Heat Transfer Characteristics of Smooth and Finned

Heating Elements in a Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger

under Various System Conditions

Morgan Walli
University of Kentucky
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering
Chemical Engineering Laboratory I

March 5th, 2019 Team 7

ABSTRACT
Heat exchangers are integral to many industrial processes, allowing for the dissipation,

movement, and collection of heat. Crossflow heat exchangers are used in a wide array of

industries, from automotive applications to cryogenics. This paper examines the heat transfer

characteristics of a crossflow heat exchanger. Pressure drop was measured to determine the

flowrate of air through the crossflow duct. Voltage to the active electric heating element was

measured to determine rate of heat transfer. Single smooth tube, smooth tube bundle, and finned

tube bundle configurations were tested, as were various positions of the active element within the

bundle. Rate of heat transfer was found to increase with both increasing active element

temperature and increasing air flowrate. The rate of heat transfer was highest for the finned tube

bundle, with an increasing trend for both the smooth and finned bundles as the active element

was moved downward in the bundle. Reynolds numbers were determined to be an average of

98700 and 90500 for the smooth and finned bundles respectively. These results aid in

understanding the conditions impacting heat exchange in a crossflow system and can be used to

design more effective and efficient crossflow systems for industrial purposes.

Words: 197
TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 2
METHODS .................................................................................................................................... 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 7
CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................... 18
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 20
APPENDIX 1. DIMENSIONS, SURFACE AREA, AND HYDRAULIC DIAMETER....... 21
APPENDIX 2. RAW VOLTAGE AND PRESSURE DROP DATA ...................................... 23
APPENDIX 3. RAW TEMPERATURE DATA ....................................................................... 25
APPENDIX 4. RAW DUCT AIR VELOCITY DATA ............................................................ 27
APPENDIX 5. RAW RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER DATA ................................................. 29
APPENDIX 6. RAW HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT DATA ....................................... 31
APPENDIX 7. REYNOLDS AND NUSSELT NUMBERS AND CORRELATION ............ 33
APPENDIX 8. RAW REYNOLDS NUMBER DATA ............................................................. 34
APPENDIX 9. RAW NUSSELT NUMBER DATA ................................................................. 36
APPENDIX 10. RAW LITERATURE DATA ......................................................................... 38
APPENDIX 11. RELEVANT CONSTANTS ........................................................................... 42
INTRODUCTION
The ability to control the movement, storage, and transfer of heat is critical when it comes to

maintaining the safe and necessary operating conditions of many industrial processes. Ineffective

heat control can result in damage to equipment, poor products, and even dangerous conditions.

Heat exchangers play a primary role in allowing for the efficient and effective transfer of heat and

are used in everything from personal electronics and air conditioning systems1 to processes in the

petrochemical2 and dairy3 industries with applications ranging from heat recovery1 to

sterilization.3 As a result, the governing relationships, theory, and experimental models behind

heat exchangers and their function are a critical aspect of any process and allow for the successful

design and operation of heat transfer systems on any scale. Crossflow heat exchangers, which are

used in automotive and aerospace applications and even cryogenics,4 are one such system.

In a crossflow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluids flow perpendicularly through one another

in enclosed tubes or ducts with convection as the primary mode of heat transfer. The ability to

vary parameters in a crossflow system to achieve the heat transfer characteristics required for a

particular application is critical in implementing the system safely and effectively. The use of

models based on experimental data allows for this understanding. In generating experimental data

for a crossflow system, one of the sets of fluid-containing tubes can be replaced with a solid set of

tubes, including a stationary solid heating element, or active element, which is heated using an

electrical current. The minimal impact of radiation and conduction in the system can be neglected

and the rate of convective heat transfer, Q (W), between the active element and a fluid, such as air,

is given by equation 1. Here, V is the voltage supplied to the active element (V) and R is the

resistance of the active element (Ω).

𝑉2
𝑄= (1)5
𝑅

2
The temperature of the active element can be varied by altering the voltage supplied to the circuit,

in turn changing the temperature gradient of the system and increasing or decreasing the rate of

heat transfer accordingly to suit the application of the crossflow system.

The other parameter of a crossflow system that can be varied to obtain desired heat transfer

characteristics is fluid velocity. In an unobstructed duct, the duct air velocity, U (m/s) of the fluid,

which determines flowrate in a system with a constant cross-sectional area, is given by equation

2. Here, T is the temperature of the fluid (K), ∆h is the pressure drop (mmH2O), and P is the

ambient pressure (N/m2).

