2019-36-0321

The impacts of Diesel cycle engines on the operating costs of the Cessna
172 Skyhawk and JT-A aircraft.
Samuel Cunha Diniz, Eduardo Henrique de Assis Coelho, Gabriel Rodrigues de Oliveira,
Lucas de Cardoso Oliveira, Samuel Renan Costa Morais, Victor Britto Vasques and Luiz
Henrique Jorge Machado
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais

Abstract Martins [3], John Barber first came with his patented gas turbine in
1791, but it was not until 1794 that Robert Street patented the first
piston engine. In 1805, Isaac de Rivaz manufactured the first gas-
Diesel engines have been on the aeronautical market for a long time,
powered piston engine coupled in a vehicle.
but despite this fact, there are very few studies showing the potential
cost savings of using this type of technology. The goal of this paper is
to find out whether or not it is advantageous to use an Otto or Diesel
cycle engine on general aviation light aircraft. Surely, both of them
have pros and cons, but the possibility of using Jet A-1 (kerosene) as
fuel gives the Diesel engine a clear advantage in a market like Brazil,
where the price of the regular piston fuel (AvGas) keeps rising to
astonishing values. Throughout this paper, a detailed study of the fixed
and variable costs of two similar aircraft, both Cessnas 172 equipped
with Otto and Diesel cycle engines is conducted, comparing fuel
consumption, performance levels, and other factors. Even though the
latter engine has a higher fixed operating cost, the advantages found in
this study put the Diesel motor a step forward of its competitor,
whether concerning the flight hour cost or performance.

Introduction
From the first documented flights of aircraft to date, the conventional
(Otto cycle) engine is the most commonly used option for small
airplanes in general aviation. Based on this fact it is possible to affirm
that much is known about the peculiarities and characteristics of this
engine. According to Nobrega [1], the aviation segment that makes use
of these engines is limited by the dependence of few alternatives when
it comes to this type of motor.

This stagnation in the market of conventional engines opened new
doors and alternatives for the propellants of this category. The main
one is the Diesel cycle engine. According to Pope [2], Diesel cycle
engines offer attractive economic advantages, such as low fuel
consumption and the possibility of using aviation kerosene as fuel,
which in Brazil costs less than traditional gasoline.
The Cessna C-172 Skyhawk and C-172 JT-A aircraft have the same
structural design and aerodynamic characteristics; however, they are
powered by different engines. The first with a conventional Otto cycle
engine and the second with a Diesel cycle engine, powered by Jet A-
1. The purpose of this article is to analyze the use of Diesel cycle
engines from the operational costs perspective of a Brazilian general
aviation aircraft and to establish differences in performance and
maintenance of the Cessna C-172 aircraft equipped with two different
engines.
Aircraft and its engines
Figure 1: First gas engine
An engine is an apparatus capable of transforming other forms of
energy into mechanical energy [3]. Currently, there are several types
of engines such as hydraulic turbines, wind turbines, external
combustion engines, internal combustion engines, compressed air
motors, electric motors, hybrid motors, among others that have been
developed with the advancement of technology.
Piston engine: Otto and Diesel
In recent years general aviation, which has been dominated by
conventional gasoline engines for decades, is being revitalized by a
new generation of diesel engines that promise to revolutionize the
industry. Although the technology of diesel engines originates in the
year of 1892, according to Sullivan [4] the patent from Rudolf
Christian Karl`s Diesel engine with an innovative compression ignition
system was not successful in the conservative aviation industry. There

The search for engine development dates back many years before the
first flight of Santos Dumont or the Wright brothers. According to

