Coral Reef Ecosystem

Corals belong to the animal kingdom, and are members of the same group of animals as jellyfish and sea
anemones (Phylum: Cnidaria). The actual coral animal or “polyp” is soft bodied, with tentacles like a sea
anemone. The main difference is that corals secrete an external calcium carbonate skeleton and sea
anemones do not. This hard skeleton forms the framework of coral reefs. The tiny coral polyps occupy little
cups or corallites in the massive skeleton. Corals can be colonial or solitary and there are several hundred
species, some are large and branching and grow rapidly at a rate of up to 10cm per year, while others are
mound shaped, growing slowly at only 1cm per year. Reef building corals live in symbiotic association
with Zooxanthellae, single celled algae, which live in the tissue of the corals. The zooxanthellae produce the
oxygen, that the corals need to survive, by photosynthesis; in return the algae are protected from grazing
species and can access the nutrients that the coral excretes - a mutually beneficial association. Corals feed on
zooplankton with the use of their tentacles. During daylight they mostly remain within their protective skeleton
to avoid predation, but at night the tentacles are extended to allow them to feed. Coral colonies grow by having
the polyps bud off new polyps asexually. New colonies are established by the fragmentation of skeletal pieces
or through the settling of planktonic coral lava on a hard substrate. The lava are the result of sexual
reproduction.

What do corals need to grow?

There are six major factors that limit coral reef development; water temperature and salinity, depth, light,
sedimentation and emergence into air.
Coral reefs are only found between about 30° north and south of the equator, where the water temperature is
at least 20°C, and optimal reef development occurs in waters where the mean annual temperatures are about
23-25°C.
Corals are intolerant of salinities that deviate significantly from that of seawater and gaps will occur in reefs
where, for example, freshwater from a river enters the sea.
Depth is also critical, coral reefs will not develop in water that is deeper than about 50-70m, and they grow
most energetically at depths of 25m or less. Light, which is related to depth of water, is necessary for the
zooxanthellae to photosynthesize. Without light the photosynthetic rate is reduced and with it the corals ability
to secrete calcium carbonate. Corals also require clear water - sediment clogs their feeding structures and
smothers them. For this reason corals usually grow most actively in areas of strong wave action, such as the
windward side of a reef, where sediment is prevent from settling on the colonies.
Finally corals reefs are limited in an upward direction by emergence into air. Most corals are killed by long
exposure to air and so their upward growth is limited to the level of the lowest tides.
The largest number of coral reef species occurs in the Indo-Pacific, which has about 700 species in
comparison to 62 species in the Atlantic.

What is the coral reef ecosystem?

The health, abundance and diversity of the organisms that make up a coral reef is directly linked to
the surrounding terrestrial and marine environments. Mangrove forests and seagrass beds are two of
the most important facets of the greater coral reef ecosystem. Mangroves are salt -tolerant trees that
grow along tropical and sub-tropical coasts. Their complex root systems help stabilize the shore line,
while filtering pollutants and producing nutrients. Their submerged roots and detritus provide
nursery, breeding, and feeding grounds for invertebrates, fish, birds, and other marine life. Many of
the animals raised in mangroves migrate to coral reefs for food, spawning and habitat.
Seagrasses are flowering plants that often form meadows between mangrove habitats and coral
reefs. They form the foundation of many food webs, providing nutrients for everything f rom sea
urchins and snails to sea turtles and manatees. Seagrass also provides protection and shelter for
commercially valuable species such as stone crabs, snappers and lobsters. Additionally, they filter
the water column, prevent seabed erosion, and release oxygen essential for most marine life.
The ecosystem services of mangroves and seagrass are vital to the long term health of coral reefs.
There is another very important element of the reef ecosystem that is often over looked: the land.
Pollutants, nutrients and litter enter near shore waters through rivers, streams, underground
seepage, waste water and storm water runnoff. Even areas hundreds of miles from the coast can
affect the clarity and quality of water flowing to the reef. It does not matter how far removed a
pollutant may seem, it all flows downstream and it can all impact our marine environment and our
reefs.

Coral reef
-Coral reefs contain diverse fish and invertebrate assemblages
-Organic, Biogenic
-mostly hermatypic (means “hard”) corals

Geological features (“reef”)

– Carbonate
– In situ buildup
– Topographic relief
– Wave resistant
– Cemented, consolidated

Building the reef

*CaCo3 addition - CaCo3 loss = Accumulation

Types of Reef
-Fringing, Barrier, Atoll, Drowned

Environmental requirements
Physical environment

– Temperature of 25-31 deg. C (limited Northwards by the 18 deg. C minimum isotherm)

– Salinity of 34-37 ppt
– Light level
-Predominantly in top 30 m of water

Threats to coral reef systems

1. Overpopulation
2. Unsustainable
3. Fisheries
4. Coastal development
5. Global climate change

Coral reef fisheries

-it is essential to many and managed sustainably for generations

Non-selective and destructive fishing Methods

*Muro Ami, Dynamite (Blast), and cyanide fishing, Trawling, Ghost fishing

Malthusian overfishing
-occurs when poor fishermen, faced with declining catches and lacking any alternative initiate wholesale
resource destruction in order to maintain their incomes.