𝑇∆ℎ (2)5
𝑈 = 74.294√
𝑃

When the crossflow duct is obstructed, likely by bundles of perpendicular tubes, the velocity must

be scaled based on the characteristics of the obstruction to obtain effective fluid velocity, U’ (m/s).

Equations 3 and 4 relate duct air velocity to effective velocity for the example smooth tube bundles

and finned tube bundles used in this experiment.

𝑈 ′ = 𝑈 ∗ 2.343 (For the smooth tube bundle) (3)5

𝑈 ′ = 𝑈 ∗ 2.167 (For the finned tube bundle) (4)5

As noted previously, the rate of convective heat transfer can be considered as a function of

voltage. It can also be considered a direct function of material properties and conditions within the

crossflow system itself, allowing it to be determined for an applied system where the temperature

gradient depends on the temperature of the fluids – not on the temperature of the heating element

as in modeling. This is accomplished using the convective heat transfer coefficient for the system,

unique to the tube materials used in both application and in modeling. This is given by equation 5,

3
where h is the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2*K), and A is the heat transfer area of the active

element.

𝑄
ℎ= 𝐴 (5)5
(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 )

The basic characteristics of the crossflow system can be further manipulated to give

additional values and models for the system under varied operating conditions, including the

Reynolds and Nusselt numbers and the linear correlation between them (see appendix 7). This

correlation allows the rate of heat transfer for the system to be determined when the convective

heat transfer coefficient, h, is unknown. Only the Reynolds number, the temperature of the two

fluids, the thermal conductivity of the fluids (k, Wm*K), and the wetted diameter of the fluid tubes

(m) are needed for this calculation – all of which can be determined easily, making the correlation

a useful tool for applied crossflow systems.

In this experiment, the overall objective is to characterize the heat transfer characteristics

of a single smooth heating element in a crossflow heat exchanger at various heated element surface

temperatures and numerous flowrates. The characteristics of smooth tube bundle and finned tube

bundle heating configurations will also be determined under varying flowrates at constant

temperature. This data will then be manipulated to determine the heat transfer coefficients for all

three configurations and to obtain the experimental correlation between the Reynolds and Nusselt

numbers, with all findings compared to literature values. While heat exchangers used in industry

are often more refined and complex than the heat exchanger used here, the concepts behind them

are the same, allowing for the application of these results in understanding a wide variety of

systems.

4
METHODS
The schematic of the Hilton Ltd. Crossflow Heat Exchanger that was used in this

experiment is shown in figure 1.

Air In
Cross Sectional Area

Open to
Atmosphere
Top Down Perspective
Manometer

Ruler

Location where
plate with
horizontal tubes
is attached

Open to
Atmosphere Three Heating
Way Element
Valve
Manometer
Temperature Display Main Power Switch
Ruler
Control Panel Voltage
Control
Dial

Air Out Voltmeter

Power
On/Off Switch Supply to On/Off Switch
Switch for
Aperture Heating for Voltage
Fan Ambient vs
Control Element System
Temperature

Power Supply Input from

Thermocouple

Figure 1. Schematic of the Hilton Ltd. Crossflow Heat exchanger with flow of air through the heat
exchanger and relevant measurement devices and circuitry shown.
The heat exchanger is composed of a rectangular duct oriented vertically, through which air flows

from top to bottom. Halfway up the duct, the plate on which the single, smooth, and finned tube

configurations can be attached is inserted into the duct with the tubes oriented horizontally. The

flowrate of the fluid, room temperature air (294K), was regulated using an aperture control on the

fan that was moving the air and was measured using pressure drop with two manometers, each

5
calibrated with a ruler and each with one end open to atmosphere. The upper manometer was used

to measure pressure drop for the single smooth tube configuration and the lower manometer was

used to measure pressure drop for the bundled configurations. Flow to manometers was controlled

using a three-way valve.

Voltage to the active element was controlled using a dial and was monitored using an

analog voltmeter. The surface temperature of the active element was measured using a

thermocouple and was viewed digitally. The active element itself was changed to be finned or

smooth according to trial and was inserted into the tube-containing plates in the various locations

shown in figure 2, the primary connection between the control tower and the duct.