Page 1 of 10
were some attempts to implement diesel engines in aircraft, but this
alternative so far did not show satisfactory results.
The Diamond DA-62 and Cessna Skyhawk JT-A aircraft are beginning
to be marketed with diesel-powered engines [5] certified to work with
aviation kerosene, which was previously unique to jet aircraft. Retrofit
options are also emerging (conversion of aircraft from gasoline to
diesel engines).
Figure 2: Diamond DA-62
Diesel cycle technology promises better performance, reliability, fuel
consumption and reduced operating costs [6]. These developments
encouraged the development of this work, which seeks to evaluate the
impacts of these types of engines on the operational costs of the Cessna
C-172 Skyhawk and JT-A aircraft in the context of Brazilian general
aviation.
Figure 3: Cessna 172 JT-A
Otto cycle versus Diesel cycle
Before discussing the advantages and disadvantages of using either
type of engine, it is necessary to understand the concept of
compression ratio to establish a relationship between the gas
transformations and the differences between the operating principles
of Otto cycle engines and Diesel cycle. An engine compression ratio is
Page 2 of 10
a dimensionless number that represents the ratio of cylinder volume
when the piston is in the Top Dead Center (TDC) and the Bottom Dead
Center (BDC). Therefore, it is a number that represents how much the
motor compresses the air inside the cylinders [7].
The compression ratio of gasoline engines varies from 10:1 to 14:1,
while for diesel engines this value ranges from 18: 1 to 23:1 [8]. An
engine with a higher compression ratio provides more torque, and a
higher torque permits the use of a larger propeller, thus generating
more traction.
The most striking difference, according to Wilson [9], is the ignition
system itself. The compression ratio in diesel engines is so high that
the air confined in the cylinder becomes hot enough that any fuel
inserted is ignited instantly.
Besides, during the intake phase of an Otto cycle engine air is mixed
with the fuel. Thereafter, the mixture is compressed adiabatically
(without heat exchange within the environment). When the mixture is
compressed, ignition occurs by the spark produced by the spark plug,
which occurs explosively, increasing the pressure and temperature. In
this way, there may be losses in the air suction process that passes
through the throttle, giving greater efficiency to the diesel engine that
does not have this device [9].
Still, in the quest for improved and better efficiency in the use of diesel
engines, according to Wilson [9] the systems of injection in diesel
engines were purely mechanical, using the inputs for their operation
from the rotation of the engine and the power desired by the pilot.
Today, mechanical injection systems have been replaced by
sophisticated electronic injectors and a high-pressure pump (up to
40,000 psi) that provide improved power combustion, higher fuel
economy, and reduced emissions. As a result, modern diesel engines
are easy to start, produce fewer particles, are quieter and produce
greater power.
The operating costs of Brazilian general aviation
piston engine aircraft
According to Alves [10], among the 500 cities served in Brazil by
regular air transport companies, less than 100 are serviced by the main
airlines operating in the country. This data presents the gap filled by
the Brazilian regional aviation market. For Leurquin [11] regional
aviation depends on a density economy, which means that profit
concentration is needed to be able to develop it.
Although regional aviation being of great importance in Brazil
spreading regular aviation range, most small and undeveloped cities in
this country are not attended by any airline transportation companies,
nor mains or regional ones, due to the economic reasons mentioned.
The Brazilian general aviation segment composed of twin or single-
engine has been filling this gap for a long time, being of great
importance to the country. This aviation sector is capable of quickly
connecting small cities that are not attended by the airline
transportation companies, to big cities providing a link between local
economies. The capability offered by small general aviation planes
attracts all kinds of businessmen, from industry to agribusiness.
The flexibility of this kind of flight is due to the ability to provide
personalized service on demand. The efficiency is primarily related to
the time spent, considerably lower than other modes of regional
transport. With the possibility of private flights with specific demands,
this aviation sector attracts its consumers by providing comfort and maximum takeoff weight, length of stay and origin/destination of the
privacy. flight.

The aircraft operated by the presented public, as well as those used in Figure 4 shows the fares charged for general aviation. [13]
instruction flights, crop dusting, aeromedical transport, and police
aviation, are submitted to general aviation regulations: the RBAC 91
in Brazil or FAR 91 in the USA. This document does not rule regular
transportation, air taxi, charter flights, and military.

Comparing the standards of general aviation regulation (RBAC 91 or

FAR 91), airline transportation (RBAC 121 or FAR 21) and air taxi
(RBAC 135 or FAR 135), it is clear that general aviation aircraft
benefit from less bureaucratization, what gives general aviation one of
its most important advantages: flexibility.