Ecosystem effects of fisheries

1. Removal of predators
2. Removal of algal grazers
3. Change in dominance (more Californian Sea Otters, Urchins, Crown of Thorns starfish)
4. Changes in size frequency of animals

TERRESTRIAL IMPACTS
1. Pollution in Sewage, Agriculture, Aquaculture, Rubbish
2. Sedimentation (loss of important or sensitive aquatic habitat, decrease in fishery resources, loss of
recreation attributes, loss of coral reef communities, human health concerns, changes in fish migration,
increases in erosion, loss of wetlands, nutrient balance)
3. Eutrophication (is when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce
excessive growth of algae. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.)
4. Construction on reef flats
5. Coral mining
6. Mangrove Destruction
7. Climate change

POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON CORAL COMMUNITIES

– Changes in water temperature
– Increases in CO2 concentration
– Changes in solar irradiation (if cloud cover changes)
– Sea level rises leading to drowning of reefs
– Changes in surface run-off (sedimentation)
– Changes in land-use patterns leading to increased reef exploitation

Coral bleaching
1. Loss of symbiotic algae
2. May cause death of animal
3. A symptom of climate change

Many known triggers:

– Temperature (especially increases)
– Solar radiation (especially UV)
– Combination of UV and temperature
– Reduced salinity
– Infections

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT

What sites and parameters to monitor
1. Fish
2. Macroinvertebrates
3. Water quality
4. Benthic habitat quality
5. Coral health
6. Biological effects of protection
7. Habitat protection
8. Biodiversity
9. Protection of vulnerable species
10. Allow fish to grow to maturity
11. Control (reference) Sites

Economic effects of protection

1. Increased size and
2. abundance of stock species
3. Immigration into fishing grounds (Spillover)
4. Insurance against management failure
5. Tourism “spin-offs”
6. Ease of enforcement

IMPACTS OF TOURISM
1. Terrestrial development
2. Land reclamation and creation of beaches
– Mangrove removal
 – Sand on reef flat
3. Boats
– Anchors
– Diver/snorkeller impacts and fish feeding
– Sewage
– Harbour dredging

BEACH FOREST AND COASTAL GREENBELTS

Types of Waves:
1. Tidal Surge- also known as storm surge; an abnormal rise of sea water caused by wind pressure force of a
typhoon.
2. Tsunami- occur when the body of water is suddenly disturbed by earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption
and explosion

Establishment of Coastal Greenbelts:

1. Open seas- 50 to100m
2. Tidal rivers- 20 to 50m

Green belts requirements:

1. Intertidal Mangrove- 20-30m
2. Beach Forest- 70-80m

Importance of Planting Native Species:

1. Biodiversity
2. Watershed Rehabilitation

Importance of Beach Forests:

1. Climate Chang mitigation
2. Coastal protection
3. medicinal uses
4. ornamental gardening and landscaping
5. biotech and industrial application
6. wildlife habitat

Morphological Adaptation of Beach Forest Species:

1. Thin and slender leaves
2. thickened cuticle
3. low-growing habit
4. small-gnarled forms
5. multiple stems

How to restore/rehab native forest?

1. set-up nursery
2. plant in secure area and in rainy season
3. transplant 2-3 year old sapling
4. locate mother trees

Beach Forest Specie must thrive in:

1. full sunlight
2. inadequate water
3. poor nutrients

Design in establishing beach forest:

 Beginning: plant colonizers/pioneers plants e.g. talisay and bani
 Ending: plant climax flora e.g. dipterocarps like tangile, yakal, gisok, lauan, bagtikan
MANGROVE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
Mangrove forests are an ecosystem of incredible biological diversity comprising hundreds of algae, mollusk,
crustacean, fish, insect, reptile, bird, and mammal species. Saltwater crocodiles, pelicans, egrets, spoonbills,
flying foxes and monkeys are all residents of mangroves, just to name a few. The trees’ intricate network of
roots provides a shelter for many oceanic and freshwater species, and the forest is a food source for many
types of organisms as well. While certain species spend their entire life span in this ecosystem, numerous fish
species use the shelter of the mangrove as a nursing ground before heading to the open ocean, to the extent
that one third of all marine species were born and raised in mangrove forests around the world. As a result, the
mangroves’ well-being is central to the health of many more ecosystems.