Figure 2. Schematic of the three heating configurations used with heated positions shown in
red. The first (left) configuration is the single smooth tube heating configuration and consists
of only the smooth heating element. The second (middle) is the smooth tube bundle
configuration and consists of six locations, designated A through F from the top down, where
the single heating element may be placed. The other locations noted are the locations of the
non-heated smooth tubes. The third (right) is the finned tube bundle configuration and
consists of four locations where the finned heating element may be placed, designated A
through D from the top down. The other locations noted are the locations of the non-heated
finned tubes.
The heat exchanger was maintained within its maximum operating condition of 373K5,6 and with

pressure drops not exceeding 637 Pa.6

6
 For the single smooth tube configuration trials, aperture settings on the fan were used to

adjust the flowrate and, for the first trial, were varied to allow for a total of five flowrates across

the maximum range of flowrates permitted by the equipment. Then, the baseline pressure drops

(corresponding to air velocity) established by the first trial were replicated for the subsequent trials,

which were conducted at 343K, 363K, and in triplicate at 323K. The same process was repeated

for the trials using the smooth and finned tube bundles, but the temperature for the bundled trials

was held constant at 323K. At each pressure reading, the fluid in the manometer was read using

the ruler that was calibrated according to atmospheric pressure (no flow through the heat

exchanger) at the start of each set of trials.

As in any experiment, safety precautions were taken into consideration and implemented.

Of particular concern with the crossflow heat exchanger equipment were the hazards posed by the

moving blades of the fan, the electrical circuitry, and the hot temperatures encountered on the

active heating element. Safety precautions taken to guard against these risks included tying back

hair and removing loose clothing and jewelry to prevent it getting caught in the fan, using eye

protection, allowing the active element to cool to 323K or less before turning off the flow of air,

using insulating gloves when handling the active element, and maintaining quality, well insulated

circuitry.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The rate of heat transfer for the single smooth tube configuration was found to increase with

increasing flowrate. Voltages required to maintain a surface temperature of 323K increased from

an average of 28.2V to 32.17V as flowrates, expressed as pressure drop, increased from 49.0Pa to

198Pa in the triplicate trials. The rate of heat transfer versus the Reynolds number for the single

smooth configuration is shown in figure 3.

7
 375000
70C - Trial 1
300000 90C - Trial 1
Reynolds Number

50 C - Trial 1
225000 50C - Trial 2
50C - Trial 3
150000

75000

0
0 10 20 30 40
Rate of Heat Transfer, Q (W)

Figure 3. Reynolds number shown as a function of rate of heat transfer, Q (W) for the
crossflow heat exchanger with the single smooth tube heating configuration under various
flowrates and temperatures. Varied flowrates, expressed here as pressure drop, are 49.0Pa,
78.5Pa, 130Pa, 179Pa, and 199Pa, shown on the graph respectively in order of increasing
color darkness. Standard deviations are so small that error bars are not visible on the graph.
Standard deviation for rate of heat transfer is 0.174W and standard deviation for Reynolds
number is 26.6.
The rate of heat transfer is found to increase with increasing active element temperature, as seen

in figure 3, while the Reynolds number increased with increasing flowrate. Reynolds numbers

across changing temperatures at equal flowrates are found to be consistent, demonstrating the

independence of flowrate from temperature. In an error analysis of triplicate data, the Reynolds

number had a minimal standard deviation of 26.6, while the rate of heat transfer had a standard

deviation of 0.174W, implying a high level of precision.

The experimentally determined correlation between the Reynolds and Nusselt numbers for

the crossflow system with the single smooth tube is shown in figure 4.

8
 2.05

2
Log (Nu)

1.95

70C - Trial 1
1.9
90C - Trial 1
50C - Trial 1
1.85 50C - Trial 2
50C - Trial 3
1.8
4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5 5.1
Log (Re)
Figure 4. The base-ten log of the Nusselt number shown as a linear function of the base-ten
log of Reynold’s number for the heat exchanger with the single smooth tube heating
configuration under various flowrates and temperatures. Varied flowrates, expressed here
as pressure drop, are 49.0Pa, 78.5Pa, 130Pa, 179Pa, and 199Pa, shown on the graph
respectively in order of increasing color darkness. Standard deviations are small and are not
visible here. Standard deviation for Reynolds number was 26.6 and standard deviation for
the Nusselt number was 1.56 on a normal (not logarithmic) scale. Raw Reynolds and Nusselt
numbers are available in appendices 8 and 9.
The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers are both seen to increase with increasing flowrate, while

variation across temperatures is minimal. The experimental correlation across all temperatures can

be modeled by equation 6, with an R2 value of 0.8184.

