Current Affair

FPSC Descriptive Tests’ Notes by Aamir Mahar
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CPEC and Pakistan

Introduction China Pakistan relationship during the and with promising future for the region/world. Since
past sixty five years achieved many landmarks ; last year, the environment for investment is
starting with the signing of bilateral trade agreement continuously improving and implementation of CPEC
in 1963 , followed by construction of Karakoram projects has commenced. The issues are continuously
highway and having cooperation in diverse fields being addressed to achieve new milestones of progress.
including energy and defence related industries. Most international agencies have expressed positive
CPEC is the vision of the leadership of both countries progression of Pakistan in the last year. Prime Minister
for transforming this relationship to strategic of Pakistan held meetings of the political leadership
economic cooperation and contours of CPEC came to ‘All Parties Conference’, where all political parties
the limelight in July 2013. CPEC will take the China repeatedly expressed their consensus and solidarity to
Pakistan relationship to new heights. CPEC is of great the CPEC. The consideration of new projects in phases
value to both China and Pakistan. This framework of is part of the framework of CPEC phased plan till 2030,
regional connectivity will open up west China to which will result in inclusive development. The job
south and contribute to ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative opportunities of over million under CPEC will
policy. The establishment of communication contribute to absorbing the youth bulge of the country.
networks from Kashghar (China) to Gwadar (Pakistan) The coast of Pakistan offers unique potential for
has been agreed mutually to be completed by 20130 in industrial development, urban development, coastal
phases. Chinese capital, technology and capacity to tourism and marine resources. The development along
operate large number of transport infrastructure multiple passages from north to south followed by axis
(highways/ railways) projects will play its supporting of development west to east will indeed bring the
role to shape the enabling environment for an open potentials of the regions to interact to form a better
economic system and logistic system in the region world which is peaceful and prosperous for all the
which is the regional vision of CPEC. It will not only players. A decade and half will be utilized to realize the
ultimately benefit China and Pakistan but will have CPEC projects to achieve the desired regional
subsequently have far reaching benefitting impacts on connectivity, which will bring prosperity besides
all the countries surrounding it. Pakistan sees CPEC Pakistan and China to Afghanistan, Iran, CARs and
as the driving force to boost its economic growth subsequently to India and South Asia.
significantly. Pakistan desires to use this opportunity
to remove the bottlenecks to its economic The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), as a
development (namely infrastructure related to pilot project of the Belt and Road Initiative, was
transport and energy) in the initial phase, and officially launched in 2013. President Xi Jinping, during
establish reliable and sustainable highways/railways his visit to Pakistan in April 2015, noted that the CPEC
connectivity and setting sound energy foundation for construction should play a leading role in the practical
developing industrial clusters along this cooperation between the two countries, and determined
communication network. The networks of road and the ‘1+4’ layout of cooperation centring on the CPEC
rails besides industrial clusters will result in inclusive construction supported by the Gwadar port, energy,
regional development besides addressing the transportation infrastructure and industrial cooperation.
domestic stability. CPEC is envisioned as corridor of Practices in the past five years have proved that the
peace and development. The phase of planning, CPEC construct is not targeted at specific regions or
construction and operation of China Pakistan groups, but is aimed at the whole country of Pakistan
Economic Corridor, though is challenging but has and benefits all the people of Pakistan.
significant potentials of promising future. Pakistan’s
Fruitful achievements in CPEC construction
land and people were adversely affected in the past
CPEC has played a flagship leading and
due to denial policy of the area and frictional
demonstration role in the Belt and Road
environment of conflicts zones. As a policy framework,
construction. It has become a platform for all-round
the integration of economics of the region will take
pragmatic cooperation between China and Pakistan.
place through media of CPEC. CEPC is a promising
beacon of peace and development for the region in Improving macroeconomic conditions in Pakistan:
every tune of its melody. It will have transformational CPEC has driven the development of Pakistan. The
impact on the state and prosperity of people of two-gap model proposed by economist Hollis B
Pakistan. The visit of President Xi Jinping in April Chenery posits that developing countries must
2015 and Chinese commitment of US $ 46 Billion for introduce foreign investments and stimulate
various project of CPEC, drew the world attention to exports to boost growth of their national economy.
this new development. It was stated that CPEC will CPEC has solved the problem of limited investment
contribute to prosperity of both Pakistan and China capacity caused by insufficient savings and shortage

of foreign exchange in Pakistan and provided a Middle East and the Indian Ocean via transit
high-quality source of impetus for Pakistan’s transport. Therefore, infrastructure connectivity is
economic development. As of January 2019, CPEC also one of the important areas in the early harvest
included nine completed early harvest projects and projects of CPEC. The Karakoram Highway Phase 2
13 projects under construction, with a total (Havelian–Thakot section) is 118.124 km long,
investment of $19 billion. It drove Pakistan’s including 39.305 km of expressway and 78.819 km of
economic growth by one to two percentage points secondary highway. The project officially started on
every year and created 70,000 jobs in Pakistan. The September 1, 2016. Currently, more than half of the
Chinese government provided $5.874 billion in project has been completed. The section from
concessional loans to Pakistan, with a consolidated Sukkur, Sindh in the south to Multan, Punjab in the
interest rate of only 2%, far lower than the average north, of the Karachi-Peshawar Expressway, is 392
interest rate. The Chinese government also km long, with a total investment of $2.89 billion.
provided $143 million in interest-free loans for the The construction was undertaken by China State
Gwadar East-Bay Expressway project and free Construction Engineering Corporation. The project
assistance for some livelihood projects in Pakistan. officially started in August 2016. The 33-km section
Thanks to favourable factors such as the CPEC from Multan to Shujabad was opened to traffic 15
construction, Pakistan’s macroeconomic months ahead of schedule on May 26, 2018. The
conditions have been improving and its economy entire Sukkur-Multan section is expected to be open
has maintained a momentum of rapid growth. to traffic in August 2019. The Karachi–Peshawar
Over the past five years, Pakistan’s GDP grew by an Expressway is designed with six lanes in two
average of 4.77%, especially in the 2017-2018 fiscal directions and a speed of 120 km/h. It will greatly
year, when Pakistan’s GDP grew by 5.8%, the improve the traffic in the two cities upon
highest rate in recent 13 years. Pakistan’s annual completion. The Lahore Orange Line rail transit
foreign direct investment grew from $650 million project was put into trial operation on October 8,
to $2.2 billion, and the per capita annual income 2017. The line is 25.58km long and is organised into
rose from $1,334 to $1,641. five carriages, each carrying 200 passengers. The
train starts from Ali Town and terminates at Dera
Alleviating Pakistan’s energy shortage
Gujran. The total distance is covered in 45 minutes
Energy shortage is a hard nut to crack that restricts
with stops on 14 stations, compared with 2.5 hours
the economic development of Pakistan. It is a
of road travel between the two places. According to
problem that previous Pakistani governments
the design plan, the Orange Line will have a
attached great importance to and most wanted to
capacity of 250,000 passengers per day at the
solve. The electricity gap cost Pakistan an annual
beginning of operation, which will be further
average loss of $13.5 billion in GDP, according to a
increased to 500,000 passengers per day by 2025.
study by PwC in 2012. Power shortage left Pakistan
Over the past five years, 51,000 direct jobs were
in the dark for a long time, with rolling blackouts
created in the road infrastructure sector under
across the country lasting about 10 hours a day in
CPEC projects, of which 48,000 were created
major cities and up to 22 hours in rural areas.
specifically for local Pakistanis. Further,
CPEC has regarded the alleviation of energy
infrastructure projects are expected to spur the
shortage in Pakistan as one of the important areas
development of Pakistan’s building-related
of construction since its launch. Currently, 12
industries and attract more foreign investment.
projects with a total installed capacity of 7,240MW
have been started or put into operation. Through Gwadar Port on the fast track
five years of construction, energy projects under
Gwadar Port has taken on a new look in the past
the CPEC framework added 3,340MW of electricity
five years. The port roads, storage yards, loading
to Pakistan by early April 2019, accounting for 11%
and unloading equipment, seawater desalination,
of the country’s total installed electricity capacity,
oil supply and port monitoring facilities have been
thus greatly alleviating the power shortage in
further improved. Five new container bridge cranes;
Pakistan. In addition to power generation projects,
100,000-m2 storage yards; container scanning
China built the Matiari–Lahore ±660kV HVDC
equipment; the 220,000-gal desalination plant; two
Transmission Line Project in Pakistan – the second
sewage treatment systems; 80,000-m2 new green
HVDC transmission line in the world – to address
space; and the new LPG receiving station have made
the aging of Pakistan’s power grid.
the port capable of handling bulk cargo, containers,
Improving infrastructure connectivity in Pakistan roll-on roll-off cargo and LPG. The container liner
service was officially launched at Gwadar Port on
The China Pakistan cross-border economic belt,
March 7, 2018. The Gwadar-Middle East Express was
linked by the China-Pakistan Karakoram Highway,
opened, connecting Gwadar with other major ports
has taken shape under CPEC. Through
in the world. The Gwadar Port Free Trade Zone
international logistics nodes such as Gwadar Port,
covers an area of 923 hectares and is constructed in
Karachi and Peshawar, Pakistan serves to transport
four phases in two zones, one north and one south.
products from western China to countries in the
On January 28, 2018, the Gwadar Free Zone Phase 1 given to accelerating cooperation in industries,
was formally completed and put into operation, parks and agriculture, creating jobs, and improving
and the investment attraction was also completed people’s livelihood.
simultaneously. More than 30 Chinese and
Steadfast determination to build CPEC
Pakistani enterprises, including hospitality,
banking, insurance, financial leasing, logistics, At the very beginning of the new Pakistani
overseas warehousing, grain and oil processing, government, Foreign Minister Shah Mehmood
fishery processing and home appliance assembly, Qureshi said, “The new Pakistani government is
started working at the free zone. The direct advancing an ambitious reform agenda, and is
investment exceeded RMB three billion. These willing to learn from China’s experience in
enterprises will accomplish the annual output economic development, poverty alleviation, disaster
value of over RMB five billion and create more reduction, anti-corruption, and environmental
than 5,000 jobs after all being put into operation. protection. Advancing CPEC is our top priority.”
The Gwadar Faqeer Primary School, which was
From November 2 to 5, 2018, Prime Minister Imran
completed in September 2016, has developed
Khan made his first official visit to China and
rapidly, with a planned enrolment of 150 students
attended the first China International Import Expo
and an actual enrolment of 500 students. The
in Shanghai. During his visit, the two countries
school achieved a pass rate of over 95% in the
reached important consensus and signed a joint
spring student examination in 2019, making it the
statement on further strengthening China-Pakistan
best school in Balochistan in terms of teaching
all-weather strategic cooperative partnership and
quality. In May 2017, the China-Pakistan Fraternity
building a closer China Pakistan community of
Emergency Care Centre assisted by the Red Cross
shared future in the new era.
