175

Virtual design of a novel two-stroke high-speed

direct-injection diesel engine
E Mattarelli
Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Vignolese, 905 41100,
Modena, Italy, email: mattarelli.enrico@unimore.it

The manuscript was accepted after revision for publication on 13 March 2009.

DOI: 10.1243/14680874JER02509

Abstract: The paper reviews the virtual design process of an automotive high-speed direct-
injection (HSDI) two-stroke diesel engine, developed at the Department of Mechanical and
Civil Engineering (DIMeC) of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia. The new concept of
the engine is the tumble-supported and spray-controlled combustion system, which enables
the adoption of loop scavenging without valves, and the use of a very simple and compact
combustion chamber, carved in the engine head.
The concept has been applied to a three-cylinder engine, with a capacity of 1050 cm3,
supercharged by means of a Roots compressor and a variable geometry turbocharger. Some
alternative configurations have been defined. Integrated one-dimensional and multidimen-
sional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations have been performed in order to
optimize the main engine parameters, as well as to predict brake performance and emissions,
in comparison with a reference four-stroke automobile diesel engine.
Simulation results demonstrate the potential of the concept, which may be applied to
develop a new generation of ultra-compact and clean automotive diesel engines.

Keywords: two-stroke engine, high-speed direct-injection, diesel, loop-scavenging, CFD

simulations

1 STATE OF THE ART four-stroke, four-cylinder 2500 cm3 engine into a

The most difficult challenge for modern high-speed
direct-injection (HSDI) diesel engines is the limita-
tion of pollutant emissions without penalizing
performance, overall dimensions, and production
costs, which are already higher than those of the
corresponding spark-ignition (SI) engines.
An interesting concept has been devised in order
to meet the requirements mentioned above – the
two-stroke cycle combined with compression igni-
tion. Such a concept is widely applied to large bore
engines, on steady or naval power plants, where the
advantages in terms of power density and fuel
conversion efficiency (in some cases higher than 50
per cent [1]) are well known.
The application to high-speed automotive engines
started at the beginning of the 1990s. Besides the
studies at Queen’s University of Belfast [2], one of
the first relevant examples was the prototype devel-
oped by Toyota [3], which converted a commercial
two-stroke unit. Such a result was achieved by using
the poppet valves as scavenging ports and by
boosting the engine through a Roots compressor.
In comparison to the contemporary diesel engines,
Toyota claimed an increase in both maximum power
and torque equal to 25 and 40 per cent respectively,
while halving nitrogen oxide emissions.
In the second half of the 1990s, AVL [4] developed
a 980 cm3, three-cylinder inline prototype following
a different path. The engine features uniflow
scavenging, obtained by means of inlet ports on
the cylinder wall and exhaust poppet valves on the
head. The combustion chamber is based on a
traditional HSDI four-stroke design (i.e. a bowl in
the piston), fuel metering is provided by a common
rail system, while air boosting is obtained by
mechanical supercharging combined with a turbo-
charger. Combustion is assisted by a strong swirl
motion whose strength can be set up by means of
a proper design of the inlet ports. In a more

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176 E Mattarelli
advanced configuration, the engine shows a power
density of 50 kW/l, a minimum specific fuel con-
sumption of 235 g/kW h, along with relatively low
in-cylinder peak pressures (120 bar). AVL claims
that the engine is much lighter than a four-stroke
unit of the same top power and with similar single-
cylinder displacement (the total weight is less than
80 kg). As far as emissions are concerned, the
behaviour of this two-stroke engine does not differ
from a four-stroke counterpart, and additional
advantages have been found in terms of noise and
NOx reduction.
The two-stroke high-speed diesel engine concept
was also investigated in 1999 by Yamaha, who built a
1000 cm3, two-cylinder engine, with crankcase loop
scavenging [5]. The most peculiar characteristic of
this prototype is the combustion system, made up of
a pre-chamber, connected to the cylinder through
four holes. During compression, these holes impart a
swirling motion to the charge entering the pre-
chamber, while, during expansion, they allow the gas
to expand in the cylinder, with limited flow losses, in
comparison to traditional indirect diesel engines.
Even if the power density was not particularly high,
this engine featured compact dimensions, along
with very low fuel consumption and engine-out
emissions.
In 2005, Daihatsu [6] announced a two-cylinder,
1200 cm3 capacity automotive engine, exhibiting a
maximum power of 65 kW and a maximum torque of
230 N m. Daihatsu claims that the prototype is very
fuel efficient and clean, being able to comply with
EURO V regulations. The scavenging and air meter-
ing systems are like the ones previously mentioned
for the AVL prototype, with particular care devoted
to reducing the mechanical loss of the supercharger,
as well as to generating a moderate swirling motion
within the chamber. The engine features a cooled
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) device and the latest
common rail injection system.
In 2005, FEV announced the development of a
four-cylinder supercharged two-stroke diesel engine
for military ground vehicles [7]. This engine, called
OPOC (opposed-piston, opposed-cylinder), features
uniflow scavenging (intake and exhaust ports at
opposite ends of the cylinder), asymmetric port
timing (exhaust ports open and close before intake),
and electrically assisted boosting. FEV claims a very
high power–weight ratio (325 HP, 125 kg) and low
fuel consumption.
While in the automobile field the two-stroke diesel
engine still has not found an application in industrial
production, apart from some exceptions (Daihatsu
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
Sirion, 1999), this concept is widespread in the
aeronautic field to power light aircraft [8–11].
2 THE NEW CONCEPT
The final goal of the project carried out at the
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia is to
develop a new generation of cost-effective, ultra-
compact, fuel efficient, and clean two-stroke diesel
engines, suitable for different applications: small
passenger cars and off-road vehicles, light aircraft,
small boats, etc. At the moment of completing this
paper, all the relevant fluid thermodynamic pro-
cesses have been extensively investigated by means
of state-of-the-art computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) tools, while the first experimental campaign
has been designed but has not yet been carried out.
The core of the project is a brand new type of
combustion system. It is well known that conven-
tional DI diesel engines (both two- and four-stroke)
adopt a bowl in the piston, whose shape is optimized
in order to generate an optimum mean and
turbulent flow field around TDC (top dead centre),
provided that a proper swirl motion is imparted to
the intake flow. Conversely, in the new combustion
system the combustion chamber is carved within the
engine head, while the piston crown is flat. Further-
more, for the sake of compactness and cost,
scavenging is obtained without poppet valves, but
using piston controlled slots at the bottom of the
cylinder liner. Since this scavenging is of the loop
type, the combustion chamber and the injection
system are designed in order to comply with a flow
field characterized by a strong tumble motion.
During compression, such a tumble vortex is
dissipated, generating a very high turbulence before
TDC. The turbulence level remains very high around
TDC, also thanks to the contribution of fuel jet
momentum. At full load, soot is limited by the
optimized shape of the chamber, associated with
high spray penetration (high injection pressure,
minimal spray ‘distortion’ by the mean flow), and
diffusion (six or more nozzle holes). Nitrogen oxides
are low because of the large amount of residuals,
typical of loop-scavenged engines.
The new combustion system yields several advan-
tages in comparison with the conventional system
adopted in most of the two-stroke prototypes
(characterized by uniflow scavenging with on-head
exhaust poppet valves and a bowl in the piston).
First, on-head exhaust valves are not used, with
ensuing advantages in terms of overall compactness,
cost, reliability, weight, and friction losses. Second,
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine 177