𝑦 = 0.03863𝑥 − 0.1371 (6)

The literature correlation from the equipment manual is expressed in equation 7, with an R2 value

of 0.9875.

𝑦 = 0.04429𝑥 + 0.0484 (7)6

Compared to the correlation from literature, the experimental relationship is found to be

significantly lower, with experimental Nusselt numbers across the pressure drop range from 49.0

9
to 198.6Pa ranging from 72.3 to 99.0 compared to the literature range of 378.1 to 683.0 across a

comparable pressure drop range from 39.2Pa to 196Pa.

For the trials using bundles of fins, approximately twice as much voltage was required to

maintain temperature for the finned tube bundle, evidence of the significantly higher rate of heat

transfer in the finned tube configuration. An average of 62.06V was needed across flowrates and

positions, compared to the smooth tube bundle, with an average of 33.17V needed. The smooth

tube bundle, in turn, required slightly higher voltage at a smaller flowrate to maintain an active

element surface temperature of 323K compared to the single smooth tube configuration.

Rate of heat transfer versus Reynolds number for the smooth tube bundle and the finned

tube bundle are shown in figure 5 and figure 6, respectively.

105000
Position A
Position B
Reynolds Number

Position C
100000
Position D
Position E
Position F
95000

90000
5 8 11 14 17 20
Rate of Heat Transfer, Q (W)

Figure 5. Reynolds number shown as a function of rate of heat transfer, Q (W) for the
crossflow heat exchanger with the smooth tube bundle heating configuration under various
flowrates and positions, as denoted in figure 2, at 50ᴼC. Varied flowrates, expressed here as
pressure drop, are 29.4Pa, 32.4Pa, 35.3Pa, 36.3Pa, and 37.3Pa, shown on the graph
respectively in order of increasing color darkness. Standard deviations are so small that
error bars are not visible on the graph. Standard deviation for rate of heat transfer is 0.174W
and standard deviation for Reynolds number is 26.6.

10
 100000
Position A
Position B

95000 Position C
Reynolds Number

Position D

90000

85000

80000
30 33 36 39 42 45
Rate of Heat Transfer, Q (W)

Figure 6. Reynolds number shown as a function of rate of heat transfer, Q (W) for the
crossflow heat exchanger with the finned tube bundle heating configuration under various
flowrates and positions, as denoted in figure 2, at 50ᴼC. Varied flowrates, expressed here as
pressure drop, are 29.4Pa, 32.4Pa, 35.3Pa, 36.3Pa, and 37.3Pa, shown on the graph
respectively in order of increasing color darkness. Standard deviations are so small that
error bars are not visible on the graph. Standard deviation for rate of heat transfer is 0.174W
and standard deviation for Reynolds number is 26.6.
As in the single smooth tube configuration, the rate of heat transfer is seen to increase for

increasing flowrate for both the smooth and finned tube bundles. However, rate of heat transfer

increased significantly for the finned bundle compared to the smooth bundle at comparable air

flowrates. The smooth tube bundle has an average rate of heat transfer of 16.08W, standard

deviation 2.3, at an average duct air velocity of 17.5m/s, standard deviation 0.68, compared to the

average rate of heat transfer of 39.8W, standard deviation 2.7, for the finned tube bundle at an

average duct air velocity of 16.1m/s, standard deviation 0.89.

Rate of heat transfer is seen to increase with decreasing position (further down the duct) of

the active element, with the largest difference for the finned tube bundle between positions A and

11
B, as denoted in figure 2. The impact of position between positions B, C, and D is present, but

minimal. Position makes a more significant difference overall for the smooth tube bundle where

there is a significant increase in rate of heat transfer between positions A and B and between

positions B and C, but this affect also tapers off at positions D, E, and F, which all present with

similar rates of heat transfer.

The finned bundle is found to have a lower Reynolds number compared to the smooth tube

bundle and to have a narrower Reynolds number range compared to the literature values.

Experimental Reynolds numbers for the finned tube bundle were in the 81800 to 95300 range for

the rate of heat transfer range of 19.45W to 34.22W and the corresponding voltage range of 44.V

to 58.5V. The literature range for Reynolds number was 66600 to 112000 over a rate of heat

transfer range of 34.44W to 42.49W and corresponding voltage range of 57.8V to 64.2V range.6

The smooth tube bundle was also found to have a higher Reynolds number compared to literature,

with a range of 915000 to 103000 over a corresponding voltage range of 28.2V to 35.8V compared

to a literature range of 66000 to 176000 across positions and flowrates with a corresponding

voltage range of 35.2V to 59.0V.6

The correlation between Reynolds Number and Nusselt number for the finned tube bundle

and the smooth tube bundle are shown in figure 7 and figure 8 respectively.