To compare the impact of Diesel cycle engines on the operational cost

of general aviation aircraft against traditional powerplant options, it is
important to make a detailed analysis of all costs involving general
aviation aircraft operations.
For this article, the definition of cost is the relation between the hourly
cost of the aircraft and its work capacity. Consequently, the operational
costs can be considered any expenses that the owner or operator must
incur to keep and operate the aircraft, ensuring its airworthiness.
Figure 4. Aviation fees
Fee values are defined according to the airport category. The definition
is from the Air Traffic Control Department (DECEA) from A to F
according to the size of the airport. Fares values are defined in Figures
5 through 9. The images show tariffs related to ANAC and tables by
DECEA.

Variable costs

For this research, variable costs can be defined by the cost that varies
according to the resources use. For example, gasoline is a variable cost
of a car since its value depends on the use of the car. For general
aviation, AOPA [12] defines as variable costs: fuel expenses,
maintenance, airport charges, and oil

According to Cardoso et al [13], these costs can be divided into

operational and service costs. The services costs are those related to
indirect services that make possible the aircraft use. Among them are
air traffic control, airport and handling fees. The operational costs are Figure 5. Fees table
related directly to the flight, such as fuel, maintenance and crew
salaries.

To define fuel costs, it is assumed that the fuel used can be aviation
gasoline for Otto cycle engines and aviation kerosene for diesel cycle
engines. Therefore, it is necessary to multiply the fuel consumption by
the number of hours of operation and by the fuel price. For endurance
calculations, as mentioned by RBAC 91, the pilot must consider the
destination time, as well as the alternative time plus 45 minutes of
standby fuel.

As there are several types of maintenance on an aircraft and they can

depend on eventualities and situations that are not possible to plan and
estimate an expenditure with scientific rigor, it will be used as a
calculation base of costs only the predictive and preventive Figure 6. Maneuvering area fees
maintenance. They are performed to prevent aircraft productivity loss
and high impact maintenance problems.

According to AOPA [12], one of the main maintenance costs is the

complete exchange of the aircraft engine, the overhaul. Its cost can be
defined by the ratio between the cost of the overhaul service and the
number of flight hours available before that service.

Another factor related to variable costs is aviation fees at public

airports. Their values are defined according to airport category,

Page 3 of 10

Figure 7. Apron Fees
Figure 8. TAN Fees
Figure 9. TAT ADR and TAT APP calculation table for domestic Brazilian
general aviation domestic flights
Fixed costs
Based on the variable costs, it is possible to define the fixed costs as
those that do not depend on the use or service of the equipment. In the
case of general aviation, it is the costs that will exist regardless of the
use of the aircraft, such as depreciation. Also, ICAO [14] also
considers as fixed costs the salaries and benefits of ground workers
(mechanics and managers) and flight crew (pilots and flight
attendants); aircraft insurance; airport and air traffic rates, and
depreciation.
Based on Cardoso et al [13], it can be defined that the fixed costs
considered within the definition of aircraft operating costs are:
depreciation, insurance, crew salaries and expenses, and hangar
service.
Page 4 of 10
As the depreciation of the aircraft with its equipment will occur
regardless of its use, it can be considered a fixed cost. According to the
FAA [18], conventional engines equipped aircraft a depreciation of 6%
year is applied to the current value of the aircraft.
Also, according to Cardoso et al. [13], the hangar service that is
provided by a hangar owner usually includes lane service, lodging,
aircraft cleaning, and VIP room services. Its value varies according to
the airport, location, size of aircraft and services required. Even though
it is not a mandatory service, it will be considered in this study, since
its use is very common and is linked to one of the reasons for using
this type of service, comfort.
The crew cost is a difficult cost to be modeled since its value is variable
and is not commonly shared. The salary floor defined in item 2.2.4 of
the Regular Aviation Collective Labor Convention [16], issued by the
National Aeronaut Union (SNA) and the National Union of Airline
Companies, will be used as a basis for an aircraft captain, which is
R$5.031,09. Since the rest of the crew is variable according to the
situation, it will not be considered in this research.
As the labor charges vary according to the salary and the type of
contract defined between employee and employer, it would not have a
mathematical rigor to control that cost so it will not be considered in
this research.
According to article 183, paragraph 2 of Brazilian law 6.404/76,
depreciation is the loss of the value of the rights that are held for
objects and physical goods subject to wear and tear or loss of utility
whether by use, the action of nature or even obsolescence.
Compulsory insurance for aircraft is renewed annually and varies
according to the functions of the aircraft of the insured's profile. It has
4 classes:
● Class 1: passenger and luggage cover
● Class 2: crew and baggage coverage
● Class 3: covers damage to persons and property on the
ground
● Class 4: covers damage caused by collision and collision
According to article 178, paragraph 1 of Brazilian law 7.565/86, non-
profit aircraft must ensure their employees and third parties.
Insurance is therefore required in classes 2, 3 and 4.
The impacts of Diesel cycle engines on the
operating costs of the Cessna 172 Skyhawk and
JT-A aircraft
To study the diesel cycle engine impacts in an aircraft, a comparison
has been made between two engines of the same category: one
powered by AVGAS and another by JET-A1. The aircraft used was
the Cessna Skyhawk, which has two versions, one equipped with a
Lycoming O-360 L2A Otto cycle engine, and another with the
Continental CD-155 Diesel cycle engine. In this way, the fixed and
variable costs of the aircraft were obtained for three distinct cases:
aircraft flying thirty, fifty or one hundred hours a month to obtain the
values in a cycle of six thousand flight hours.
Initially, a comparative study was effectuated about the performance
of the two engines, and the results will be elucidated in the next section.
Performance Comparison