Society of China was completed in Gwadar Port.
The Chinese Red Cross Foundation sent three Prime Minister Imran made it clear that the
medical teams to work in the region. By the end of completed projects of CPEC are in the interest of
2018, the centre received 2,302 Chinese and Pakistan and will bring enormous social and
Pakistani patients. The desalination plant for the economic development opportunities to the
Gwadar Free Zone was completed and put into Pakistani people. Since China has lifted more than
operation in 2018, with a daily production capacity 700 million people out of poverty in the past
of 1,000 tons of drinking water. Gwadar’s decades, Pakistan is willing to learn from the
population grew from 60,000 to 130,000 in just five Chinese government’s poverty alleviation and
years. reduction measures. Pakistan also hopes to
strengthen cooperation in industry and agriculture
Cross-border fibre optic project completed
to help unleash its greater development potential.
and opened: The 820-km China-Pakistan
Cross-Border Fibre Optic Project, which is laid On March 20, 2019, China and Pakistan held the
between the city of Rawalpind, Pakistan in the first strategic dialogue between foreign ministers
south and the Khunjerab Pass, China in the north, and reached broad consensus. Qureshi noted that
was completed and opened on July 13, 2018. the Pakistani people are committed to promoting
CPEC construction and expanding bilateral
Promising future of CPEC construction
cooperation in various fields. State Councillor Wang
2018 was an election year for Pakistan, when there Yi said that the CPEC project is expected to be
was concern at home and abroad about whether expanded to a larger scope, including the western
Pakistan’s attitude towards CPEC would change region, in Pakistan, according to the vision plan of
due to the change of government. Around the CPEC construction agreed by both sides.
same time, there were some international opinions
Fallacy of smearing CPEC debunked
questioning CPEC, saying that a large amount of
Chinese loans might plunge Pakistan into debt Since the beginning of CPEC, rumours discrediting
crisis. Facts over the past year have proved that the the project have been rampant. Some with ulterior
determination to build CPEC has not been shaken motives accuse the mega project of exacerbating
by the change of government in Pakistan and the Pakistan’s economic risks and claim that the
debt crisis theory has been in tatters. In promoting country is falling into a “debt trap.” The proportion
the CPEC construction, China has always followed of CPEC is very low in the foreign debt structure
the principle of consultation, contribution and data released by the Pakistani government, which is
shared benefits, and given top priority to not the cause of the debt problem of Pakistan at all.
Pakistan’s economic development and the vital More than 80% of the CPEC projects are funded by
interests of the Pakistani. Based on Pakistan’s Chinese direct investment or use Chinese free
future economic and social development priorities assistance, while less than 20% use Chinese loans.
and people’s needs, the future development path “Instead of burdening Pakistan, CPEC has helped to
and cooperation direction of CPEC will be boost its economy.” In the next stage of CPEC
determined through consultation, with priority development, cooperation will be strengthened with
focus on people’s livelihood. China will give more in shipping logistics, agriculture, animal husbandry,
assistance to Pakistan in areas such as agriculture, Muslim food processing and so on.
education, medical care and drinking water. As the
The new Pakistani government attaches great
Pakistani people continue to reap tangible benefits
importance to the development of people’s
from the achievements in CPEC construction and
livelihood and aims to shape Pakistan into a just
witness positive changes in their daily lives, the
welfare state. CPEC, consistent with the local
above rumours are debunked.
situation, has particularly given priority to
Clear priorities of CPEC cooperation benefiting the people. Energy projects have been
completed to meet the needs of approximately 8.6
As the CPEC construction is advancing, Pakistan’s
million households. The primary schools and China
energy problem has been lessened dramatically,
Pakistan medical centres near Gwadar have
and the improvement in transportation
improved the education and medical conditions of
infrastructure has laid a foundation for the
the local people.
industrial upgrading of Pakistan. Industrial
cooperation will be the focus of the CPEC In the future, the two countries are expected to sign
construction and development in the next stage, a series of agreements covering areas related to
which will inject new impetus into the sustainable people’s livelihood, including education, health,
development of CPEC. PM Imran noted that CPEC agriculture, water for irrigation, poverty alleviation,
offers a “golden opportunity” for Pakistan to and human resources development. Hospitals have
revitalise its economy and achieve development. been set up in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and
The fundamental reason is that CPEC can Balochistan, and vocational and technical training
significantly enhance the overall competitiveness colleges have been established throughout Pakistan.
of Pakistan. In terms of China Pakistan industrial
New challenges to CPEC construction
cooperation, China should, on the one hand, focus
on China Pakistan industrial parks to enhance Currently, CPEC construction has gradually shifted
their industrial capacity and economic strength. from energy and transportation infrastructure
On the other hand, China should encourage cooperation to industrial cooperation and industrial
Chinese enterprises to take an active part in park construction. PM Imran has given prominence
Pakistan’s existing and mature industrial parks and to promoting industrialisation and employment in
mobilise the enthusiasm of Pakistan’s national Pakistan, and laid greater emphasis on the western
capital. With “Made in Pakistan” as a breakthrough route of CPEC. Meanwhile, the international
point, China will help accelerate the development situation has also changed. Given the overall
of Pakistan’s local industries, and promote export situation, we should be clear that old challenges
and import substitution of high value-added have not yet subsided and new ones are emerging in
products, so as to make Pakistan’s existing parks the CPEC construction.
grow stronger.
First, the complex international political situation,
Cooperation in agriculture will be deepened. 70% especially the interference of external factors on
of Pakistan’s population lives in rural areas, and is CPEC, cannot be ignored.
dependent on land. China’s advanced agricultural
Second, Pakistan has a serious fiscal deficit, a huge
technology and farming equipment will improve
foreign debt and a heavy debt service burden. The
the agricultural production efficiency of Pakistan
capacity to provide supporting funds for CPEC
and increase the added value of agricultural
construction has declined sharply and it is no
products, so as to lift the farmers out of poverty.
longer feasible to expand infrastructure
Given the dilemma of high inflation, currency
construction. Pakistan’s new government wants to
devaluation and insufficient foreign exchange
rein in huge capital spending, especially on projects
reserves in Pakistan in recent years, the
that require large amounts of foreign exchange.
development of agriculture will also help Pakistan
increase foreign exchange income and realise Third, the overall security situation in Pakistan has
international balance of payment. improved year by year, but terrorist attacks still
occur frequently. Over the past year, violent and
The second textile expo was held in Lahore,
terrorist attacks launched by Balochistan separatists
Pakistan from April 11 to 14, 2019. Pakistan’s textile
occurred frequently, with changes in form,
industry accounts for 60% of the country’s total
geographical expansion and new features, and the
exports, and Pakistan is one of the few countries in
threat to Gwadar Port and CPEC has increased.
the world with a complete textile industry chain.
The expo means a good opportunity for the Despite many challenges to the CPEC construction,
development of Pakistani textile enterprises. it is the internal factors that are the root cause
Additionally, the second Gwadar Expo was affecting the CPEC construction. When we realise
successfully held on March 28 and 29, 2019. It and successfully eliminate the internal negative
attracted more than 200 exhibitors from China and factors, external factors cannot really affect the
Pakistan, and they signed cooperation agreements process of CPEC construction.
The US policy in South Asia

It seems a shift in the US policy in South Asia, assisted India, and helped India, to make India
especially toward Pakistan. The US was among the strong enough to counter China. Replaced Pakistan’s
first few countries to recognize Pakistan in 1947 after role in Afghanistan with India. AS a result, India has
getting independence from the British Empire. become the biggest beneficiary of US aid after the
state of Israel.
During the Cold War, Pakistan was a big supporter
of the US and protected American interests in the Unfortunately, India does not have the capacity and
region, including Afghanistan-war in the 1980s. could not meet the expectations of the US. The US
Pakistan was also a close ally in the “war on terror” could not achieve its strategic goals with Pakistan’s
after the attacks on the World Trade Center and the support in this region. Failure after and another
Pentagon on September 11, 2001. failure, the US leadership, especially the Military
leadership has realized the importance of Pakistan’s
However, although Pakistan extends a cordial hand
pivotal role. Assistant Secretary of State Alice Wells,
of friendship to the US whenever it needs support,
recently spoke on China-Pakistan Economic
the US always steps back when it no longer needs a
Corridor (CPEC) and warn Pakistan on its long term
Pakistani role in an issue, and relations decline.
impact. It needs to explore in depth that either it
Pakistan has faced some of the toughest and strictest
was sincere advice from her or just a reaction to
US sanctions in history. The two countries have
counter China or contain China. The US is openly
always cooperated with each other on their common
opposing China’s further growth and taking all
goals and interests, though the US has failed to value
possible measures to counter China on all possible
Pakistan’s interests and has kept on making
fronts. India failed to serve the US expectation to
demands. “Do more” has been the message of the US
contain China. It is the first time, senior US officials
leadership in recent years, without understanding
directly gave a statement on CPEC. It needs to study
Pakistan’s capacity to comply, or its own interests.
and evaluation seriously in detail.
The US always considered Pak-US relations as
“Transactional” only. While Pakistan was sincere However, the good news is that the United States
and considered its relations with the US in the long plans to send 15 trade delegations to Pakistan next
term. year to explore possibilities for expanding trade with
Pakistan. The information is included in a paper
During the past few years, the US has blamed and
Wells read at a Washington think-tank, Wilson
threatened Pakistan. Of course, there exist some
Centre, last week, which focused heavily on the
concerns on both sides, and some of these may be
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), but it
genuine, but some are based on misunderstandings
also included various suggestions for expanding
only, or over expectations. In fact, the US was asking
US-Pakistan trade ties. We are very much optimistic
Pakistan “Do More” without considering Pakistan’s
and welcome the expansion of Pak-US relations in
capacity and interests.
the very near future.
As long as the US was cooperating with Pakistan, the
And once the new expanded Development Finance
US achieved its strategic goals in this region.