12
 2.1
Position A
2.05 Position B
Position C
Log (Nu)

2 Position D
Position E
1.95 Position F

1.9

1.85
4.95 4.98 5.01 5.04
Log (Re)
Figure 7. The base-ten log of the Nusselt number shown as a linear function of the base-ten
log of Reynold’s number for the heat exchanger with the smooth tube bundle heating
configuration under various flowrates and temperatures. Positions are denoted in figure 2.
Varied flowrates, expressed here as pressure drop, are 29.4Pa, 32.4Pa, 35.3Pa, 36.3Pa, and
37.3Pa, shown on the graph respectively in order of increasing color darkness. Standard
deviations are small and are not visible here. Positions C and E are largely hidden, but follow
the same trend as position F. Standard deviation for Reynolds number is 26.6 and standard
deviation for the Nusselt number is 1.56 on a normal (not logarithmic) scale. Raw Reynolds
and Nusselt numbers are available in appendices 8 and 9.

1.98

1.96
Position A
1.94 Position B
Log (Nu)

1.92 Position C
Position D
1.9

1.88

1.86
4.89 4.92 4.95 4.98 5.01
Log (Re)
Figure 8. The base-ten log of the Nusselt number shown as a linear function of the base-ten
log of Reynold’s number for the heat exchanger with the smooth tube bundle heating
configuration under various flowrates and temperatures. Positions are denoted in figure 2.
Varied flowrates, expressed here as pressure drop, are 29.4Pa, 32.4Pa, 35.3Pa, 36.3Pa, and
37.3Pa, shown on the graph respectively in order of increasing color darkness. Standard
deviations are small and are not visible here. Standard deviation for Reynolds number is
26.6 and standard deviation for the Nusselt number is 1.56 on a normal (not logarithmic)
scale. Raw Reynolds and Nusselt numbers are available in appendices 8 and 9.

13
Overall, the experimental Reynolds and Nusselt correlation obtained from the figures above, which

is modeled by equations 8 and 9, is very similar to the theoretical relationship for the smooth tube

bundle across the ranges considered in this experiment, which shows the same qualitative trends.

For the finned tube bundle, the experimental correlation is significantly smaller compared to the

literature values.

𝑦 = 0.8363𝑥 − 2.562 (For the Smooth Tube Bundle Experimental) (8)

𝑦 = 0.4158𝑥 − 0.3288 (For the Finned Tube Bundle Experimental) (9)

Literature correlations are modeled by equation 10 and 11.

𝑦 = 0.99𝑥 − 2.2896 (For the Smooth Tube Bundle Literature) (10)6

𝑦 = 1.0271𝑥 − 2.2843 (For the Finned Tube Bundle Literature) (11)6

Heat transfer coefficient h (W/m2*K) versus pressure drop (Pa) for the single smooth tube

configuration is shown in figure 9. Here, flowrate is modeled as a function of pressure drop,

since pressure drop is the primary determinant of air velocity, and thus flowrate, due to constant

cross-sectional area and only minor fluctuations in ambient room temperature.

14
 Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2*K)

175

125

70C - Trial 1 90C - Trial 1

50C - Trial 1 50C - Trial 2
50C - Trial 3 Literature
75
0 50 100 150 200
Pressure Drop (Pa)

Figure 9. The heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m2*K) versus pressure drop (Pa), a measure of
flowrate and duct air velocity, for the heat exchanger with the single smooth tube heating
configuration under various flowrates and temperatures with literature values shown.
Varied flowrates, expressed here as pressure drop, are 49.0Pa, 78.5Pa, 130Pa, 179Pa, and
199Pa. Standard deviation for the heat transfer coefficient is 2.68 W/m2*K and is too small
to be visible on the graph.
The heat transfer coefficient is observed to be consistent across temperatures and only

increases slightly with increasing flowrate. Heat transfer coefficients for the single smooth tube

trials were determined to be slightly higher than the expected theoretical heat transfer coefficients,

with the average heat transfer coefficient across a comparable range of pressure drops equal to

151.81 W/m2*K, standard deviation 15.8, for the experimental data and 129.01 W/m2*K, standard

deviation 19.05, for the theoretical data.

