 5 and Table 6. Table 5. SI Supplementary Units SI Units Quantity Name Symbol plane angle radian rad solid angle steradian srTable 6. Examples of SI Derived Units Formed by Using Supplementary Units SI Unite Quantity Name Symbol angular velocity radian per second rad/s angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s? radiant intensity watt per steradian Wer radiance watt per square metre steradian Wamer! ‘Table 7. SI Prefixes Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol 102 tera T 107 deci a 10° siga G 107 centi c 108 mega M 107 milli m 10° kilo k 10* micro # 10? hecto h 10% nano n 10° deca da 10? pico P 10 fasnto f 108 atto a 1 newton = kg-m/sec? = 0.012 kgf kgf = 9.81N 1 bar = 750.06 mm Hg = 0.9869 atm = 105 N/m? = 10° kg/m-sec” 1 Nim? = 1 pascal = 10-5 bar = 10 kg/m-sec? atm = 760 mm Hy = 1.08 kgf/em? = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x 105 Nim? 3. Work, Energy or Heat : 1 joule = 1 newton metre = 1 watt-sec = 2.7778 x 10" kWh = 0.239 cal = 0.239 x 10-* keal 1 cal = 4.184 joule = 1.1622 x 10° kWh 1 keal = 4.184 x 10° joule = 427 kgf-m = 1.1622 x 10 kWh 1 kWh = 8.6042 x 10° cal = 860 kcal = 3.6 x 108 joule a . Lkgem = (S) keal = 9.81 joulesINTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (avi 4. Power: 1 watt = 1 joule/sec = 0.860 keal/h Lh.p. = 75 m kgf/sec = 0.1757 keal/see = 735.3 watt 1 KW = 1000 watts = 860 keal/h 5. Specific heat : 1 keal/kg-“K = 0.4184 joules/kg-K 6. Thermal conductivity : 1 watt/m-K = 0.8598 keal/h-m-°C 1 kcal/h-m-°C = 1.163 watt/m-K = 1.163 joules/s-m-K. 7. Heat transfer co-efficient : 1 watt/m?] 0.8598 keal/m?-h-°C 1 Keal/m?-h-°C = 1.163 wattim?-K. C. IMPORTANT ENGINEERING CONSTANTS AND EXPRESSIONS Engineering constants MKS. system ‘SI Units and expressions 1. Value of gy 9.81 kg-m/kgf-sec* 1 kg-m/N-sec? 2. Universal gas constant 848 kgf-m/kg mole-"K 848 x 9.81 = 8314 Jtkg-mole-K (1 kgfm = 9.81 joules) 8314 . 3. Gas constant (R) 29.27 kgf-m/kg-°K Ap 7287 joulestke-K for air for air 4. Specific heats (for air) 6, = 0.17 kealkg-"K 6, = 0.17 x 4.184 71128 kd/kg-K cy = 0.24 keal'kg-"K 0.24 x 4.184 MeS/eg-K 5. Flow through nozzle-Exit velocity (C,) 6. Refrigeration 1 ton 7. Heat transfer ‘The Stefan Boltzman Law is given by : 91.5VU , where Uis in kcal = 50 keal/min Q= oT" keal/m?-h where 0 = 4.9 x 10-8 keal/h-m?-"K¢* 44.7J0 , where U is in kJ = 210 kei/min Q= oT watts/m*-h where o = 567 x 104 Wim?K*Genii) ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING, Nomenclature area steady-flow availability function velocity temperature on the celsius (or centigrade) scale specific heat specific heat at constant pressure specific heat at constant volume molar heat at constant pressure molar heat at constant volume bore ; diameter emissive power ; total energy base of natural logarithms gravitational acceleration enthalpy specific enthalpy ; heat transfer co-efficient specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (Quid) latent heat specific enthalpy of saturated vapour ; gases temperature on kelvin scale (é., celsius absolute, compressibility) thermal conductivity, blade velocity co-efficient stroke molecular weight FRR Om HAAS ye gase eR >> w+ rate of mass flow rotational speed polytropic index, number of moles ; number of cylinders power . absolute pressure Pm mean effective pressure D, indicated mean effective pressure Py brake mean effective pressure, back pressure Ryese sys EO RSINTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS Ss Re So SE GTN UTR heat, rate of heat transfer rate of heat transfer per unit area gas constant ; thermal resistance ; radius ; total expansion ratio in compound steam engines universal gas constant radius, expansion ratio, compression ratio entropy specific entropy absolute temperature ; torque temperature internal energy ; overall heat transfer co-efficient specific internal energy volume specific volume work ; rate of work transfer ; brake load ; weight specific weight ; velocity of whirl dryness fraction ; length Greek Symbols 2 eaveosar absorptivity ratio of specific heats, c,/c, emissivity ; effectiveness efficiency temperature difference, angle density Stefan-Boltzmann constant relative humidity, angle.Kinetic Theory of Gases and Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 1.1. Introduction to kinetic theory of gases. 1.2. Definition of thermodynamics. 1.3. Thermodynamic systems—System, boundary and surroundings—Closed system—Open punk inigied system—Adiabatic system—Homogeneous system—Heterogeneous system. and microscopic points of view. 1.5. Pure substance. 1.6. Thermodynamic cqullbeiain 17, Eropartis of ater, 1.8, State. 1.9, Process. 1.10. Cycle. 1.11. Point function. 1.12, Path function. 1.13. Temperature. 1.14. Zeroth law of thermodynamics. 1.15. The thermometer and thermometric property—Introduction— Measurement of temperature—The international practical temperature scale—Ideal gas. 1.18, Pressure—Definition of pressure— Unit for pressure—Types of pressure measurement devices—Mechanical-type instruments. 1.17. Specific volume. 1.18. Reversible and irreversible processes. 1.19. Energy, work and heat— eee and heat. 1.20. Reversible work—Highlights—Objective Type Questions— ‘Theoretical Questions— Unsolved Examples. [Eegfermonucrion TO KINETIC THEORY OF GASES The kinetic theory of gases deals with the behaviour of molecules constituting the gas. According to this theory, the molecules of all gases are in continuous motion. As a result of this they possess kinetic energy which is transferred from molecule to molecule during their collision. The energy s0 transferred produces a change in the velocity of individual molecules. ‘The complete phenomenon of molecular behaviour is quite complex. The assumptions are therefore made to simplify the application of theory of an ideal gas. Assumptions : . The molecules of gases are assumed to be rigid, perfectly elastic solid spheres, identical in all respects such as mass, form etc. The mean distance between molecules is very large compared to their own dimensions. The molecules are in state of random motion moving in all directions with all possible velocities and gas is said to be in state of molecular chaos. 4. The collisions between the molecules are perfectly elastic and there are no intermolecular forces of attraction or repulsion. This means that energy of gas is all kinetic. The number of molecules in a small volume is very large. The time spent in collision is negligible, compared to the time during which the molecules are moving independently. 7. Between collisions, the molecules move in a straight line with uniform velocity because of frictionless motion between molecules. The distance between two collisions is called free path’ of the molecule, the average distance travelled by a molecule between successive collision is known as ‘mean free path’. 8. The volume of molecule is so small that it is negligible compared to total volume of the gas. 1 = Pr