Corporation (DFC) is up and running, “Pakistan is
Pakistan may be a small country, but possess a
going to be a country of great interest”. The DFC will
strategic location and can play a decisive role in
have more than double the investment cap than the
geopolitics. Pakistan is a country with 220 million
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC),
population, the sixth-largest country by population.
increasing from $29 billion to $60bn. OPIC is a US
The only nuclear power in the Muslim world
government agency that mobilizes private capital for
considered an important nation in the Muslim world.
overseas investments. Doubling the cap would
Its location facilitates connecting east and west, at
enable investment in projects that have high
the entrance of the Gulf of Hurmuz, oil-rich
standards and are financially sustainable over the
middle-east. Also connecting Eurasia with the
long haul. While urging Pakistan to benefit from
Arabian Ocean. Pakistan is blessed with natural
these additional US resources, Wells reminded
beauty, most suitable for tourism. Also rich in
Islamabad last week that “truly sustainable
minerals, but not exploited yet. Its population
development is really a marathon and not a sprint. It
consists of 70% youth under the age of 40 years, a
requires the development of an effective regulatory
huge work-force. Diversified climate and topography,
framework, strong rule of law, fiscal health, and an
makes Pakistan one of the best agricultural country.
enabling business climate”. Pakistani policymakers
Over-all the history of relations between Pakistan must take necessary measures to be benefited from
and the US was not so smooth and has been passing the US initiatives.
many ups and downs. But for the last decade, it was
She recalled that during Prime Minister Imran
almost the worst period of our relations, where the
Khan’s visit to the United States in July, President
US has coerced Pakistan and almost written-off. The
Donald Trump was “extremely enthusiastic about
US shifted its focus on India, supported India,
the potential for increasing and expanding our
US-Pakistan trade and investment relationship. And
Pakistan welcomes all nations to invest in Pakistan.
both our governments are working very hard to find
Government of Pakistan provides attractive policies
practical ways to do that. We commend Pakistan for
and full protection of all foreigners and guarantees
surging 28 slots on the World Bank’s 2020 Ease of
profitable investments. CPEC is also open to all
Doing Business ranking and being highlighted as
other nations, currently Saudi Arabia, UAE, France
one of the top ten reformers globally,” she added.
and Turkey has shown interest to invest in
“And just to be crystal clear, the US-Pakistan CPEC-Projects too. Pakistan is a huge country and
development partnership has primarily taken the unlimited opportunities exists within CPEC and
form of grants — not loans,” said Wells while adding out-side CPEC. Pakistan, based on mutual benefits,
that such links “offer a sense of the direction that we is willing to engage with any country in a
envision”. meaningful manner, all the time.
Kashmir Issue - A historical account of the tragedy

A tragedy that stems from a ceaseless contestation as possible. There was no universally acknowledged
for a pursuit based on two arbitrary – and single instrument to achieve this. Both states used
conflicting – claims put forth by Pakistan and India. a similar repertoire of techniques — negotiating
accession treaties, making deals with local elites
Delhi, August 1947 It was supposed to be a new
and, in certain cases, sending in troops to snuff out
world that Lord Mountbatten traversed in those
opposition. The Kashmir crisis was born out of the
last months of 1947 as British India’s last viceroy.
discontents of the twin processes of decolonisation
The Indian subcontinent, so long the jewel in Great
and territorial integration by India and Pakistan.
Britain’s imperial crown, had been born anew and
Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state which the
transformed into two sovereign states. And yet, as
East India Company had annexed in 1846 and then
he made his way from Delhi to Karachi, it must
transferred to Gulab Singh of the Dogra dynasty for
have occurred to Mountbatten how little things
a payment of 7,500,000 rupees. As the British exit
had actually changed. Decades of nationalist
from the subcontinent became apparent, the then
struggle, two world wars, a formal transfer of power
ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, wished to
and millions of deaths later, he still had to mediate
remain independent. This was obviously not going
between the leaders of the new subcontinent. They
to be acceptable to either India or Pakistan. Four
were still grappling with – and fighting over – a
major rivers originate from the Himalayas located
number of unanswered questions. Perched on the
in Kashmir and it also shares a border with China
very top of those questions was the one of Kashmir.
— the two factors that make it a strategically
The British Raj in the Indian subcontinent had
crucial region. In other words it is a prized territory.
always been a highly complicated affair. To run an
Both states, therefore, formed strategies to lay
imperial enterprise spread over half a continent,
claim to it.
the British authorities had to create and maintain
several types of territorial arrangements, much like
the Mughals before it. The British had to weave an
intricate web of local collaborations that included a
buffer zone between India and Afghanistan,
hundreds of princely states of various sizes, that
had a certain degree of legal and administrative
autonomy from the Raj within their borders, and
many directly administered provinces and
territories. The decolonisation process spelled the
unravelling of this web.
The two new states – India and Pakistan – that
emerged from the decolonisation process could not
operate under the same legal, political and
administrative paradigm which the British had. The
geographical unity of the two states could only be
maintained if they came up with new political and
legal arrangements to integrate swathes of territory,
both big and small, that once belonged to the
princely states. In order to deal with this challenge,
the two states embarked on projects to absorb such
territories into their respective borders as quickly
Delhi, September 27, 1947 India’s deputy prime Kashmir. In his correspondence with Nehru, he
minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel received an urgent argued that the tribesmen were helped by local
letter from Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru Kashmiri Muslims who sought liberation. Liaquat
regarding the situation in Kashmir. Nehru was Ali Khan also pointed out that the government in
convinced that Pakistan was preparing to infiltrate Kashmir had manipulated the situation in order to
the region and foster an insurgency. He also knew accede to India against the wishes of its own people.
Maharaja Hari Singh’s forces could not do much to For Governor General Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the
stop infiltration without help from India. More accession was nothing short of a coup d’etat.
importantly, Nehru realised, Hari Singh’s regime
A different story hid behind these public statements.
could not be sustained if its own people went against
On November 1, 1947, Mountbatten and his chief of
it. Sheikh Abdullah headed the largest political party
staff, Lord Ismay, travelled to Lahore and met
in Kashmir – the National Conference – but he was a
separately with both Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan.
staunch opponent of the Dogra dynasty. He had
When he recorded the daily proceedings in his
initiated a “Quit Kashmir” movement before the
notebook, Mountbatten could not help but say the
British left India in 1947 and, hence, was imprisoned
tribesmen had been acting on the express and direct
in May 1946. Nehru wanted him freed. He noted in
command of the Pakistani leadership. Implicitly,
his letter that Sheikh Abdullah was eager not to join
Jinnah accepted as much to Mountbatten. “When I
Pakistan. His opposition to Hari Singh, therefore,
asked him how the tribesmen were to be called off,
was not tantamount to support for accession to
he said that all he had to do was to give them an
Pakistan. If the Indian government could work out a
order to come out and to warn them that if they did
rapprochement between Hari Singh and Sheikh
not comply, he would send large forces along their
Abdullah, Nehru suggested to Patel, Kashmir’s
lines of communication. In fact, if I was prepared to
accession to India would become easier.
fly to Srinagar with him, he would guarantee that
“It seems to me urgently necessary, therefore, that the business would be settled within 24 hours. I
the accession to the Indian Union should take place expressed mild astonishment at the degree of
early. It is equally clear to me that this can only take control that he appeared to exercise over the
place with some measure of success after there is raiders,” Mountbatten wrote. Pakistani strategy was
peace between the Maharaja and the National to create enough pressure on the Maharaja to
Conference and they co-operate together to meet abdicate, to then claim that the region should
the situation,” Nehru wrote. “…Abdullah is very become a part of Pakistan because most people
anxious to keep out of Pakistan and relies upon us a living in Jammu and Kashmir are Muslims. The
great deal for advice.” But, at the same time, he Pakistani government knew only an indigenous
“cannot carry his people with him unless he has revolt could preclude India from holding on to
something definite to place before them. What this Kashmir. But therein lay Pakistan’s greatest
can be in the circumstances I cannot define precisely challenge: The Muslim League had virtually no
at the present moment. But the main thing is that presence in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and
the Maharaja should try to gain the goodwill and Pakistan had no guarantee that the people of
cooperation of Abdullah,” Nehru added. “It would be Kashmir would overwhelmingly vote to be part of
a tragedy if the National Conference remains passive Pakistan.
owing to frustration and lack of opportunity.”
Pakistani leadership was aware of the problem
Nehru’s predictions about a likely infiltration into
which is why both Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan
Kashmir were proven true. By October 1947, tribal
consistently rejected a plebiscite in Kashmir as long
militias from Murree, Hazara and parts of the
as Indian troops were there. “If the India
Federally Administered Tribal Areas (Fata) raided
Government [is] allowed to act…unfettered as [it
the valley through the Poonch area and began a
pleases] by virtue of having already occupied
widespread campaign to destabilise the Maharaja’s
Kashmir and landed their troops there, then, this El
regime. The Maharaja looked to India for help which
Dorado of plebiscite will prove a mirage,” read an
he got only after promising to sign an instrument of
official Pakistan statement. During negotiations with
accession in favour of New Delhi. Writing to British
Mountbatten, Jinnah strongly objected to having a
Prime Minister Clement Attlee, Nehru argued that
plebiscite even under the auspices of the UN,
the Indian intervention in Kashmir was a response
maintaining that the presence of Indian troops as
to an urgent appeal from the government of Jammu
well as Sheikh Abdullah’s tilt towards India would
and Kashmir for help against tribal invaders who, he
deter the average Muslim in Kashmir from voting for
claimed, were aided and abetted by the Pakistani
Pakistan. In a letter to Attlee, Liaquat Ali Khan
government.
described Sheikh Abdullah as a “quisling” and a
Pakistan denied any involvement. Prime Minister “paid agent of the Congress for the last two decades”.
Liaquat Ali Khan insisted the actions by the In a December 1947 meeting with his Indian
tribesmen were an almost instinctive response to the counterpart, Liaquat Ali Khan also questioned the
atrocities being committed against Muslims in efficacy of a voting process in Kashmir while it was

under an India-sponsored administration. “…[T]he such as Dawn, Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Zamindar as
people of Kashmir were bound to vote, in the well as through radio broadcasts and publishing
plebiscite, in favour of whatever administration was special pamphlets, books and plays. Several films
then in power. The Kashmiris were an illiterate and produced in this era also carried an explicit message
oppressed people, and they would be bound to favor that Kashmir belonged to Pakistan and it was
the authority in possession. If an Englishman went incumbent on the Pakistani state and society to take
as administrator, they would vote to join the United necessary measures to realise its integration within
Kingdom,” he said. Pakistan.
That not only the Maharaja but also the National Both Islamabad and New Delhi ceaselessly try to
Conference favoured India was the advantage Nehru expunge from public imagination anything that
wanted. In his correspondence with Indian questions, albeit remotely, their official narratives on
politicians, he pointed out that any activity by Kashmir even when the two narratives sometimes are
Pakistan would look illegal and unacceptable after as divergent from truth as they are from each other.
Kashmir had acceded to India. He was right. After
The overarching theme pervading this propaganda
the Maharaja acceded to India on October 26, 1947,
was the two-nation theory that Muslims were
New Delhi was successful in portraying to the rest of
different from the Hindus and, therefore, the two
the world that Pakistan-supported militant activity
cannot live together. Within a few short years after
was an act of belligerence. This would remain the
independence, the Pakistani media had convinced
thrust of India’s case against Pakistan for the times
the citizenry that pursuing Kashmir through any
to come.
means was not only legitimate, it was also noble.