Based on the data provided by the manufacturers of the two motors

analyzed, the table below was assembled which contains the most
relevant data on the performance of the two motors.

Table 1. 0-360 L2A and Continental CD-155 engine performance

Lycoming O-360 Continental

L2A CD-155 And, equations 4 and 5 show the results for cruise flight, of the same
engines respectively:
Power (hp) 160 155

Compression ratio 8.5:1 18:1

Displacement (L) 5.9 2.0

Turbocharge
Air intake Aspirated
d

Mass (kg) 126 134

Jet A-1, Jet

A, Jet Fuel According to Maleev [21], the higher the BMEP of an engine, the
100 Low Lean, greater power is generated per cubic inch of air displaced by the
Fuel No 3, JP-8,
100
JP-8+, TS-1, cylinder and its weight. Thus, it is possible to observe that the
Diesel Continental is more efficient than the Lycoming engine in both
situations, which was already expected due to the differences between
the thermodynamic cycles Otto and Diesel. According to Bianchini
[20], supercharged motors have an overall performance superior to
It can be seen that the Diesel cycle engine is slightly heavier than those aspirated, in addition to being able to maintain an almost constant
Lycoming, in addition to operating at higher compression ratios. Still, power up to the critical altitude. From this data, it is expected that the
it accepts a wider range of fuels as compared to the Otto cycle version. Cessna Skyhawk JT-A will perform better than its version powered by
AVGAS.
According to Braddy [17], the way to measure how efficiently an
engine produces work is through the Brake Mean Effective Pressure Analyzing the manuals of the two versions of the Cessna 172, the table
(BMEP), which, according to Maleev [19], can be written as shown in below shows data on the performance of the aircraft and demonstrates
equation 1: the greater efficiency of the Continental engine, as verified through
BMEP calculations.

Table 2. Skyhawk and JT-A performance

(1)
Skyhawk JT-A
Where:
Service ceiling (feet) 14000 18000

BMEP – brake mean effective pressure Range (nm) 640 963

P – Power (W) Fuel capacity (L) 200.62 168.80

Empty Weight (kg) 757 807

V – engine displacement in cubic meters
Payload (kg) 403 350
N - rotations per second.

The performance data for these aircraft engines were taken from their
respective manuals and the BMEP was calculated for two situations.
Equations 2 and 3 show the results for the takeoff situation of
Lycoming and Continental engines respectively:
It is noteworthy that the JT-A has a range 50% higher than the
conventional version, even carrying about 16% less fuel in the tanks.
This fact, associated with the possibility of operation at higher
altitudes, shows the greater efficiency of the diesel cycle engine.