the piston becomes simpler and lighter, while its

thermal load is dramatically reduced. Third, cooling
is much easier because of the simple cylinder design.
In comparison with conventional four-stroke
HSDI diesel engines, the use of a two-stroke cycle
yields a fundamental advantage at partial load. In
fact, for a given torque output, a two-stroke engine
can operate with much higher air–fuel ratio (AFR),
since energy is transferred to the piston at each
crankshaft revolution instead of two. Thus, the
amount of fuel required for each combustion
process is lower (it would be one half, were thermal
efficiency and unit displacement the same). Thanks
to the higher AFR, soot and NOx are much lower
than in a conventional four-stroke engine.

Fig. 1 Layout of the two-stroke engine: 1, dynamic

3 APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT compressor; 2, intercooler; 3, positive displace-
ment compressor; 4, inlet plenum; 5, VG
As a first application of a new concept described turbine
above, the decision was made to develop an
automobile engine having a total capacity of about Table 1 Geometric features of the new two-stroke
1000 cm3, like the two-stroke prototypes built by AVL engine and of the reference four-stroke engine
and Yamaha. Assuming a target of 100 HP, the two- Two-stroke Four-stroke
stroke engine performance should be comparable to Displacement (cm )3
1051 1251
that of current four-stroke automobile diesel engines Number of cylinders 3 inline 4 inline
having a capacity up to 50 per cent higher. In Bore (mm) 70 69.6
Stroke (mm) 91 82
particular, a modern 1251 cm3, four-cylinder unit Compression ratio 19.5 17.6
has been selected as a reference for the four-stroke (geometric)
engines. Number of valves — 4
Air metering VGT + Roots VGT
The general design approach presents some Intercooler Yes Yes
similarities to the concept developed by AVL: the Fuel metering Common rail Common rail
Injector 6 6 0.121 mm 6 6 0.121 mm
same engine layout (three-cylinder inline), lubrica-
tion (wet sump), air metering system (VGT turbo-
charger and Roots compressor, serially connected), such as the use of a waste gate instead of a variable
and injection system (common rail, multihole geometry turbine (VGT) or position swapping be-
central injector). A schematic of the engine layout tween the compressors, have been investigated and
is presented in Fig. 1, while Table 1 reviews the main then discarded.
features of the two-stroke prototype, compared to With a slight increase in complexity, it is possible
those of the reference four-stroke engine. to enhance engine performance. The first device that
Because of the high specific power target, super- was considered was a variable geometry (VG)
charging is hardly an option. One positive displace- exhaust port, like the ones currently used on many
ment compressor driven by the engine crankshaft conventional two-stroke SI engines (one such ex-
would be the simplest design solution. Unfortu- ample is the YPVS [12]). This device enables the
nately, this configuration is not able to match brake exhaust port effective height to be varied, and thus
performance and fuel economy: good values of the phase of the opening and closing event, as well
torque at low speed can be obtained only at the as the effective compression ratio. The variable port
expense of high fuel consumption at medium and geometry helps cold starts too, allowing the charge
high speeds. In fact, the solution devised for the new to reach a higher temperature at the end of the
engine is a combination of a VGT turbocharger and a compression stroke. Finally, at partial load, the
positive displacement compressor (a Roots blower). variable exhaust geometry can be used to control
As visible in Fig. 1, air is first compressed in the the quality of the trapped charge, i.e. the amount of
turbocharger compressor and then delivered to the fresh air and residual gases, without the need for an
Roots through an intercooler. Other configurations, external EGR system.