Mangrove Threats:
 Natural: sea level change and erosion
 Anthropogenic: oil spills, fuel woods, fishing poles, salt beds, aquaculture and agriculture, mining
activities and pesticides

Green/Buffer Zone Requirement:

1. rivers and creeks (fishpond)- 20m
2. Seas and ocenas (fishpond)- 50m
3. Riverbanks (typhoon area)- 20-50m
4. Shoreline (typhoon area)- 50-100m

Protection Laws:
 PP 2146- national prohibition of mangrove cutting
 RA 7161- ban on cutting of all mangrove species

Rehabilitations Laws:
 PD 953- must plant mangrove 20-m strip along river and creeks
 DENR A.O. 77- Integrated social forestry program
 DENR A.O. 3- policies and guidelines for mangrove stewardship agreement

Greenbelt Laws:
 DENR A.O. 76- establishment of bufferzone: 50m fronting seas, oceans and 20m along riverbanks.
Recommendation to preserve mangrove forest:
1. for aquaculture sustainability- 4:1 mangrove-pond ratio must be followed
2. reversion of abandoned ponds to mangrove

What LGU can do?

1. Enforce laws
2. ecotourism
3. preserve primary forests
4. rehabilitate/plant mangrove
5. implement coastal/river greenbelt
6. set-up mangrove nursery

Seagrasses are a vital part of the marine ecosystem

A vital part of the marine ecosystem due to their productivity level, seagrasses provide food, habitat, and
nursery areas for numerous vertebrate and invertebrate species.

Stabilization: Ocean bottom areas that are devoid of seagrass are vulnerable to intense wave action from
currents and storms. The extensive root system (see diagram below) in seagrasses, which extends both
vertically and horizontally, helps stabilize the sea bottom in a manner similar to the way land grasses prevent
soil erosion. With no seagrasses to diminish the force of the currents along the bottom, Florida's beaches,
businesses, and homes can be subject to greater damage from storms.
Ecosystem support: Seagrasses provide food, shelter, and essential nursery areas to commercial and
recreational fishery species and to countless invertebrates living in seagrass communities. Some fish, such as
seahorses and lizardfish, can be found in seagrasses throughout the year, while other fish remain in seagrass
beds during certain life stages.

Food: While some organisms, including the endangered Florida manatee and green sea turtle, graze directly
on seagrass leaves, others use seagrasses indirectly to provide nutrients. Bottlenose dolphins are often found
feeding on organisms that live in seagrass areas. Detritus from bacterial decomposition of dead seagrass
plants provides food for worms, sea cucumbers, crabs, and filter feeders such as anemones and ascidians.
Further decomposition releases nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), which, when dissolved in water,
are re-absorbed by seagrasses and phytoplankton.

Nursery areas: The relative safety of seagrass meadows provides an ideal environment for juvenile fish and
invertebrates to conceal themselves from predators. Seagrass leaves are also ideal for the attachment of
larvae and eggs, including those of the sea squirt and mollusk. Much of Florida's recreationally and
commercially important marine life can be found in seagrass meadows during at least one early life stage.

Habitat: While seagrasses are ideal for juvenile and small adult fish for escape from larger predators, many
infaunal organisms (animals living in soft sea bottom sediments) also live within seagrass meadows. Species
such as clams, worms, crabs, and echinoderms, like starfishes, sea cucumbers, and sea urchins, use the
buffering capabilities of seagrasses to provide a refuge from strong currents. The dense network of roots
established by seagrasses also helps deter predators from digging through the substratum to find infaunal prey
organisms. Seagrass leaves provide a place of anchor for seaweeds and for filter-feeding animals like
bryozoans, sponges, and forams.

Water Quality: Seagrasses help trap fine sediments and particles that are suspended in the water column,
which increases water clarity. When a sea floor area lacks seagrass communities, the sediments are more
frequently stirred by wind and waves, decreasing water clarity, affecting marine animal behavior, and generally
decreasing the recreational quality of coastal areas. Seagrasses also work to filter nutrients that come from
land-based industrial discharge and stormwater runoff before these nutrients are washed out to sea and to
other sensitive habitats such as coral reefs.

Economics: Although seagrass is not a commodity that is directly cultivated in Florida, its economic value can
be measured through other industries, such as commercial and recreational fisheries and nature and wildlife
tourism, which rely on this habitat to survive. Since most of Florida's fishery species (approximately 70%)
spend at least part of their life cycle within seagrass communities, seagrasses are vital to the survival of these
fishing industries.