Methodology

To obtain the total cost flight time cost, the method that was used
consisted of adding up all fixed expenses, defined in section 3.2, and
dividing by the number of hours flown per month. Besides, to obtain
Page 5 of 10
the variable cost, three flights with different characteristics were this leg was 200.4 nautical miles and the chosen cruise altitude was
simulated, and from them, the average flight hour value was obtained. 10,000ft.
To cover a wider range of situations, simulations were made based on
the Skyhawk's maximum range. As a result, flight distances The second simulated leg corresponds to a flight between Pampulha
corresponded to 20%, 30% and 60% of the maximum range of the Airport and Santa Genoveva Airport, in Goiânia, totaling 398.3
Skyhawk. They were Belo Horizonte to Ipatinga, Belo Horizonte to nautical miles. The chosen cruising altitude was 12,000ft since the
Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte to Goiânia. route follows a magnetic bearing between 181 ° and 360 °, which
requires an even flight level, under the ICA 100-12 [21]
Fuel prices were defined based on the market value of AvGas and Jet-
A1 at Pampulha airport on April 4, 2018, which was R$ 7.30 and R$ The third and last simulated leg is short flight between Belo Horizonte
3.53 per liter, respectively. Beyond that, in the three cases, some and Ipatinga, traveling 119.1 nautical miles, and flying at a cruising
assumptions were used, with data taken from the Cessna Aircraft altitude of 8,000ft.
website: takeoff weight equal to 1,157 kg (equivalent to the maximum
takeoff weight), the climb speed of 70 knots for the JT-A and 73 for Thus, we obtain the table below that lists the costs of these three routes.
the Skyhawk and maximum range speed at cruising altitude. Also, the
instrument flight rules (IFR) were followed and reserves were made as Table 4. Direct costs
recommended by the aircraft manual. Consumption was calculated
based on the Cessna Skyhawk Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) and Average cost (R$)
the Continental Motors CD-155 engine manual. Withal, the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) +10 temperature was Variables JT-A Skyhawk
considered. Expenses related to each of the three flights were
calculated based on each airport's charges. Fuel 170.76 547.38

Lastly, expenditure on periodic maintenance was accounted according Landing Fees 131.27 131.27
to the occurrences foreseen in each aircraft manual.
Navigation Fees 114.36 114.36

Fixed costs Total 404.40 778.02

Total Per Hour 174.35 309.97

The Fixed costs were calculated using the average value of the dollar
in the first three months of 2018, which was R$ 3.24. Starting from
this initial point, the aircraft price values were obtained with TAM
Aviação Executiva, the annual depreciation according to FAA
recommendations [15], it was considered that the aircraft would stay Based on the three simulated flights, the average flight hour price for
in a hangar located at Pampulha airport and, finally, the value of the both models is R$ 174.35 for the JT-A and R$ 309.97 for the normal
compulsory RETA insurance was obtained from Visaflex Corretora version. Therefore, the Diesel version has a cost per hour of flying
de Seguros. Table 3 shows the fixed costs of the aircraft. 43.75% lower than that of the conventional Skyhawk.

Table 3. Fixed costs Maintenance

Costs (R$) JT-A Skyhawk The Continental engine is equipped with Full Authority Digital Engine
Control (FADEC) technology, which makes the engine more efficient
Aircraft Price 1,458,000.00 1,227,960.00 in terms of performance, but more expensive when it comes to
maintenance. According to the maintenance manuals of the two
Crew's Wage 5,000.00/month 5,000.00/month
engines studied, the inspections to be carried out in the first two
Annual
thousand hours flown are 56 for the Lycoming and 20 for the CD-155.
Depreciation 87,480.00/year 73,677.60/year
According to data sent from an e-mail by Cessna, the expenses for two
Hangar service 3,000.00/month 3,000.00/month thousand flight hours related to scheduled maintenance are R\$ 171.26
for JT-A and R$ 141.86 for Skyhawk. According to the Go Air Escola
RETA Insurance 1,793.49/year 1,793.49/year de Aviação (COM No. 0902-42), the overhaul of the Lycoming O-360
engine costs R$97.000, including labor and parts. Regarding the CD-
Total 186,417.00 172,614.00
155, the replacement of the engine core requires an investment of
R$158.000, according to the manufacturer's data. The total
maintenance costs for two and six thousand hour cycles were
summarized in table 5.
Variable costs
Table 5. Maintenance costs
The first flight consisted of a taxi and take-off from Pampulha Airport
and landing at Santos Dumont Airport. The total distance traveled in Cost per flight hour (R$)