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178 E Mattarelli
Another very useful device that may be added is a
system able to vary the transmission ratio between
the Roots compressor and the engine. The main
advantage of this system is to keep a high boost
pressure at low engine speeds, enhancing low end
torque. Furthermore, at partial load, such a system
provides a further calibration parameter, which may
be used to optimize fuel consumption or the
composition of the trapped charge.
4 THE VIRTUAL ENGINEERING PROCESS
The development of a brand new combustion
system and its application to the design of a real
engine is a challenge that cannot be tackled lightly.
The choice made at the University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia in 2004 was to cover as much ground
as possible through theoretical investigations, in
order to start the experimental stage of the project
with detailed guidelines and to minimize the
troubleshooting phase at the test bed. Indeed, in
summer 2007, a virtual engine model had been
defined through an iterative process, consisting of
three main types of CFD simulation, as shown in
Fig. 2.
First, one-dimensional engine simulations were
carried out by means of the GT-Power software [13].
These calculations are fundamental to address the
choice of the main engine parameters, as well as to
provide a prediction of brake performance. Several
models were built, with an increasing degree of
accuracy, as soon as information provided by the
other types of simulation was available. In particular,
engine simulations require as input data the inlet
and exhaust ports discharge coefficients and some
parameters describing in a lumped fashion the
Fig. 2 Schematic of the virtual engineering process
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
scavenging process and the curves of the rate of
heat release (ROHR). The discharge coefficients and
the scavenging parameters were obtained by run-
ning multidimensional CFD calculations, including
modelling of the flow through the inlet and the
exhaust manifolds of a single cylinder. These
simulations were carried out using STAR-CD. The
curves of ROHR were provided by specific analyses,
focused on the combustion process alone, using a
customized version of KIVA-3V, developed in co-
operation with the University of Chalmers (Sweden).
While KIVA was used to optimize the details of the
combustion chamber and of the injection strategy,
STAR was the main tool for the development of the
port and manifold geometry near the cylinder.
Obviously, the exchange of data among the three
CFD tools is fundamental. Besides the already
mentioned flow of information from the multi-
dimensional calculations to the one-dimensional
engine model, the GT-Power outputs are employed
to provide initial and boundary conditions to
multidimensional calculations. Combustion ana-
lyses start at exhaust port closure (EPC) from a flow
field provided by the scavenging analysis. Finally, the
in-cylinder gas composition at the end of the
combustion process is entered in the scavenging
analyses.
The paper reviews the results obtained at the end
of this virtual process, describing the simulations
carried out on the final engine configurations, whose
outputs have not yet been published.
5 THE SCAVENGING PROCESS
The main goal of the scavenging system is to
generate a strong tumble motion at EPC, while
minimizing cross flow between the intake and
exhaust ports. Reduction of flow losses through the
ports is obviously important too, but not so critical
for brake performance, as the engine is strongly
supercharged. Finally, the presence of residuals at
the end of the gas exchange process is desired,
particularly at partial load, in order to reduce NOx
emissions. The scavenging system, whose layout is
shown in Fig. 3, is of the Schnurle type, and is
symmetric as regards a plane orthogonal to the
crankshaft axis.
The intake system is made up of two manifolds
wrapped around the cylinder and eight intake ports.
It should be observed that all the ports are oriented
towards one focal point within the cylinder, at the
opposite side of the exhaust ports. This configura-
tion, suggested also by Blair [14], is ideal to generate
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine 179

Fig. 3 View of a computer aided design (CAD) model representing intake and exhaust ports and
the cylinder

a very compact front of fresh air sweeping the
cylinder along a loop trajectory. The exhaust system
is quite conventional, with two manifolds, connected
to two ports each.
The CFD simulations showed that one of the most
relevant parameters to meet the scavenging targets
previously listed is the transfer port elevation, i.e. the
angle of the port axis as regards the horizontal plane.
Plain horizontal ports offer good discharge coeffi-
cients, but they are not completely satisfactory when
considering turbulence and trapping efficiency. As
the elevation angle increases, the strength of the

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180 E Mattarelli

tumble motion becomes higher and trapping effi-

ciency is improved, while the average discharge
coefficient slightly worsens. An elevation angle of 45u
resulted in the best compromise.
For the sake of brevity, only the fundamentals of the
scavenging analysis are reviewed in this paper, while a
full report has already been given in reference [15].
A first important result yielded by three-dimen-
sional CFD simulations is the intensity of tumble
motion at EPC, comparable or even superior to the
strength of swirl vortexes typical of conventional
chambers in both two- and four-stroke DI diesel
engines [4, 16–19]. Furthermore, the tumble inten-
sity at EPC is almost independent of the pressure
ratio across the cylinder. Thus, the in-cylinder flow
field after EPC should not be related to the opera-
tions of the supercharging system, which, at a given
speed, may change widely as a function of load. This
result can be explained by considering that larger
pressure ratios across the cylinder produce higher
angular velocities of the vortexes, as well as a higher
rate of dissipation. As a result, when the eddies are
too fast, they are not able to sustain themselves and
their energy is transferred into turbulence.
The angular speed of the tumble vortex at EPC has
been found to be slightly dependent on engine speed:
as velocity increases, the tumble vortex becomes
stronger. This result was anticipated, since the
scavenging process takes place around bottom dead
centre (BDC), when piston velocity is at its minimum.
However, the higher the engine speed, the shorter is
the scavenging time; thus, at high engine speed there
is less decay of angular momentum.
In current four-stroke automobile diesel engines
the level of turbulence at intake valve closing (IVC)
becomes lower and lower as engine speed and load
decreases, so that, at some operating conditions, it is
necessary to enhance swirl by means of specific
devices. Such devices are not required at all for the
two-stroke engine analysed here, which presents a
high level of turbulence at any operating condition
Fig. 4 Charging, retaining, and scavenging efficiencies
of interest.
versus delivery ratio. Three-dimensional CFD
Another important output of the three-dimensional calculations at 3000 r/min, PR 5 1.5, 1.25, and
CFD calculations is the assessment of the scavenging 1.15; 2000 and 4000 r/min, PR 5 1.25
process quality, i.e. the dependence of the retaining,
charging, and scavenging efficiencies and exhaust gas exhaust gas purity is the mass fraction of fresh charge
purity on the delivery ratio. The retaining efficiency in the exhaust gas; the delivery ratio (DR) is the ratio
(RE) is defined as the ratio of the mass of fresh air of the mass of fresh charge delivered to the reference
retained to the mass of fresh air delivered; the mass; and, finally, the reference mass is calculated by
charging efficiency (CE) is the ratio of the mass of considering the ambient conditions and the total
fresh charge retained to the reference mass; the displaced volume [1].
scavenging efficiency (SE) is the ratio of the mass of Figure 4 shows the results of a set of simulations,
fresh charge retained to the mass of cylinder charge; carried out at three different pressure ratios (PRs)

Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10 JER02509 F IMechE 2009

 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine
across the cylinder, i.e. for different values of the
ratio of scavenging pressure to exhaust pressure.
Three different engine speeds are also considered:
2000, 3000, and 4000 r/min. It can be observed that
the influence of the operating conditions (PR and
speed) on the scavenging features is quite limited.
This issue justifies entering a unique scavenging
model for all the one-dimensional engine simula-
tions.
Scavenging performance is acceptable for a DR
between 1.5 and 2.5, the range in which the engine
typically operates at full load. In such a range,
considering the case 3000_PR1.5, the CE goes from
1.2 to 1.7, the RE is always higher than 65 per cent,
and the amount of fresh charge trapped within the
cylinder is between 70 and 80 per cent of the total in-
cylinder mass.
The quality of scavenging slightly improves as the
PR increases, in particular for what concerns the RE.
This is due to the fact that higher velocities of the
flow entering the cylinder produce a more compact
front of fresh charge sweeping the cylinder, thus
reducing the amount of air mixing with exhaust
gases, before short-circuiting the cylinder. The
sweeping of exhaust gas is never complete within
the cylinder, even in front of very high values of DR.
This issue is typical of loop-scavenged Schnurle-type
engines, and is due to a pocket of residual gas which
remains trapped in the ‘eye’ of the tumble vortex.
As far as discharge characteristics are concerned,
the distribution of effective areas were calculated
from all the CFD simulations, for both intake and
exhaust ports, and the following issues have been
observed.
1. The discharge properties of inlet ports are almost
independent of operating conditions, so that a
unique correlation between the crank angle and
inlet port effective area can be easily found.
2. The nature of the flow through the exhaust port is
very complex, being strongly transient (pressure
waves travel along the exhaust duct, accelerating
or slowing the gas) and three-dimensional (for
instance, a very large recirculation region is
observed just downstream of the cylinder and a
uniform distribution of velocity is never reached
in any cross-section throughout the computa-
tional domain). As a consequence, the discharge
data are very scattered, and it is necessary to
discard some values in order to obtain a physi-
cally consistent correlation between effective area
and crank angle.
3. The values of port effective areas are quite large,
in comparison to standard two-stroke engines. A
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
181
value of 0.05 has been found for the average
discharge coefficient (defined as the ratio of the
average port effective area to piston area). This is
the evidence of the excellent attitude of the
scavenging system to let the charge flow across
the cylinder without obstruction [1, 14].
6 COMBUSTION ANALYSES
The geometrical features of the combustion cham-
ber were defined by considering the in-cylinder flow
field patterns (the results of the previously men-
tioned three-dimensional CFD calculations) and,
above all, the outputs of combustion simulations.
The simulations were carried out using a customized
version of the KIVA-3V code. A full account on this
activity is given in another paper [20], while only the
main results are presented here.
First, it was found that the details of the in-
cylinder flow field at EPC are not very relevant for
combustion, as it occurs on traditional diesel
engines. This result can be explained by considering
that, during compression, the in-cylinder mean
velocities become almost null; thus, any difference
in terms of flow patterns is cancelled. Furthermore,
the turbulent kinetic energy field at TDC depends
more on fuel injection than on the mean flow at EPC.
The lack of a strong correlation between charge
motion details and combustion is a quite fortunate
outcome, since it makes it possible to consider a
conventional initial flow field for all the combustion
calculations, starting at EPC, without the need for a
specific scavenging analysis. This issue was exploited
to speed up the comparison among different com-
bustion chamber configurations, in order to obtain
the design guidelines. Once a promising combustion
chamber geometry was found, more accurate calcu-
lations were performed, starting from an in-cylinder
flow field, calculated by means of previous scaven-
ging analyses [15].
As an example of combustion simulations, some
temperature fields are shown in Figs 5 and 6 at a few
consecutive crank angles, on two different planes.
For comparison, the correspondent fields of the
reference four-stroke engine are also plotted. The
operating condition is 3000 r/min at full load. From
Figs 5 and 6 it can be observed that temperatures in
the two-stroke engine are always lower than in the
corresponding four-stroke unit, as a result of a
higher content of residuals in the trapped charge.
Furthermore, the combustion patterns are comple-
tely different: while in the conventional engine the
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
182 E Mattarelli

Fig. 5 Gas temperature plotted on a radial plane at 0, 30, 60 and 90u after top dead centre
(ATDC) for both the HSD2 and the four-stroke engine, at full load, 3000 r/min

higher temperature can be found in the bowl region,
in the two-stroke engine combustion occurs at the
periphery of the chamber, with a much less regular
field, especially on the plane perpendicular to the
cylinder axis.
Another interesting comparison between two- and
four-stroke engines can be made in terms of heat
release curves (Fig. 7) at different engine speeds
(1500, 2000, 3000, and 4000 r/min) at full load. It is
observed that, in the two-stroke engine, the peak of
ROHR is always lower than that of the four-stroke
engine. This result may be explained mainly by the
larger amount of residuals trapped within the
cylinder. Furthermore, in the two-stroke engine the
combustion process enters the completion phase
(after the end of injection, when burnt gases, air, and
fuel vapour are mixing throughout the chamber)
earlier than the conventional engine. Assuming that

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 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine 183

Fig. 6 Gas temperature plotted on a plane perpendicular to the cylinder axis at 0, 30, 60 and 90u
ATDC for both the HSD2 and the four-stroke engine, at full load, 3000 r/min

the beginning of this phase is when the 90 per cent
of fuel is burnt, the lead of the two-stroke over the
four-stroke grows as engine speed increases: at
1500 r/min this advance is about 5u, but becomes
30u at 4000 r/min. The explanation for this behaviour
is that, in the two-stroke engine, fuel jet penetration
is higher, for a number of reasons: a greater distance
between the injector and walls, a lack of a strong
charge motion interfering with sprays, and a lower
rate of chemical reactions (because of the high