The accession also formed the basis for a The argument was simple: Kashmir was a Muslim
justification of India’s military presence in Kashmir. majority area and hence could not be ruled by
The Indian government argued it was well within its Hindus. By promoting such a narrative, the
right to send troops to drive away outsiders from Pakistani state ensured that the Kashmir question
what it considered Indian territory. When Pakistan was enmeshed with the question of Pakistani
contended that it would only attempt to ensure the identity and that both questions were framed in
withdrawal of tribal militias if that coincided with a religious terms. This narrative, however, translated
simultaneous withdrawal of Indian forces from into little bargaining power during negotiations with
Kashmir, the Indians simply refused, arguing that India. Unsurprisingly, when Liaquat Ali Khan
the presence of the two forces could not be treated exchanged letters with Indian and British leaders, he
the same way. By the end of 1947, India decided to seldom made a reference to Islam or jihad. His
apprise the world of what it called Pakistani arguments, instead, rested entirely on the Kashmiris’
intrusion in Kashmir. In a meeting with right to self-determine their political future.
Mountbatten in December that year, Nehru Pakistan posited that India had forcibly and
suggested India should raise the issue at the United undemocratically annexed Kashmir without taking
Nations Security Council (UNSC), “charging the will of the people into account. In the age of
Pakistan with aggression and asking UNO [United decolonisation, self-determination was considered a
Nations Organization] to call upon Pakistan to universal right and carried far more weight than the
refrain from doing so”. If the Security Council failed two-nation theory. Highlighting its absence as the
to make Pakistan stop its “aggression”, he warned, core reason for the problem in Kashmir, indeed,
“we would have to take action ourselves in such a forced India on the defensive. On several occasions,
manner as we thought fit to stop this aggression at Nehru had to give assurances that a plebiscite would
the base.” eventually take place and that the mandate of the
Kashmiri people will be respected. This apologetic
When Mountbatten suggested that the “UNO
Indian reaction convinced the Pakistani ruling elite
[should] supervise and carry out a plebiscite as we
that if it needed to force India to a negotiating table,
had previously declared” once “law and order has
it needed help — from powerful friends.
been restored”, Nehru replied with a definitive no.
When India had made a unilateral offer for a New York, November 1952 Sir Gladwyn Jebb, the
plebiscite after partition, he argued, Pakistan British representative to the UN, handed a draft
rejected it and instead chose to support chaos in the resolution on Kashmir to his Indian counterpart
valley. It was that chaos that made the plebiscite Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit who hurriedly wrote to
unfeasible, he declared. Pakistan’s early policy in Nehru, telling him that Britain and the United States
Kashmir obviously failed to result in any legitimacy were prepared to take the matter to the UNGA if
for Pakistan’s claim. Within its borders, however, India did not move within the next 30 days. A debate
the Pakistani state was incredibly successful in in the General Assembly and a possible resolution
cementing Kashmir as an invaluable, indispensable against India could be a national embarrassment,
and eternal part of the Pakistani national she said. Nehru was aghast. “Have the English learnt
imagination. Primarily, this was a function of fervent nothing at all during the last few years? I am not
propaganda campaigns carried out by newspapers thinking so much of their draft resolution, although
that is bad enough, but rather of the way they think with India for one with Pakistan. In 1954, Pakistan
they can bully us. If there is one thing that all the became part of the South East Asian Treaty
powers in the world cannot do, it is to bully us,” he Organization (Seato) that also included Australia,
wrote in his feverish reply to Pandit. Nehru’s France, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, the
frustration with Britain and the US had been UK and the US; in early 1955, it joined the Baghdad
growing for the past couple of years. He believed Pact along with Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Britain and the
British and American patronage was the chief reason US. While the rebel in him might have been defiant,
why Pakistan was being abrasive towards India. The the politician in Nehru understood that these
Pakistani establishment, indeed, was seeking alliances had changed the power dynamics in South
political and military support from the two countries Asia. Equally importantly, the situation in Kashmir
in return for strategic loyalty. Quickly though, the was changing and support for Pakistan was
Pakistani elite realised that its efforts would have to emerging among the Kashmiris. In 1953, Nehru
be directed mostly towards the US as Britain had acknowledged that a pro-Pakistan lobby was present
little economic and political clout left in the in Kashmir valley alongside a pro-India one.
post-World War II era. While the sun was setting on
A number of political actors, including Sheikh
the British Empire, the American pursuit of
Abdullah – who, by then, had become the prime
hegemony in the postcolonial world had just begun.
minister of Jammu and Kashmir – also started
This period was also the beginning of the Cold War,
imagining a possibly independent Kashmir. He went
the ideological conflict between the US and the
to the extent of stating that his government was not
Soviet Union that would last for the rest of the 20th
bound by the accession treaty signed by the
century and engulf the entire world. Policymakers in
Maharaja. Many in India’s ruling Congress party,
the White House and the State Department were
who considered him a friend, were shocked by the
deeply anxious to enlarge the American sphere of
statement. New Delhi could simply not afford a
influence to ensure that newly formed states did not
popular challenge to the accession treaty. Sheikh
gravitate towards the Soviet camp.
Abdullah was, therefore, sentenced to 11 years in
The American reaction to the first phase of the prison under what became the infamous “Kashmir
Kashmir crisis was to impose an arms embargo on conspiracy case”.
both Pakistan and India. But this policy had to
All these developments forced Indian leaders to seek
change with the beginning of the 1950s. As the
a lasting, internationally-recognised agreement over
realities of the Cold War took centre stage,
Kashmir. In May 1955, Nehru met with Pakistan’s
American policymakers aggressively pursued the
Prime Minister Mohammad Ali Bogra and his
policy of “containment” against the “communist
interior minister Iskander Mirza in Delhi. Senior
virus” and they found in Pakistan a willing partner in
Indian minister Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was also
their pursuit of this policy in the subcontinent.
present during the talks which lasted for three
In 1950, Liaquat Ali Khan publicly admitted that consecutive days. Despite tumultuous relations
Pakistan would “seize the opportunity eagerly” between the two states, the air in the negotiation
should the US decide to give it as much importance room was gracious, even hopeful. Nehru frankly
as it gave to Turkey. Keen on developing a admitted that the American military aid had
stronghold in the Middle East, the Americans were changed security circumstances in the subcontinent
planning a multilateral security arrangement among since “it brought the prospect of world war to our
Iran, Iraq and Turkey, their allies in the region. door”. Bogra, however, assured his Indian
Given its geographical proximity to the Middle East, counterpart that Pakistan desired nothing but
Pakistan could be included in this collective. While friendliness with its neighbour to the east. At one
Britain had reservations about including Pakistan in point, he even said: “India [is] a big country, the big
a Middle East collective and warned the Americans sister of Pakistan…India should, therefore, be
about the possible negative effects it might have on generous and magnanimous”. While the two states
the relations between Washington and New Delhi, were putting up a rare show of mutual
policymakers in the US remained determined to understanding, the voice of the Kashmiris was
make Pakistan a client state. For its part, Pakistan conspicuously missing from their discussions. The
received strong warnings from Moscow and Beijing real question being discussed was a partition of
against such an arrangement but the Pakistani Kashmir. Before the Delhi meeting, Pakistan’s
establishment was adamant on securing military aid Governor General Malik Ghulam Muhammad had
from the US. When American Secretary of State John informally proposed that a large tract of land north
Foster Dulles visited Pakistan in the summer of 1953, of the Chenab River should be transferred to
he was deeply heartened to see Pakistan’s Pakistan and that Kashmir, as a whole, should come
enthusiasm to ally with his country. In December under some sort of a joint supervision by the two
that year, American Vice President Richard Nixon states. For Nehru, these proposals were “completely
visited the subcontinent and concluded that impractical”. The Indian side could never give up
America needed to sacrifice a potential relationship territory because the Indian constitution stipulated
10---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Instagram: @CSS_Target

that the government in Delhi could not alter the negotiations ended. Although the talks achieved
boundaries of the state of Jammu and Kashmir nothing, they clearly depicted that Kashmir had
without the consent of the state’s own legislature. turned into a territorial dispute. The ultimate object
on the negotiating table was a map — a cartographic
While Bogra agreed that the Governor General’s
representation of space bereft of people and their
proposals were unfeasible, he emphasised that he
history, identities, voices and relationships. The
could not return to Pakistan empty-handed.
Kashmiri ‘self’ – which Pakistan ostensibly wanted to
“Something had to be done to make [the people of
guard under the banner of Islam and which India
Pakistan] feel that they had gained something,” is
wanted to protect under its constitution – was
what Bogra told Nehru who said India could transfer
actually considered wholly fluid and expendable,
only the Poonch district to Pakistan. Bogra and
something that could be cut up by the two states
Mirza sombrely announced that “if they accepted
wantonly. The important question was not whether
the Indian proposal, they would be blown sky-high
to cut Kashmir or not — it was how to go about
in Pakistan”.
cutting it. And so it has remained since then.
Their concerns were not exaggerated. Many political
Karachi, February 8, 1963 A young Zulfikar Ali
and religious leaders in Pakistan were mobilising
Bhutto was hunched over a sprawling map of
people for an Islamic war in Kashmir. On August 14,
Kashmir, surrounded by the delegates he was
1953, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, then governor of
leading as Pakistan’s foreign minister. They were in
East Pakistan, exhorted the Pakistanis to “keep their
the middle of the third round of talks with their
swords shining and horses ready”. Feroz Khan Noon,
counterparts from India. The first two rounds had
the then chief minister of Punjab, said in a public
taken place in Rawalpindi and Delhi. The agenda
meeting in Lahore, two days later, that the Indian
was now a familiar one — the drawing of a boundary
government had gone “back on [the] international
that could divide Kashmir between India and
understanding between the two countries” by
Pakistan. The Pakistani delegation was anxious. “We
sending troops into “a predominantly Muslim
must draw lines on the map,” they insisted. As ever,
country — Kashmir”. Such provocations, mirrored
it seemed an impossible exercise. Swaran Singh,
relentlessly by the Pakistani press and radio, could
India’s foreign minister and the head of the Indian
only lead to an atmosphere full of deep acrimony
delegation, drew a line on the map indicating his
where conflict was celebrated and peace was
side’s “readiness to concede in favor of Pakistan the
mocked as a manifestation of weakness. In 1954, a
rich forest areas in the north, on both sides of the
pamphlet entitled Fatwa was published in Pakistan
Kishenganga River”. He also suggested that India
which contained virulently anti-India contents with
was ready to concede some more areas in the west
reference to Kashmir. The Indian High Commission
and north of the Kashmir valley. The Pakistani
in Pakistan requested the Pakistani government to
negotiators appeared shocked at the meagreness of
withdraw the pamphlet. The request was turned
his offer. Bhutto prepared a counter offer — only
down.