Hours Flown (h) JT-A Skyhawk

6000 223.93 174.19

Page 6 of 10
Even having a higher cost, according to the engine manufacturer data,
after six thousand hours, the Continental engine will go through 60
scheduled maintenance, while Lycoming will have 168. This makes
the JT-A operation desirable for those operators who need a long
aircraft displacement to carry out the periodic maintenance, since with
this aircraft, the expenses with ferry flights, which were not accounted
for in this article, will be reduced.

Total Costs

Taking into consideration the fixed and variable costs directly related
to the proposed flights in addition to the periodic maintenance costs
for the Lycoming (Otto cycle) and Continental (Diesel cycle) engines,
the chart below was created. The data refers to expenses at the end of
a cycle of six thousand flight hours, in the three situations described
above, that is, aircraft flying 20, 50 and 100 hours per month.
Figure 11. Skyhawk's costs source
The values for the first case were R$ 1,304.56 for the JT-A and R$
1,330.21 for the Skyhawk. For the aircraft flying 50 hours per month,
the values were R$ 841.38 for the JT-A and R$ 901.53 for the
Skyhawk. Finally, for the situation where the operator flies 100 hours
a month, the values were R$ 686.98 for JT-A and R$ 758.64 for the
Skyhawk.

Figure 12. JT-A’s costs source

Figure 10. Flight hour cost Analyzing images 11 and 12, it can be seen that for the Skyhawk, fixed
costs represent 31.70%, while variable costs represent the other 68.30
% of total expenses. For JT-A, fixed costs represent 36.70% of total
expenditure, and variable costs account for the other 63.30%. At first,
it does not seem to be much difference between both aircraft, but
looking more carefully at the origin of the costs of each aircraft, some
important differences can be seen.

The main variable costs that the Skyhawk operator will face is fuel,
which due to the high price of Avgas represents 21.70% of the total
cost, and with periodic maintenance which accounts for 15.70% of
total expenses. In the case of the operator of a JT-A, the main cost will
be with scheduled maintenance, which accounts for 20.40% of the
expense. The improved efficiency of the diesel engine coupled with
the Jet-A1 price makes fuel costs only 7.50% of the total spending for
each hour flown in JT-A.

Conclusions
General aviation, which uses conventional engines to this day,
according to Nobrega [1], is stagnant. This fact motivated the
idealization of the present work, which seeks to analyze the impacts
and operational costs of using new propulsion technologies for light
Page 7 of 10
aviation. For this, the Diesel cycle engine was chosen, which stands
out in fuel economy, durability and performance [22].
At the end of the present work, it can be concluded that the Continental
CD-155 diesel engine is more advantageous in the Cessna C-172
aircraft than the traditional Lycoming O-360 L2A Otto cycle for being
more economical in all scenarios studied. It is also noted that the diesel
engine advantages tend to grow as the hours flown per month increase,
indicating that aircraft equipped with this type of engine is more
worthwhile for operators who have a higher flight demand. Another
point to note is that since the fuel represents only 7.50% of the JT-A
flight hour cost, it is much easier to predict what the price of the hour
flown on this plane will be, since this value will not be so sensitive to
oil price changes, unlike Skyhawk, where Avgas represents more than
21% of the total cost.
Lastly, the fact that JT-A undergoes a smaller number of scheduled
maintenance jobs, even though more expensive, makes its operation
more desirable for companies that frequently service isolated regions
with poor infrastructures, such as air-taxi companies which operate in
the northern region of Brazil, reducing maintenance flights and
increasing aircraft availability.
As a future proposal, the diesel cycle engine model should be studied
in different aircraft, providing more data collection and analysis,
making possible to see the real potential of this technology.
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1, 2019. https://www.aeronautas.org.br/62-leis-e-
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Contact Information
Name: Samuel Cunha Diniz
Adress: Claudio Manoel St, 750 – Funcionários, Belo Horizonte,
Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Email: samuelcunhad@gmail.com

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