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184
Fig. 7 Curves of heat release rate and of cumulative
heat release fraction plotted for the two-stroke
(HSD2) and the four-stroke engines. Calcula-
tions performed at full load, engine speeds of
1500, 2000, 3000, and 4000 r/min
concentration of residuals). Therefore, in the first
part of the combustion process, fuel vapour is
surrounded by more air, compared to that available
in a conventional piston bowl, and it burns quickly,
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
E Mattarelli
consuming all the oxygen at the periphery of the
chamber. Later, the combustion rate decreases,
since the unburned fuel has to diffuse back towards
the cylinder axis, where some oxygen may still
remain.
Combustion simulations allowed the two-stroke
engine air–fuel ratio limits to be defined (the
injection rate was varied inasmuch as the amount
of soot became coincident with the values of the
reference four-stroke engine). Even if the two-stroke
chamber may sometimes tolerate higher amounts of
fuel, the AFR limits have not been modified as
regards the four-stroke engine, in order to keep the
in-cylinder peak pressures and temperatures lower,
with ensuing advantages in terms of noise, mechan-
ical stress, and reliability.
7 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ENGINE MODELS
One-dimensional engine simulations have been
massively used in order to optimize the two-stroke
engine global parameters, as well as to provide brake
performance that may be compared to that of the
reference four-stroke engine. In order to obtain
reliable results from this type of simulation, without
any experimental support, it was decided to derive
all the one-dimensional models from the model of
the four-stroke reference unit, for which a compre-
hensive set of experimental data are available.
Thanks to these data, the four-stroke engine model,
built in GT-Power, was carefully calibrated, as
reported in reference [21].
When building the two-stroke models, the follow-
ing assumptions were made.
1. At full load, the engine operates at the same air–
fuel ratios and ambient conditions of the four-
stroke engine.
2. Flow loss and heat transfer coefficients in the
intake and exhaust systems are the same as those
of the four-stroke engine.
3. Within the cylinder, heat transfer submodels and
wall temperatures are those used for the four-
stroke engine.
4. The energy dissipated in one crankshaft revolu-
tion because of mechanical friction corresponds
to that spent in the four-stroke engine at the same
speed (thus, the friction work per cycle is one
half).
The last two hypotheses are the most question-
able. Unfortunately, since no prototype has been
built yet, it was necessary to turn to some empiri-
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine
cism. However, both assumptions are conservative,
as can be easily demonstrated.
According to the Woschni [1] model, the heat
transfer rate during combustion is related to in-
cylinder gas velocities. While in four-stroke engines
gas velocities are very high near the wall because of
the swirl vortex, in the two-stroke engine the
velocities are much lower, since the tumble vortex
has been completely destroyed during the compres-
sion stroke.
As far as friction losses are concerned, the two-
stroke engine has definitely fewer of them since:
(a) there is no valvetrain;
(b) at each crankshaft revolution the maximum
inertial force occurring at TDC is always
balanced by the in-cylinder gas pressure;
(c) there are three pistons, instead of four, weight-
ing the same or even less (there is no bowl in the
piston).
Finally, results of three-dimensional CFD simula-
tions were used instead of experimental information.
In particular, the GT-Power model requires as input
data the ports discharge coefficients as a function of
piston position and the direction of flow; the ROHR
profiles at each operating condition, and the exhaust
gas purity as a function of the scavenging ratio. Even
if the lack of experiments on the two-stroke engine
leaves some uncertainty about the results of one-
dimensional simulations, the author believes the
trends indicated by calculations to be accurate
enough to address engine design.
8 TWO-STROKE BASE ENGINE CONFIGURATION
The definition of the main geometric parameters
and the components of this type of engine is a quite
long and complex process, since almost every choice
is more or less dependent on the others, so that a
variation to a single parameter requires the recali-
bration of many others.
A particularly critical issue, in comparison to four-
stroke engines, is the timing of ports events. On the
one hand, delayed opening of the exhaust or a too-
advanced opening of intake ports may generate
backflows of exhaust gases into the intake manifolds,
associated with strong pressure pulses. Under these
conditions, the operations of the engine are not
regular, with large cylinder-to-cylinder variations.
The same problem may occur when the turbine has
a relatively low permeability. On the other hand,
early opening of exhaust ports reduces engine
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
185
performance, because of the energy lost in the
blowdown process, as well as the poor trapping
efficiency at low engine speeds. A very simple and
effective way to meet these opposite requirements is
to adopt a device able to vary the height of the
exhaust ports. This solution has been chosen for the
base configuration of the two-stroke engine.
For the choice of the turbocharger and positive
displacement compressor, the fundamental para-
meter is the flowrate to be delivered by each
component. A rough estimation of this parameter
may be made by assuming that the two-stroke
engine will have the same brake power as the four-
stroke reference engine:
m_ 4S gf ,4S
_ 2S ~
m : ð1Þ
gtr,2S gf ,2S
where m _ 2S is the mass flowrate, gtr is the trapping
efficiency, and gf is the fuel conversion efficiency.
Obviously, the maximum flowrate deliverable by the
turbocharger components must be somewhat
higher, in order to make the compressor and turbine
operate at their best efficiency points, or close to
them. It should be remembered that the higher the
turbocharger efficiencies, the lower is the back-
pressure at the exhaust port, and thus the better the
scavenging.
As far as the positive displacement compressor is
concerned, the required maximum volumetric flow-
rate (Qmax) can be roughly assessed by equating the
airflow entering the compressor to the one entering
the engine, calculated by
m_ 2S
Qmax ~ ð2Þ
rIN,C
where rIN,C is the gas density entering the positive
displacement compressor. From equation (2), it can
be observed that the higher the inlet gas density, the
smaller can be the capacity of the positive displace-
ment compressor. The choice of a small compressor
strongly helps to improve fuel consumption at
partial load, since it reduces the power adsorbed
Table 2 Two-stroke BASE engine specific features
Dynamic compressor Garrett C101A
VG turbine Garrett GT17V
PD compressor Roots–Eaton M24
Engine–PD compressor transmission ratio 1:3.0
Exhaust port opening 100–120u ATDC
Intake port opening 135u ATDC
Geometric compression ratio 19.5:1
Minimum AFR 16
Inlet plenum capacity 2100 cm3
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
186 E Mattarelli