Kathua, a district on the border with Punjab, and
In these politically charged circumstances, Bogra some adjoining areas from other districts would go
and Mirza could not make any concessions without to India while Pakistan would be entitled to all the
risking the fall of their government. The same others areas up to Ladakh in the north-east and
militaristic narrative that the Pakistani state was including Srinagar, Jammu, Udhampur and Riyasi
actively promoting, thus, circumscribed its districts. The Indians immediately shot down these
negotiating power. When the two sides returned to suggestions as “ridiculous”.
the negotiating table the next day, Bogra produced a
The invasion by the “Azad Forces” led to massive
map of Jammu and Kashmir. It was divided into two
retaliation by the Indian military not only against
parts: the Hindu areas which amounted to a few
Pakistan but also within the state of Jammu and
districts around Jammu were coloured yellow while
Kashmir. An intense military campaign was started to
the rest of the map was coloured green to indicate
rid Kashmir of outside elements as well as any local
the Muslim majority areas. The Pakistani delegates
pro-Pakistani activists.
suggested a “large area of the Jammu province
including Poonch, Riyasi, Udhampur” could go to Bhutto perhaps believed that placing such a huge
India along with the “possible transfer of Skardu to demand would compel the Indians to revise their
India”. Azad, at that point, stated that India could at original offer, convincing them to give up more
best agree to concede some parts of Mirpur district territory. Singh, however, was determined not to
alongside Poonch to Pakistan. For Nehru, the cede anything more than he had offered. He said he
acceptance of Pakistani proposals was as good as an was willing to accept an end to the talks, seeing little
Indian “defeat and the dictation of terms” by point in another round scheduled in Calcutta that
Pakistan which, he said, no Indian government March. The angst, the arguments and the outcome
could accept. Mirza responded by stating that all he — nothing that happened in Karachi was
could do was report back to his government in unexpected but the world in which these talks took
Karachi. And on that inconclusive note, the place was being critically transformed. In 1958, Field
Marshal Ayub Khan launched a coup d’état against Sinkiang (now spelled Xinjiang). The Indian
the civilian government and set himself in power as delegation was shocked not only at the nature of the
the Chief Martial Law Administrator of Pakistan. His announcement but also over its odd timing.
martial law regime was bent upon consolidating the
Tensions rose between India and Pakistan
central authority in Pakistan, reigning in recalcitrant
exponentially when the China Pakistan Boundary
provinces and establishing its writ at all costs. And,
Agreement was officially signed on March 2, 1963.
despite all the trouble at home, Kashmir figured
The agreement sought to “delimit and demarcate”
prominently in the military government’s
the boundary between China’s Xinjiang region, and
imagination. Critical to this pursuit was the
its proximate regions, which formed part of Kashmir
acquisition of military aid and international support
under Pakistan’s control and resulted in the
against India. The US remained a crucial supporter
demarcation of a new international border and a
in this regard and the Pakistani state continued to
territory exchange between Pakistan and China. As a
identify itself as a strategic ally of the West against
result of these developments, China ended up
the “menace of communism”. Relations between
controlling all of the present-day Xinjiang region.
India and Pakistan also soured further under the
Through the agreement with China, Pakistan made
martial law regime despite some high-level talks,
two noteworthy gains. Firstly, it consolidated its
including a one-on-one meeting between Nehru and
relationship with China, signalling to both India and
Ayub Khan. By 1961, public confrontations between
the United States that Pakistan had a powerful
the two states peaked with accusations flying
friend in the region. Secondly, by negotiating – and
between them. That year also marked the
reaching an agreement – with China on a border in
inauguration of John F Kennedy as the 35th
Kashmir, Pakistan was able to establish its
president of the United States. His administration
sovereignty over those parts of Kashmir which it
was keen on a rapprochement with India. Pakistan,
controlled. This was a major setback to Indian
obviously uncomfortable with such a policy, realised
claims that the entirety of Kashmir was an
it could not rely merely on the United States and
indivisible whole and an unquestionable part of
needed to expand its international support base. The
India. Once China established its writ over the areas
Soviet Union was across a vast ideological gulf from
it had received through the agreement with Pakistan,
Pakistan and, more importantly, had very friendly
it became virtually impossible for India to reclaim
relations with India. Pakistan, therefore, began
them without going to war with China. Political
courting the People’s Republic of China. Beginning
leadership in India, therefore, was appalled by the
with Nikita Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin’s
Pak-China agreement and saw it as a proof of
legacy, China-Soviet relations had been rapidly
Pakistani insincerity. Almost immediately the matter
worsening. By 1961, there was an official parting of
was taken up in Lok Sabha, India’s lower house of
ways. During this time, relations between China and
parliament. Nehru told the parliamentarians that
India also experienced a sharp decline owing to a
Pakistan’s official claims of having given up just over
series of conflicts on the Himalayan border between
2,000 square miles of territory to China were not
the two countries. These conflicts eventually
correct. China, indeed, had gained control over
resulted in the 1962 Sino-Indian War.
13,000 square miles — almost all those parts of
China’s anti-India stance as well as its victory in the Xinjiang region which during the British Raj in India
1962 war made China a possibly important ally for had been included in Kashmir. This, he said, became
Pakistan. Internal correspondences among Indian possible because Pakistan had surrendered “that
officials in the early 1960s show their anxiety over a part of the Indian territory in Jammu and Kashmir
possible Pakistan-China secret deal and a possible which is under Pakistan’s illegal occupation”.
Chinese involvement in Kashmir. Rajeshwar Dayal, Countering the speeches being made in the Indian
India’s high commissioner in Pakistan, went to the parliament, Bhutto addressed Pakistan’s National
extent of warning Ayub Khan against befriending Assembly and argued that the Indian attitude
China. “I warned the President [of Pakistan] that if “confirms our genuine apprehensions that there has
China was no friend of ours, it was much less a been no real desire on the part of India to reach an
friend of Pakistan’s. Bringing China into the Kashmir honourable and equitable settlement with us on
dispute would make the problem completely Kashmir”.
insoluble, for the Chinese would be playing only
As the stalemate continued, the political situation
their own game.” He then reminded Ayub Khan of
within Pakistan was rapidly deteriorating. Indian
“his own views regarding China’s aggressiveness and
intelligence concluded, and rightly so, that Ayub
expansionism” and his declaration in November,
Khan’s regime found itself in hot waters. In a secret
1959, “that Pakistan would not take advantage of
letter written to Commonwealth Secretary Y D
India’s difficulties with China”. Indian fears were
Gundevia, India’s high commissioner in Pakistan, G
confirmed when, during the very first round of
Parthasarathy, quoted a highly credible Pakistani
Pakistan-India talks in early 1963, the Pakistani side
source – mentioned in the letter as Colonel
announced having reached an agreement with China
Mohtarram – as saying that Ayub Khan was
on Kashmir’s border with the Chinese region of
increasingly becoming unpopular among the masses The UN, however, saw Pakistan as the aggressor and
as well as in the army. His unpopularity in the army directed it to observe the ceasefire line and abide by
could have been because of his corrupt dealings, his the status quo. In a letter to the UN Secretary
involvement in partisan politics and his ill treatment General, Ayub Khan refused to comply. “I fear that
of senior officers. The Pakistani source believed an your present appeal will only serve to perpetrate that
underground campaign against Ayub Khan was injustice by leaving the people of occupied Kashmir
being run from England and was gaining strength. to the mercy of India. What is to become of the
Given his desperate position within Pakistan, the brave people of Kashmir who are fighting for their
source apprehended, Ayub Khan “might start the freedom? I cannot believe that it would be the
so-called ‘Jihad’ against India in the hope of intention of the United Nations to permit India to
consolidating his own position.” The Indians, the liquidate them and to consolidate its stranglehold
colonel suggested, “should therefore be prepared to over occupied Kashmir,” he wrote. The invasion by
meet such a situation”. He also warned that the “Azad Forces” led to massive retaliation by the
Pak-China relations were likely to deepen. These Indian military not only against Pakistan but also
reports caused grave apprehensions in New Delhi. within the state of Jammu and Kashmir. An intense
An unstable regime in Pakistan could create trouble military campaign was started to rid Kashmir of
in Kashmir, especially if there had been some secret outside elements as well as any local pro-Pakistani
arrangement between Pakistan and China. On July activists. Regular Pakistani military units also
24, 1963, Bhutto gave a long and fiery speech in the entered the Indian-administered Kashmir, citing
National Assembly and claimed that “an attack by Indian atrocities there and as a declaration of
India on Pakistan would involve the territorial support for the Kashmiri people. Concomitantly,
integrity and security of the largest State in Asia”. India launched a full scale attack on Pakistan’s
This strengthened suspicions in New Delhi that a western border near Lahore and Sialkot. The
secret pact actually existed between China and Pakistani authorities were not expecting this attack.
Pakistan. Pakistan immediately looked towards its allies,
particularly the US and Britain, for help but the
The Indians took the matter to the Americans,
State Department did not find it prudent to support
raising alarm over how a Pak-China alliance could
Pakistan. Ayub Khan invoked the assurances given
wreak havoc in Kashmir. The Americans, however,
by America in 1959, which made it incumbent on the
assured the Indians that they had been guaranteed
US to provide support to Pakistan in the event of a
by the Pakistanis that there was no secret deal
war but the American government refused to
between Pakistan and China. The American
entertain this plea and “did not accept Pakistani
assurances did little to assuage Indian concerns.
denials of infiltration across the ceasefire line”.
Over the course of the next year, relations between
Shortly thereafter the American government
India and Pakistan plummeted even further. In early
imposed a military embargo on both India and
1964, India redesignated the heads of state and
Pakistan. Pakistan vehemently protested against the
government in Jammu and Kashmir as “governor”
embargo. In repeated discussions with the American
and “chief minister” – instead of Sadr-e-Riasat and
ambassador to Pakistan as well as the British high
Prime Minister – and called for the hoisting of the
commissioner, Bhutto pleaded for a re-evaluation of
Indian flag on government buildings in the state
the policy. India, he argued, was still receiving aid
instead of the state’s own flag. In September that
from the Soviet Union whereas Pakistan was getting
year, Pakistan followed suit in its part of Kashmir by
no arms since it relied solely on weapons from its
replacing the Azad Kashmir flag at the President’s
Anglo-American allies. The embargo, thus,
House in Muzzafarabad with the Pakistani flag.
disproportionately affected Pakistan, greatly
Tensions burst forth in the summer of 1965 when weakening its position. But all his pleas fell on deaf
guerrilla fighters – hailed as “mujahideen” in the ears. Anglo-American indifference was not for want
Pakistani press – invaded Indian-controlled parts of of sympathy for the Pakistani case. Indeed, the
Kashmir. According to Indian sources, “5,000 armed September 6, 1965, attack on Lahore and Sialkot had
men, trained and supported by the Pakistani army convinced many in London and Washington that,
had been sent in across the cease-fire line to commit while Pakistan might have initiated the conflict, it
arson and sabotage, to strike at our security forces was Indian belligerence which had exacerbated it.
and to incite the local people to rise against the There was also some recognition that Pakistan
Government”. Pakistan vehemently denied having would need some guarantee regarding the resolution
designed the infiltration, arguing that the “Azad of the Kashmir issue for it to agree to a ceasefire.