Fig. 8 Average operating conditions for the two-stroke BASE engine at full load; (a) efficiency
map of the dynamic compressor; (b) efficiency map of the Roots compressor; (c)
efficiency and rack position of the variable geometry turbine

by this component. Therefore, it is convenient to put
the positive displacement compressor after the
dynamic compressor. Furthermore, the charge cool-
ing between the two compression stages helps to
increase gas density and avoid a thermal stress on
the positive displacement compressor.
A list of specific features of the two-stroke engine
is shown in Table 2. It is observed that the
turbocharger can fit four-stroke HSDI diesel engines,
four valves per cylinder, having almost twice the
capacity of the two-stroke unit. Some fundamental
results of the two-stroke BASE engine simulations at
full load are presented in Figs 8, 9, and 10.
The quality of matching between the engine and
the supercharging system can be checked on the
three graphs of Fig. 8. Picture (a) presents the

Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10 JER02509 F IMechE 2009

 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine
Fig. 9 Curves of volumetric efficiency (VE), trapping
ratio (TR), charging efficiency (CE), and scaven-
ging efficiency (SE) for the two-stroke BASE
engine at full load
Fig. 10 Curves of f.m.e.p. for the two-stroke BASE
engine at full load (total and the contribution
of the Roots compressor)
operating points on the dynamic compressor map. It
may be observed that the pressure ratio is set as high
as possible, in order to increase volumetric effi-
ciency, the limits being the surge and the chocking
lines. If a larger compressor were adopted, both the
surge and the chocking line would shift right. As a
consequence, the boost pressure would be set higher
at high engine speeds, but lower at medium–low
speeds, obtaining more top power and less low end
torque.
For the Roots compressor (Fig. 8(b)), it is observed
that, from 2500 to 4000 r/min, the pressure ratio
increases steeply, as a consequence of the high
engine back pressure imposed by the turbine,
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
187
revving close to its maximum speed (200 kr/min).
Conversely, at low engine speeds the positive
compressor contribution to the scavenging process
is very limited (PR less than 1.1), thanks to the
proper setting of the turbine rack. This setting is
shown in Figure 8(c). The rack value increases as the
engine speed goes up, in order to match the higher
flowrates. The turbine efficiency is not particularly
high, but quite constant (55–63 per cent).
By analysing gas exchange parameters in Fig. 9, it
can be observed that both the scavenging efficiency
and trapping ratio are quite constant all over the
engine speed range, with an average value of 0.84
and 0.64 respectively. The charging efficiency is over
1, from 1500 to 4000 r/min, with a top value of 1.58 at
2500 r/min.
Finally, Fig. 10 shows how the functional mean
effective pressure (f.m.e.p.) is made up. At top
engine speeds, about 65 per cent of f.m.e.p. is due
to the energy adsorbed by the positive displacement
compressor. Even if this figure decreases as the
engine speed goes down, it is evident that the key for
reducing f.m.e.p., and thus fuel consumption, is to
cut the energy spent to drive the compressor.
9 TWO-STROKE ENGINE ALTERNATIVE
CONFIGURATIONS
The engine described in the previous section is just a
first proposal, from whose base some other config-
urations have been developed, with the help of 1D
simulations. All the results shown in the following
were obtained by running simulations on almost
identical numerical models: the only differences
among these models are due to the specific issues
of the analysed case.
A first alternative solution, called SIMPLE, suits
applications where compactness, costs, and low end
torque are more important than maximum power
and fuel efficiency. In this configuration the base
engine is stripped of the exhaust port variable
geometry.
Another configuration, called EVO, is devised in
order to obtain the maximum engine performance
and emissions control. This configuration includes,
besides variable exhaust timing, a device able to
modify the transmission ratio between the engine
and the Roots compressor. In the calculations
presented in this paper, the use of a six-gear simple
mechanical shifter is considered.
Comparing SIMPLE and BASE (Fig. 11), it may be
observed that, without control of the exhaust port
geometry, it is not possible to match low end torque
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
188 E Mattarelli

and top power. The exhaust set-up chosen for

SIMPLE clearly favours the former. Engine outputs
are identical from 1250 to 2000 r/min and then the
trapping ratio strongly decreases, making torque
drop and fuel consumption rise. Since the top power
(67.5 kW) is reached at 3000 r/min, it may be
convenient to reduce the maximum engine speed
in order to simplify the engine design further.
The adoption of a variable transmission ratio (EVO
configuration) improves both low end torque and
maximum power, as regards the BASE configuration:
between 1250 and 2000 r/min, the average increase
in torque is 16 per cent. The top brake power goes
from 83 kW at 3500 r/min to 88 kW at 4000 r/min.
Furthermore, fuel efficiency improves by 6 per cent
at high speed, because less power is absorbed by the
Roots compressor (always below 6 kW).

10 TWO-STROKE VERSUS FOUR-STROKE

ENGINE AT FULL LOAD

In this section, a comparison is performed between

Fig. 11 Comparison among three configurations of
the two-stroke engine: results of the one-
dimensional simulation
the reference four-stroke engine and the new two-
stroke engine with the BASE configuration. All the
results come from numerical simulations carried out
at the same conditions and with models as similar as
possible.
First, a comparison is made in terms of steady
performance at full load, i.e. the values of brake
torque, power, and fuel specific consumption ob-
tained at constant speed and full load, the last
condition being defined on the basis of the same air–
fuel ratio limit. A graph of the i.m.e.p. is added too,
because of the importance of this parameter as an
index of the engine thermomechanical stress. Such a
comparison is shown in Fig. 12.
Figure 12 clearly demonstrates the superiority of
the two-stroke engine from every point of view,
except fuel economy. However, it should be con-
sidered that friction losses of the two-stroke unit are
probably overestimated. A definitive confrontation,
from this point of view, will be possible only when a
two-stroke prototype is physically built and tested.
Another comparison between two- and four-
stroke engines is made in terms of dynamic
performance. It is supposed that the two engines
are applied to the same car, which accelerates from
70 to 120 km/h in the last gear of a mechanical
gearshift. Such an acceleration is the result of an
abrupt depression of the accelerator pedal, without
the help of a specific control strategy; i.e. for each
engine speed, the VG turbine adjusts its rack in order
to match the boost pressure target, set at full load,

Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10 JER02509 F IMechE 2009

 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine 189

Table 3 Features of the vehicle and transmission

considered for the acceleration test
Vehicle mass (kg) 1165
Tyres 185/70/R14
Tyre rolling resistance coefficient 0.015
Vehicle frontal area (m2) 2.1
Vehicle drag coefficient 0.35
Engine + transmission inertia (kg m2) 0.25
Axle + wheel inertia (kg m2) 0.2
Gearshift type Mechanical
Engine–wheels transmission ratio (Vth) 2.9:1

while the amount of injected fuel corresponds to the

smoke limit. Furthermore, for the two-stroke engine,
the exhaust port effective height is set at full load,
under steady conditions.
In Table 3, the main features of the vehicle and its
transmission are reviewed. It is remarked that the
hypothesis of the same inertia for the two engines is
due to the fact that, on the one hand, the two-stroke
unit has a lighter crankshaft (three pistons instead of
four) and no valvetrain but, on the other hand, it is
mechanically connected to the Roots compressor.
In order to avoid the complication of the EGR
system modelling in the four-stroke engine, it is
assumed that no exhaust recycling occurs, even at
the start of simulation. Furthermore, at the begin-
ning of the calculations, it is supposed that the rack
position corresponds to the full load setting; i.e. the
rack position at partial load is equal to the position
assumed at full load, at the same engine speed.
These hypotheses make the acceleration test a little
bit different from what may happen under road
conditions, but should have no influence on the
comparison between the two engines, which is
indeed the purpose of this simulation.

Fig. 13 Comparison between the two-stroke engine

Fig. 12 Comparison between the two-stroke engine
with the BASE configuration and the four-
stroke reference engine: results of the one-
dimensional simulation
with the BASE configuration and the four-
stroke reference engine in terms of vehicle
velocity and pressure of the charge entering
the cylinders: simulation of a 70–120 km/h
acceleration test

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190 E Mattarelli
Figure 13 presents the results of the acceleration
test in terms of vehicle speed and final boost
pressure (i.e. the pressure of the charge entering
the cylinders after the external compression). The
two-stroke engine dynamic response is about 6 s
quicker, not only because of the higher value of
‘steady’ torque but also of the lower gas dynamic
inertia, as visible from the boost pressure curves.
This lower gas dynamic inertia has been observed
already by the authors in a similar case [22], and it is
ascribed to the fact that, in positive displacement
compressors, delivery pressure is not related to
engine speed, but is imposed by the global system
gas dynamic resistance. In particular, at the begin-
ning of the test the turbine rack closes abruptly and
then the exhaust system permeability falls down; as
a response, the Roots delivery pressure builds up, so
helping the acceleration of the turbocharger. It can
be observed that, just 1 s after the beginning of the
test, the total boost pressure in the two-stroke
engine has reached the steady target (first plateau),
while, for the same purpose, the four-stroke engine
needs about 4 s.
The dynamic performance of the two-stroke
engine can be matched only by a four-stroke engine
with a much larger capacity than the reference unit.
In order to find an equivalence, a 1.9 L turbocharged
HSDI four-stroke diesel engine, with four cylinders
inline, having a maximum brake power of 140 HP at
4000 r/min, was compared to the two-stroke engine
with the EVO configuration, in the same acceleration
test. The results of this comparison are shown in
Fig. 14. As shown, the car powered by the two-stroke
Fig. 14 Comparison between the two-stroke engine
with the EVO configuration and a 1.9 L
turbocharged HSDI four-stroke diesel engine
(top power 140 HP at 4000 r/min). Time
history of the vehicle speed and boost pres-
sure for the simulation of a 70–120 km/h
acceleration test
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
unit remains quicker up to 100 km/h although the
superior power of the four-stroke unit makes the big
engine win for a split second.
11 TWO-STROKE VERSUS FOUR-STROKE
ENGINE AT PARTIAL LOAD
Another comparison between two- and four-stroke
reference engines is performed at partial load (brake
torque 60 and 30 N m, with engine speed varying
from 1250 to 3000 r/min). These operating condi-
tions correspond to the typical engine usage in a
driving cycle for small passenger cars, which are
more likely to be interested in the two-stroke
concept.
It is observed that the reference four-stroke engine
needs a cooled EGR system in order to comply with
EURO IV regulations, while the two-stroke engine
features no device of this sort. Furthermore, the
turbine rack position, exhaust port timing, and Roots
compressor transmission ratio in the two-stroke
engine are set in order to minimize fuel consump-
tion.
The one-dimensional CFD simulation results at
partial load (60 and 30 N m of brake torque) are
shown in Figs 15 and 16. The four diagrams in each
figure correspond to the brake specific fuel con-
sumption (b.s.f.c.), trapped residuals fraction,
trapped air–fuel ratio (i.e. the ratio of fresh air
trapped within the cylinder to the injected fuel), and
maximum in-cylinder pressure. First, it can be
observed that the two-stroke engine operates with
a higher AFR, particularly in the SIMPLE configura-
tion. The lower the load and engine speed, the higher
is the fraction of fresh air in the trapped charge, in
comparison to the four-stroke engine. The reason for
the larger AFR in the SIMPLE and BASE configura-
tions, in comparison to the EVO set-up, is the higher
Roots compressor speed. In fact, in the more
sophisticated two-stroke engine (2S_EVO), the com-
pressor velocity was set in order to lower the
adsorbed power, so enhancing fuel efficiency.
In terms of b.s.f.c., both two-stroke_EVO and two-
stroke_BASE engines show a slightly better fuel
efficiency than the four-stroke reference engine
(+6.6 and +4.4 per cent respectively), while 2S_SIM-
PLE is almost equivalent (+2.3 per cent). The AFR of
2S_EVO may be strongly enhanced simply by
increasing the speed of the Roots compressor, as
set in the SIMPLE and BASE configurations. Ob-
viously, the drawback of this strategy is the worsen-
ing of fuel consumption.
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine 191

Fig. 15 Comparison between the two-stroke engine
with the BASE, EVO, and SIMPLE configura-
tions and the four-stroke reference engine at
partial load conditions (brake torque of
60 N m), showing one-dimensional CFD simu-
lation results
Fig. 16 Comparison between the two-stroke engine
with the BASE, EVO, and SIMPLE configura-
tions and the four-stroke reference engine at
partial load conditions (brake torque of
30 N m), showing one-dimensional CFD simu-
lation results

JER02509 F IMechE 2009 Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10

192 E Mattarelli
In terms of the residual fraction, the two-stroke
engines have something less than the four-stroke
engine. This issue is counterbalanced by more air
excess, particularly at very low loads.
Finally, it is observed that in-cylinder maximum
pressure is always lower in the two-stroke engine.
Therefore, the gas dynamic noise produced by the
two-stroke engine is also expected to be lower.
In order to compare engine-out emissions at
partial load, a new set of combustion simulations
was performed on both the two-stroke engine and
the four-stroke reference engine. The injected fuel
mass required to meet the torque target was
calculated by running one-dimensional simulations,
considering the two-stroke BASE configuration.
These calculations also provided initial and bound-
ary conditions for the scavenging analyses, per-
formed with STAR-CD. Finally, the simulation of the
combustion process, starting from the previously
calculated in-cylinder flow field at EPC, has been
performed by means of the KIVA-3V code. Because
of the time required to complete these simulations,
only four operating conditions were considered:
1500, 2000, 2500, and 3000 r/min, with a brake
torque of 60 N m.
The combustion simulations account for the
composition of the trapped charge, including a
significant amount of residuals. For the prediction
of pollutants, in particular of soot, the KIVA models
were specifically calibrated using the experimental
values available for the four-stroke reference engine.
Thus, the relative comparison between the two-
stroke and the four-stroke engines should not be
affected by large approximations. The comparison
between the two engines in terms of specific
emissions (soot, NO, and CO) is presented in
Table 4.
As shown in Table 4, soot and carbon monoxide
emissions are strongly reduced in the two-stroke
engine (289 and 275 per cent respectively), while
the reduction of nitrogen oxides is less significant.
However, it should be remembered that the two-
Table 4 Comparison between the two-stroke engine and the four-stroke reference engine in
terms of specific emissions at partial load (torque 60 N m)
NOx (g/kW h)
Two-stroke Four-stroke Two-stroke
1500 1.85 2.22 0.18
2000 1.41 1.96 0.40
2500 2.10 1.78 0.29
3000 2.02 2.10 0.23
Int. J. Engine Res. Vol. 10
stroke engine does not need any EGR device to keep
the NOx under control.
12 CONCLUSION
The paper reviews the virtual design process of a
new type of small-capacity, two-stroke HSDI diesel
engine, under development at the Department of
Mechanical and Civil Engineering of the University
of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy). This develop-
ment was carried out through the integrated use of
CFD simulation tools, both one-dimensional and
multidimensional.
The new concept of the engine is the tumble-
supported and spray-controlled combustion system,
which enables the adoption of loop scavenging
without valves and the use of a very simple and
compact combustion chamber, carved in the engine
head.
The concept was applied to a three-cylinder
engine, with a capacity of 1050 cm3, supercharged
by means of a Roots compressor and a variable
geometry turbocharger. Some alternative configura-
tions were also considered. In the most sophisticated
one (2S-EVO), the engine–compressor transmission
ratio can be adjusted as a function of the operating
conditions.
The paper provides a comparison through numer-
ical simulation between the two-stroke engine and a
four-stroke reference engine (1251 cm3, four-cylin-
der, 90 HP at 4000 r/min), at both full and partial
load. It was found that the two-stroke engine can
reach a superior specific power (from 87 up to
113 HP/l versus 75 HP/l) and has higher values of
torque at any speed. Also, the two-stroke engine
transient performances are excellent, in comparison
to the four-stroke engine.
At partial load, the most interesting feature of the
two-stroke engine is that it operates with a higher
AFR than the four-stroke engine. Furthermore, a
high amount of residual gas is always present within
CO (g/kW h) Soot (mg/kW h)
Four-stroke Two-stroke Four-stroke
1.00 1.07 68.22
1.08 28.13 56.26
1.24 4.71 59.91
1.15 6.18 172.42
JER02509 F IMechE 2009
 Virtual design of a novel two-stroke HSDI diesel engine
the cylinder, without the need for an external EGR
system. These conditions guarantee lower values of
engine-out emissions, in particular of soot and CO
(289 and 275 per cent as regards the four-stroke
reference engine). Also, fuel consumption is slightly
better, despite the conservative hypotheses made for
friction losses.
The author fully acknowledges that the study
presented in this paper is just the first step in the
development of a new type of engine. A massive
effort is still required to build a physical prototype
and run experimental tests. In the next phase, it is
predicted that a number of critical issues will
emerge. However, this study demonstrates that the
project has the potential to tackle the future
challenges with good hope of success.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was possible because of the work of the
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia team, made
up of many persons: Professor Giuseppe Cantore,
Fabrizio Paltrinieri, Stefano Fontanesi, Carlo Alberto
Rinaldini, Carlo Arturo De Marco, Vincenzo Ga-
gliardi, and Simone Malaguti, plus a number of
former students: Matteo Galloni, Gabriele Ligabue,
Simone Tegoni, Marco Cavazzuti, Giuseppe Martino,
Paolo Settepanella, Rosario Gabrieli, Raffaele Bab-
bone, Stefano Bernardi, and Filippo Monzani. I wish
to thank all of them for their fundamental contribu-
tion in terms of hard work, enthusiasm, and ideas.
A special thanks to Professor Valeri Golovitchev for
granting the use of his version of the KIVA-3V code.
Last but not least, the author wishes to acknowl-
edge CD-Adapco Group, for the use of the STAR-CD
code, and Gamma Technologies, Westmont, Illinois,
for GT-Power, both granted to the University of
Modena and Reggio Emilia.
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