Forces” which had invaded the Indian-controlled
The war, however, made it clear that India was far
part of Kashmir was an organic and indigenous
stronger militarily than Pakistan and was willing to
response to the Indian occupation. Pakistan also
hold onto Kashmir even at the cost of an indefinite
maintained that Pakistani military action in support
war of attrition. And important international players
of the “Azad Forces” was only an act of self-defence
knew this. On September 16, 1965, the British high
undertaken after India had violated the ceasefire line.
commissioner in New Delhi wrote to the
Commonwealth Relations Office in London asking between India and Pakistan is concocting without
for a reappraisal of British policy on Kashmir: “I feel any basis casus belli in order to commit aggression
it must be recognized that our historic policy of against India.” These protestations clearly suggested
holding the balance between India and Pakistan no that India could not afford a simultaneous conflict
longer accords with the facts: By her action in with China and Pakistan. On September 22, 1965,
August 1965, Pakistan in effect abandoned her Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri accepted
attempt to secure a political and diplomatic solution an offer by Soviet President Kosygin to broker a
of the Kashmir dispute in favour of a military ceasefire agreement between India and Pakistan.
solution. This has now probably failed. India appears
Dhaka, December 16, 1971 A defeated Amir
from here to be on the way to achieving substantial
Abdullah Niazi officially surrendered to his Indian
military superiority over Pakistan through the
counterpart General Aurora and in doing so
attrition of Pakistan armour and aircraft. If that
announced the end of Pakistani sovereignty over
assessment proves to be correct, I am convinced that
what had been East Pakistan since 1947. India’s
India would not submit to a political settlement at
victory was complete. Militarily, the Indian army
this stage which appeared to favour Pakistan’s
had enjoyed tremendous success and 93,000
claims.” After recognising India’s military superiority,
Pakistani soldiers and officers were now in its
he dwelt on the China connection. “If a political
custody. In the West, India had thwarted the
settlement enabled Kashmir to opt into Pakistan,
Pakistan Army’s initial advances in Chhamb and
Pakistan and China would then have a common land
other parts of Kashmir and, instead, occupied
frontier of several hundred miles accessible by a
several territories in Pakistan including Thar. On the
main motor road within easy striking distance of one
political front, India successfully dealt a debilitating
of the most thriving industrial areas of India, the
blow to the religious basis of Pakistan as more
Punjab … I do not believe that India could now
Muslims lived in what became Bangladesh than in
accept the self-determination of an area which
what remained of Pakistan. Internationally, too,
permitted Pakistan and China to develop direct land
New Delhi was hailed as a champion of democracy,
communications through Ladakh. Nor, as I see it,
freedom and humanitarianism that helped
would this be in the interests of the West.” The
Bangladeshis get rid of an oppressive state. The
prospects of a close Pak-China collaboration right
cataclysmic events of 1971 were obviously incredibly
next to India caused considerable anxiety within the
significant. Equally noteworthy is what did not
Soviet Union too. Moscow, indeed, pressurised New
happen. India, for instance, did not try to take over
Delhi to accept a ceasefire with Pakistan by raising
the Pakistani-controlled part of Kashmir. The reason
the spectre of Chinese aggression. But its Western
was American pressure on the Indian government to
allies made it clear to Pakistani interlocutors that
refrain from taking the war into Kashmir. The
any secret Pak-China endeavour would lose Pakistan
Americans argued that any Indian action in Kashmir
all Western support for its stance on Kashmir. The
could precipitate a much larger war involving China,
Pakistani government was, therefore, keen to dispel
the US and the Soviet Union. D P Dhar, chairman of
such misgivings. After meeting Ayub Khan, Iran’s
India’s Policy and Planning committee and a key
ambassador to Pakistan told his British counterpart
part of India’s diplomatic endeavours before, during
that the Field Marshal contemptuously dismissed
and after the 1971 war, admitted that the American
the “possibility of Chinese intervention in [an]
intervention had prevented India from making
Indo-Pakistan war”. The Iranian ambassador quoted
territorial gains on the western front. Washington,
the Pakistani president as saying that “Pakistan
however, did nothing beyond making attempts to
would never be [a] Chinese satellite” even though it
avoid a wider conflagration about Kashmir. It did
was “prepared if necessary to be [a] United States
not show any interests in intervening during the war
Satellite”. Ayub Khan also assured the Americans
on Pakistan’s behalf. China, too, stayed out of the
and the British that he had unofficially asked the
war. Bhutto, then serving as the president of the
Chinese to show restraint on the China-India
truncated Pakistan, made a frank and candid
border.
admission of his country’s severely weakened
On September 19, 1965, however, China issued an position in a speech to the parliament on July 14,
official message to India, demanding that the, 1972: “Because circumstances were really impossible,
“Indian Government dismantle all its military works India had all the cards in her hands and India is not
for aggression on the Chinese side of the a generous negotiator. They had Pakistani territory.
China-Sikkim boundary or on [the] boundary itself They had East Pakistan separated from Pakistan.
before midnight of September 22, 1965.” China also They had 93,000 prisoners of war. They had the
demanded the return of four kidnapped Tibetan threat of war trials and so they were sitting pretty, as
inhabitants, 800 sheep and 51 yaks alleged to be the saying goes. What did we have in our hands?
captured by Indian troops. The Indians responded to Riots, labour troubles and all sorts of internal
these Chinese demands with deep agitation. “…[T]he dissensions … It was a nation completely
Government of India cannot but observe that China demoralized, shattered.”
taking advantage of the present unfortunate conflict
The cataclysmic events of 1971 were obviously the Indians that the ceasefire line should be called
incredibly significant. Equally noteworthy is what did something short of an internationally recognised
not happen. India, for instance, did not try to take border. The final agreement thus read: “In Jammu
over the Pakistani-controlled part of Kashmir. The and Kashmir, the line of control resulting from the
reason was American pressure on the Indian cease-fire of December 17, 1971 shall be respected by
government to refrain from taking the war into both sides without prejudice to the recognized
Kashmir. position of either side. Neither side shall seek to
alter it unilaterally, irrespective of mutual
He was speaking immediately after the signing of
differences and legal interpretations. Both sides
the Simla Agreement. Earlier that year, Dhar met
further undertake to refrain from the threat or the
with the French foreign minister who asked him
use of force in violation of this Line.”
about the chance of a durable peace between India
and Pakistan. Dhar was unequivocal. He said India The Simla Agreement was transformative in two
wanted to sign a definitive peace agreement with respects. Firstly, it laid down bilateralism as a
Pakistan on all issues, including Kashmir. He made principle underpinning all future negotiations
it clear to the French minister that “the package of between Islamabad and New Delhi. India has always
peace related to overall settlement of all elements of resisted interference and mediation by other states
tension and friction and that included Kashmir also”. as well as by the UN when it comes to discussing
Three days later, Dhar reiterated the centrality of and settling disputes with Pakistan. On the other
the Kashmir issue to an enduring Pak-India peace hand, Pakistan would often ask the international
during his meeting with Soviet President Kosygin. community to intervene. With the Simla Agreement,
“…[I]n Kashmir we are faced with the question Pakistani efforts to involve the rest of the world in
whether we leave this artificial line where trouble dispute resolution in the subcontinent would have
breaks out frequently or whether we should address only weak moral and legal authority, if any at all. At
ourselves to this problem also once and for all. Even least this is how India has been interpreting the
if all other issues between the two countries are agreement since 1972. Secondly, the agreement
resolved but the Kashmir issue is allowed to fester prevented both India and Pakistan from interfering
like an open wound, there can be no hope of in the territories owned or controlled by the other
permanent peace in the sub-continent,” Dhar said. side. Even though the Simla Agreement was put into
effect, Dhar was not excited about its ability to
The war had drastically changed the power
maintain peace in the long run. What made him
dynamics in the subcontinent and Indian leaders
particularly pessimistic was the ever-present
were eager to take advantage of the changes. “Our
possibility of a military coup in Pakistan. Indeed,
presentation (on Kashmir) … should bear the stamp
just five years after the agreement, Pakistan
of our new prestige and authority,” noted Dhar after
experienced its third coup, inaugurating the reign of
his visits to France and the Soviet Union in February
the most protracted and arguably the most
1972. Indian diplomats insisted that the 1971 war
repressive martial law regime in the country —
rendered the 1949 ceasefire line in Kashmir obsolete.
under General Ziaul Haq. Over the next decade,
They knew they could make a beleaguered Pakistan
Pakistan became a crucial player in the America-led
agree to the new ceasefire line as a secure, inviolable
proxy war in Afghanistan. The Pakistan Army
international border. Pakistan, too, was acutely
fostered, facilitated and trained Afghan mujahideen
aware of the asymmetry of power. When the
not just militarily but also ideologically. A
negotiation started on June 28, 1972, Pakistan’s
generation of military officers and soldiers, working
newly appointed Foreign Minister Aziz Ahmed
with these mujahideen, came of age espousing ideas
insisted that the peace agreement must demonstrate
for a global jihad in general and the one in Kashmir
parity between the two sides. For any agreement to
in particular. It was during this era that the Zia
be accepted by the Pakistani public, he repeatedly
regime encouraged the massive growth of Islamic
argued, Pakistan must avoid giving the impression
fundamentalist organisations within Pakistan and
that it capitulated on the issue on Kashmir. But the
actively supported the emergence of militant outfits
Indian delegation was unflinching in its demand
for guerrilla warfare in Afghanistan and Kashmir. In
that the ceasefire line be turned into an
1989, the Red Army began its historic retreat from
international border and Pakistan cease insisting on
Afghanistan, initiating the end of the Soviet Union
the Kashmiris’ right to self-determination. Indira
and the Cold War. Emboldened by this victory, the
Gandhi and Dhar, who were heading the Indian
Pakistani establishment cast its eyes on Kashmir, yet
delegation, implied that there could be no
again.
movement on the prisoners of war and the
withdrawal of Indian troops from parts of Pakistan’s Srinagar, summer of 1989 The sound of gunfire
mainland unless Pakistan accepted the ceasefire line and explosives reverberated in the valley mingled
as the new border in Kashmir. With his “back with vociferous chants of ‘azadi’. Young men, their
against the wall,” Bhutto had little choice but to faces often covered, carried Kalashnikov rifles and
acquiesce, though he was successful in convincing roamed the streets of Indian-administered Kashmir,

demanding freedom from New Delhi. The roots of Kashmir to the resolution of other territorial
the 1989 insurgency in Kashmir lay in a highly conflicts such as Siachen and Sir Creek. The Indian
problematic history of electoral politics of Jammu reply was dismissive: “India categorically states once
and Kashmir. In 1987, Farooq Abdullah, son of again that Jammu and Kashmir is an integral part of
Sheikh Abdullah and the leader of the National India. The question or the need for conducting any
Conference, struck a deal with the Indian plebiscite in any part of India including in the State
government led by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi for of Jammu and Kashmir simply does not arise.” The
the resumption of the electoral process in Indian side also claimed that Pakistan had only
Indian-administered Kashmir. The election that restated its preconditions for talks through the
followed resulted in an easy victory for Farooq non-papers. The stalemate thus persisted. In 1996,
Abdullah. The only problem was that a large part of Farooq Abdullah once again formed a government in
the Kashmiri population deemed the voting to be Indian-administered Kashmir with support from
rigged. By 1989, a huge number of Kashmiri youth Congress. Meanwhile in Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto’s
had risen in anger to protest against what they second government was toppled and Nawaz Sharif
considered an unrepresentative government. Many became prime minister, for the second time, in 1997.
of them soon joined an insurgency against the Amid all these changes, relations between India and
Indian state. India was quick to respond, deposing Pakistan were following what by then had become a
Farooq Abdullah, installing Jagmohan Malhotra as familiar pattern: talk of peace ran parallel to talk of
governor and deploying 700,000 military and war. This pattern continued when Sharif met his
paramilitary soldiers in Kashmir to counter the Indian counterpart Atal Bihari Vajpayee in
insurgency. The insurgents received immense September 1998 in New York on the sidelines of the
support – militarily, diplomatically and financially – UNGA. The two sides reaffirmed their commitment
from Pakistan. The Pakistani military, particularly to bilateral dialogue during the meeting. But when, a
the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), was eager to few days later, Sharif supported Kashmir’s right to
take advantage of anti-Indian sentiments within independence during his address at the UN, his
Kashmir. Jihadi outfits, including the remarks elicited strong objections from New Delhi.
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LT), Hizbul Mujahideen and
His address marked two critical changes. For the
Harkat-ul-Ansar, were propped up to recruit young
first time, Pakistan supported a “third option” — of
Kashmiri men, bring them into Pakistan for training
letting Kashmir become an independent state if it
and then send them back into Indian-administered
did not want to remain a part of India but also did
Kashmir.
not want to join Pakistan. As late as 1995, Benazir
A generation of military officers and soldiers, working Bhutto had rejected the third option, arguing that “it
with these mujahideen, came of age espousing ideas would mean the balkanization of both India and
for a global jihad in general and the one in Kashmir in Pakistan, which was not in their interest”. Secondly,
particular. both India and Pakistan became nuclear states by
1998 and their nuclear capabilities meant that the
These developments were taking place as democracy
next war could lead to an unprecedented degree of
returned to Pakistan in 1988 after an 11-year hiatus
destruction. The age-old question of Kashmir thus
and Benazir Bhutto became prime minister. But
operated in a drastically new paradigm – to put it in
even though she headed a civilian government, the
the words of some American pundits and officials,
military establishment tenaciously held on to its
the dispute over Kashmir became the world’s most
influence, particularly on subjects such as Kashmir.
dangerous nuclear flashpoint. It was only after many
Managing relations with India, thus, became a
years that India was willing to come back to the
reflection of the conflicting tendencies in Pakistani
negotiating table. In a historic moment, Prime
politics. While the civilian government claimed to
Minister Vajpayee travelled by bus to Lahore. The
work towards a diplomatic solution to the Kashmir
world applauded what appeared to be a significant
issue, the military ardently supported jihadist outfits.
breakthrough. But in the ultimate manifestation of
This was not lost on the Indian government which
Pakistan’s paradoxical and often parallel policies, the
rightly considered Benazir Bhutto’s government
Pakistan Army started sending troops into Kargil on
vulnerable to pressure from the military. It was only
the Indian-controlled side of Kashmir, leading to the
in January 1994 that the two sides finally agreed to
fourth India-Pakistan war. The Kargil War was
resume their formal dialogue process as Pakistan’s
envisioned as a covert operation; which is why
foreign secretary presented a series of non-papers –
Pakistan initially stressed that an Indian assault was
so called because the positions stated therein are not
aimed at the Kashmiri mujahideen and that Pakistan
considered official – to his Indian counterpart. These
had sent its troops to the border only in self-defence.
non-papers proposed “measures required to create a
But the massive retaliation by India – known as
propitious climate for peaceful resolution of the
Operation Vijay – compelled Pakistan to seek
Jammu and Kashmir dispute and other issues”.
American mediation for an immediate ceasefire.
These measures ranged from finding the modalities
This showed India that it could neutralise a military
for the holding of a plebiscite in Jammu and

attack by Pakistan, the latter’s nuclear capability had so meticulously constructed over the past
notwithstanding. decade and a half for an insurgency in Kashmir.
Murmurs in 2005 and 2006 within Islamabad’s most
Washington, February 2003 The American
powerful circles suggested that Musharraf was
Secretary of State Colin Powell did not seem happy.
indeed considering that. While active infiltration
In a meeting with Khurshid Kasuri, Pakistan’s
into Kashmir decreased during and after those years,
foreign minister, he expressed concern over the
terrorist incidents elsewhere in India, such as the
continued infiltration across the Line of Control
serial train bombings in Mumbai in July 2006, still
(LoC) in Kashmir. Summer was around the corner
haunted the bilateral negotiations. The terrorist
which would make movement across the LoC easier,
attack which claimed over 200 lives led to severe
pushing Pakistan and India towards the brink of
criticism of Pakistan, and public support in India for
another violent conflict. “We would have a real mess
the dialogue process plummeted rapidly. Pakistan’s
on our hands,” Powell told Kasuri. India and
official denial of any involvement in the attack as
Pakistan, he insisted, would have to take “difficult
well as Musharraf’s insistence that Pakistan was no
decisions” were they to avoid war. The American
longer supporting terrorist outfits creating trouble
concerns were well founded. Pakistan and India had
in India did little to improve the situation.
been on the precipice of a war in 2001/2002
following a terrorist attack on the Indian parliament. This is how an official Indian spokesman summed
While the US had strengthened its relationship with up the situation: “If Pakistan really wants to
India tremendously over the 1990s, a post-9/11 convince the people of India that we are working
Pakistan was once again required as a key strategic against terrorism then it can take some action
ally in the War on Terror. America’s strategic immediately. For example, the self-styled chief of
interests in South Asia and the Middle East dictated Hizbul Mujahideen, Syed Salahuddin … should be
that Washington did whatever it could to keep both arrested and handed over to India.” The spokesman
India and Pakistan on its side and stop them from also called for an action against Jamaatud Dawa.
engaging in a war. Condoleezza Rice, Powell’s “Instead of their saying that Jamaat-ud-Dawa is
successor as the Secretary of State, informed Kasuri being kept under close watch, the organization
that “American regional interests were linked to should be banned and its leader should be arrested.”
stability in South Asia”. In his recently published A few months later, Musharraf met Singh in Havana
memoir, Neither a Hawk Nor a Dove, Kasuri credits and the two sides agreed to set up a joint antiterror
the Bush administration with facilitating the peace mechanism. In December 2006, Musharraf
process between India and Pakistan. Pressure from announced something unprecedented. Pakistan, he
the US, Kasuri reveals, compelled President Pervez said, was willing to give up its claim on Kashmir
Musharraf to reign in a hawkish policy towards India should India agree to his four-point proposal which
and create conditions conducive for something suggested that: (a) borders between Pakistan and
extraordinary — a chance to settle the Kashmir India remain the same; (b) Kashmir be given
dispute for all times to come. Beginning in June 2004, autonomy but not independence; (c) a steady
India and Pakistan resumed their Composite withdrawal of troops take place from both Indian
Dialogue — a process of negotiations that requires and Pakistani administered parts of Kashmir and (d)
simultaneous progress on eight contentious subjects a joint supervision mechanism be set up with
including Kashmir, terrorism, water sharing, nuclear representatives from India, Pakistan and Kashmir to
weapons and territorial disputes. In September that ensure a smooth implementation of these proposals.
year, the two sides decided to set up a mechanism Pakistan said it was even ready to take back its
for holding backchannel negotiations on Kashmir. demand for a plebiscite if India was willing to
Over the next couple of years, serving and former negotiate on the proposals. It remains a matter of
diplomats and officials from the two countries conjecture if Musharraf was truly committed to a
would hold secret meetings to come up with a peace deal but the undemocratic nature of his
formula for a negotiated settlement of the conflict. regime allowed him to exhibit flexibility that a
Publically, too, the two governments sought to civilian government could not afford. At one stage, a
mend relations and appeared happy with the bilateral agreement appeared extremely possible.
progress they were making. Manmohan Singh, who “We were down to the commas,” Kasuri later told
became India’s prime minister in 2004, however, Steve Coll of the New York Times. While Pakistan
made it clear to Pakistan that the border in Kashmir insisted it had to take into account Kashmiris’
could not be redrawn. It could be allowed to become sentiment, the conspicuous absence of any Kashmiri
“irrelevant”, though, by letting the Kashmiris travel representation in the process was hard to miss. After
across it with ease. This eventually led to the historic 60 years of going through political suppression,
opening of the Muzaffarabad-Srinagar Bus Service in geographical and social divisions and wars, the
April 2005. Meanwhile, local and foreign Kashmiris were still largely absent from a
interlocutors agreed that Pakistan’s overtures for negotiation table laid down to decide their destiny.
peace could only amount to something if its It would appear that Pakistan and India were on the
establishment agreed to unravel the infrastructure it precipice of a “deal on Kashmir” when the peace
process was thwarted by the political turmoil that How did Article 35A come about? A 1927 order by
engulfed Pakistan in 2007 and continued well into the administration of the IoK gave the state's
2008. On November 26, 2008, 10 young men subjects exclusive hereditary rights. Two months
launched a massive terrorist attack in Mumbai, after India won independence from British rule in
leading to the killing of 164 people over a period of August 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh, the then-ruler of
three days. India later claimed the attackers were IoK, signed a Treaty of Accession for the state to join
members of the Pakistan-based LT. The attack the rest of the union, formalised in Article 370 of the
would extinguish the prospects of an India-Pakistan Indian constitution. Further discussions culminated
peace for many years to come. in the 1952 Delhi Agreement, a presidential order
that extended Indian citizenship to the residents of
New Delhi, August 5, 2019: India's government
the state but left the maharaja's privileges for
revoked the special constitutional status of
residents intact.
Indian-occupied Kashmir (IoK), amid a heavy
security crackdown in the disputed region. The How can it be repealed? Article 370(3) of the
constitutional provision forbids Indians from Indian constitution permits revocation of the law by
outside the region from buying land or permanently presidential order. However, such an order must be
settling in the Muslim-majority territory. introduced before the state's Constituent Assembly.
Since that body was dissolved in 1957, experts have
The Hindu nationalist-led government of Indian
different views on the abrogation of the law, with
Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Monday proposed
some believing it needs approval by state lawmakers
revoking Article 370 of India's constitution, which
and others seeing a presidential order as sufficient.
confers special rights to permanent residents of IoK.
The validity of Article 35A has been brought before
Modi's home minister, Amit Shah, said the
India's Supreme Court. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
long-standing rights that preceded India's
members have said that if the court upholds the
independence from British rule in 1947 were
provision, the Modi-led government will revoke it by
"temporary" and that the government would abolish
presidential order.
them. Critics of such a measure say that in doing
away with Article 370, the government hopes to New Delhi, October 31, 2019: India’s government
change IoK's Muslim-majority demographics by will formally break up the occupied Jammu and
allowing in a flood of new Hindu residents. To tackle Kashmir state into two federal territories, as part of
any law and order situation, the region has been put a controversial move to tighten its grip over the
under a heavy security cover, with prohibitory disputed region that is at the heart of more than 70
orders in place against public assembly. The Indian years of hostility with Pakistan. The Himalayan
government placed under house arrest the former state comprises the Muslim-majority Kashmir
chief ministers of IoK, Omar Abdullah & Mehbooba Valley, which is the bone of contention, the
Mufti and imposed curfew-like restrictions in the Hindu-dominated Jammu region and the remote,
restive region with internet and phone services cut. high altitude Buddhist enclave of Ladakh. Under
Shah proposed revoking Article 370 amid an uproar the new arrangement, Jammu and Kashmir will be
in India's upper house of parliament and was clubbed as one union territory with some 12.2
expected to address the lower house on the issue million people and Ladakh, with a population of
later on August 5, 2019. less than 300,000, spun off into another, both ruled
directly by Delhi. The Kashmir valley region of the
What is IoK's special status? Article 35A of India's
India-held state is one of the world’s most
constitution permits the local legislature in IoK to
militarised regions, where local fighters have waged
define permanent residents of the region. The article
a decades-long campaign against Indian rule.
came into being in 1954 by a presidential order
under the constitution's Article 370, which grants It has long been one of the world’s most dangerous
special autonomous status to IoK. Article 35A flashpoints, with nuclear-armed Pakistan and India
forbids Indians from outside the state from both claiming it. In February 2019, the two
permanently settling, buying land, holding local countries nearly went to war, after a suicide attack
government jobs or winning education scholarships in India-held Kashmir killed 40 paramilitary troops.
in the region. The article, referred to as the India sent warplanes into Pakistan, which then
Permanent Residents Law, also bars female residents mounted a counterattack, and an Indian pilot was
of IoK from property rights in the event that they shot down and captured in the ensuing skirmish.
marry a person from outside the state. The provision China and India, meanwhile, contest an ill-defined
also extends to such women's children. While border in the Ladakh region, where troops from
Article 35A has remained unchanged, some aspects both sides have occasionally confronted each other.
of Article 370 have been diluted over the decades. In 1962, India lost a short but bloody war with
Critics of Article 35A say the provision did not have China, fought in Ladakh and eastern Arunachal
parliamentary sanction, and that it discriminates Pradesh state. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s
against women. ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) had long wanted
to do away with the special provisions that had
given Jammu and Kashmir its own constitution, a policing and public order, effectively ceding control
flag and the right to frame its own laws. The of the entire security apparatus to New Delhi.
provisions were granted to the occupied state via
the Indian Constitution’s Article 370, after Jammu Pakistan’s Kashmir strategy
and Kashmir’s Hindu king agreed to accede to India Modi’s abrupt and illegal move to annexe occupied
in 1947. Jammu & Kashmir was a moment of truth for
What happens now? On Aug 5, 2019, Narendra Pakistan, the Kashmiri people, India’s ‘secularists”
Modi’s government revoked Article 370 and other and the world community. In Pakistan, those who
related provisions, passing a new law to reorganise believed that a compromise on Jammu & Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir. Simultaneously, it locked the would end Indian hostility and promote
region down, detaining thousands of people, cooperation have had their eyes opened. It is now
imposing movement restrictions and enforcing a evident that for Modi and his BJP-RSS cohort, a
communications blackout. The state of around 12.5 ‘final solution’ for Kashmir (through demographic
million people will be bifurcated into two transformation) and hostility towards Pakistan are
federally-administered territories on Oct 31, with not merely electoral artifices; they are part of their
the Jammu region and Kashmir valley comprising supremacist vision of a Hindu India that is to be
one and the Buddhist-enclave of Ladakh forming ruthlessly realised. Pakistan has had to adjust
the other. Headed by a lieutenant governor quickly to this ugly reality. Prime Minister Imran
appointed by India, the new Union Territory of Khan believes his earlier offers of a dialogue, and
Jammu and Kashmir will have its own elected Pakistan’s self-restraint in last February’s military
assembly with a five-year term, but most powers exchanges, were seen by Modi as signs of weakness
will be retained by New Delhi. Ladakh, a windswept and appeasement. He is now committed to
and high-altitude desert region that borders China, advocating the Kashmir cause globally as the
will be under the federal government’s direct Kashmiris’ “ambassador”. Pakistan’s early
administration with its own lieutenant governor. diplomatic response was standard: recall of
Culturally, religiously and ethnically different from ambassadors, termination of trade and approaches
the Kashmir Valley, many Ladakhis have long to the UN and human rights organisations. The
wanted their land to be recognised as a separate initiative to raise Kashmir in the UN Security
union territory. Ladakh’s two districts — including Council was bold. The UNSC’s “informal
Kargil, where India and Pakistan fought a short war consultations” on Jammu & Kashmir, after an
in 1999 — were already run by “hill councils”, interregnum of 50 years, agreed by all 15 members,
giving them more autonomy than other parts of represent a clear diplomatic victory for Pakistan.
Jammu and Kashmir state. Ladakh will separate This affirmed that Jammu & Kashmir is disputed
entirely, with some hoping it will bring more territory and not India’s internal matter. The
development to the remote province. And on cue, council, now actively seized of the issue, will take
the federal government this month said it would cognisance of the ongoing developments in
open up parts of Ladakh’s Siachen glacier, the India-held Kashmir.
world’s highest battlefield, to tourists. Strong expressions of concern have also emanated
Post-separation, occupied Jammu and Kashmir will from the UN and the global human rights
have five representatives in India’s lower house, organisations (except, strangely, from Pakistani
while Ladakh will send one representative to the organisations) regarding India’s round-the-clock
parliament in New Delhi. curfew, communications and news blackout,
What does it really mean? On the ground, the arbitrary arrests and violent and lethal suppression
reorganisation will significantly dilute the ability of of protests. Islamabad has announced that
Jammu and Kashmir representatives to govern their Pakistan’s foreign minister will raise India’s human
own affairs by making 106 federal laws applicable to rights violations in the Human Rights Council that
the region, including India’s penal code. More than convenes in Geneva in early September. Prime
150 laws made by the state government will also be Minister Imran Khan has declared that he will
repealed, and amendments made in seven other strongly propound Kashmir’s cause in his address
laws. Among those will be provisions that will lift to the UN General Assembly (reportedly on Sept 27)
prohibitions on leasing land to persons who are not and in his meetings with other heads of state and
permanent residents of Jammu and Kashmir. There government. Sadly, while India’s so-called free
has been apprehension, particularly in the press has rallied around Modi’s illegal move to
Muslim-majority Kashmir Valley, that the integrate occupied Kashmir, and covered up the
scrapping of Article 370 will lead to an influx of massive repression underway there, sections of the
outsiders buying land and settling there. The Pakistani media have already begun to carp about
reorganisation specifies that the Jammu and the PTI government’s alleged failure to craft a
Kashmir assembly will not be able to make laws on Kashmir policy and secure external support,
ignoring what has been achieved and the
deleterious impact of their critique on the morale
of the oppressed Kashmiris. There is no doubt that community to intervene in the dispute and
the Arab and Islamic world is weak and divided. promote a solution will depend on Pakistan’s
The OIC’s voice has been muted, not only on persistence in propagating the Kashmir cause in the
Kashmir, but even on Palestine, the raison d’être face of Indian threats and coercion and, even more
for its creation. Its unity and influence cannot be importantly, on the resilience and strength of the
revived instantly by Pakistan. Kashmiri people’s freedom struggle. The world will
intervene if ethnic cleansing and genocide occurs
Yet, Kuwait was supportive in the UNSC; Saudi
in Kashmir or if there is a real danger of another
Arabia has issued a statement of concern; as has
Pakistan-India war. Confronted by Modi’s attempt
the OIC Secretariat and the Islamic Human Rights
to eliminate Kashmir’s identity and autonomy, the
Council. Hopefully, the OIC will eventually come
people of occupied Jammu & Kashmir have no
together to defend the fundamental rights of the
choice but to resist. This will now be a universal
Kashmiris. More important will be the positions of
sentiment among Kashmiris. There will be few
the major powers, especially the five permanent
fence sitters or Indian collaborators. There is also
members of the UNSC. Geopolitics will play an
likely to be greater support among the Kashmiris
important part in determining their positions. So
for armed resistance. Militant organisations,
far, China has declared its support for Pakistan’s
especially indigenous groups like Hizbul
position. Pakistan’s strategy will have to build on
Mujahideen, rather than the Hurriyet’s political
this critical support. Russia will walk a fine line
leadership, will lead the new struggle. Pakistan will
between its traditional relationship with India and
need to adopt a clear and politically defensible
its new strategic partnership with China and, by
position on the Kashmiri freedom struggle. On the
extension, with Pakistan. The US will use India’s
one hand, it must propagate the legitimacy of the
self-created vulnerability on Kashmir to keep it in
struggle on the basis of international law and the
line, as it flirts with Pakistan to get the Afghan deal
numerous UN resolutions. On the other hand,
done with the Taliban. (Trump’s mediation offer
Islamabad will need to distance itself from
was a non-starter and should not divert Pakistan’s
proscribed terrorist organisations that may enter
attention.) France is desperate to replace Russia as
the anticipated fray in occupied Jammu & Kashmir.
India’s main arms supplier and will continue to act
Ultimately, if India confronts a Kashmiri
as India’s surrogate in the UNSC. The UK may be
insurgency, a resilient Pakistan, international
sympathetic on human rights issues but, like many
pressure and an impaired economy, it may agree to
others, will take refuge in the impotent advocacy of
negotiate a mutually acceptable settlement with
‘bilateral’ Pakistan-India talks on the Kashmir
Pakistan and the Kashmiris. But the Hindu fascists
dispute.
may choose not to compromise. Bleeding in
While building its strategy with China’s support, occupied Kashmir, they are likely provoke another
Pakistan would also need to secure US war with Pakistan, bringing Armageddon to South
acquiescence for its Kashmir objectives. For this Asia and much of the world.
purpose, Islamabad can use the leverage provided
by its facilitation of the US-Taliban negotiations.
France will need to be neutralised by stronger
diplomatic and other measures. The compulsion for
the Security Council and the international

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