Heat transfer coefficients versus pressure drop for the smooth and finned tube bundles are

shown in figures 10 and 11, respectively.

15
 200
Heat Transfer Coeffcient

Position A
150 Position B
(W/m2*K)

Position C
100 Position D
Position E
Position F
50

0
25 30 35 40
Pressure Drop (Pa)

Figure 10. The heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m2*K) versus pressure drop (Pa), a measure
of flowrate and duct air velocity, for the heat exchanger with the smooth tube bundle heating
configuration under various flowrates and temperatures with literature values shown.
Positions are denoted in figure 2. Varied flowrates, expressed here as pressure drop, are
29.4Pa, 32.4Pa, 35.3Pa, 36.3Pa, and 37.3Pa. Standard deviation for the heat transfer
coefficient is 2.68 W/m2*K and is too small to be visible on the graph. Positions C and E are
largely hidden, but follow the same trend as position F.

100
Heat Transfer Coefficient
(W/m2*K)

90

80
Position A Position B
Position C Position D
70
25 30 35 40
Pressure Drop (Pa)

Figure 11. The heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m2*K) versus pressure drop (Pa), a measure
of flowrate and duct air velocity, for the heat exchanger with the smooth tube bundle heating
configuration under various flowrates and temperatures with literature values shown.
Positions are denoted in figure 2. Varied flowrates, expressed here as pressure drop, are
29.4Pa, 32.4Pa, 35.3Pa, 36.3Pa, and 37.3Pa. Standard deviation for the heat transfer
coefficient is 2.68 W/m2*K and is too small to be visible on the graph.

16
For both the smooth and finned bundles, heat transfer coefficients are found to vary primarily as a

function of tube position. Heat transfer coefficients increase as the active element is positioned

lower among the other tubes in the group, indicative of mixing effects caused by the disruption of

fluid flow by the tubes – not accounted for in Reynolds number – significantly impacting fluid

flow in the duct. There is, however, a larger difference overall at comparable flow rates when it

comes to impact of heating position for the smooth tube configuration compared to the finned tube

configuration, with the largest change for the finned tube heat transfer between the top two heating

element locations, after which position has minimal impact.

Like the heat transfer coefficient for the single tube, the experimental heat transfer

coefficient for the smooth tube bundle was found to be higher and change more than the theoretical

heat transfer coefficient, with an average of 183.21 W/m2*K, standard deviation 26.59, across all

smooth tube bundle trial compared to a theoretical average of 120.20 W/m2*K, standard deviation

17.7, across trials with comparable pressure drops. The experimental heat transfer coefficient is

smaller for the finned tube bundle compared to the experimental values obtained for the smooth

tube bundle, coming in well below the theoretical average of 114.11 W/m2*K, standard deviation

20.28, across positions and flowrates at an average of 92.7 W/m2*K, standard deviation 6.4. The

change in heat transfer coefficient with flowrate was also smaller for the experimental data, with

a range of 19 W/m2*K compared to the theoretical range of 64W/m2*K.

The deviation between literature values and experimental values, as well as variation

impacting intraexperiment comparison, must be considered in an analysis of the error associated

with the experiment and the crossflow heat exchanger as a whole. Foremost among sources of

error is the voltage supplied to the meter. Due to outdated, analog equipment, the voltage was hard

to control and varied widely even when the adjustment itself was not being changed, making the

17
resulting voltage values questionable in both precision and accuracy. The impact of this form of

error is difficult to extrapolate as the degree, direction, and consistency of error is unknown and

was not possible to test with available equipment. Additional sources of error include variation in

air humidity, impacting the heat transfer characteristics of the air, and variation in flowrate for the

fan for consistent aperture settings. This source of error was minimized by altering the aperture to

obtain the desired pressure drop. However, the capacity of the fan to move the same amount of air

consistently was inadequate, resulting in a limited possible range of collected data values and, thus,

less broad and more erroneous data. Another significant source of error involves literature values.

The authors of the Hilton Ltd. Cross Flow Heat Exchanger manual made numerous errors in both

individual calculations and in the use of formulas, requiring the reanalysis of raw literature data to

allow for a direct comparison. More importantly, such mistakes bring the validity of the raw data

itself into question. Thus, the literature baseline to which experimental values are compared must

be considered cautiously.

CONCLUSIONS
The principal objectives outlined for this experiment were to characterize the heat transfer

characteristics of a single smooth heating element in a crossflow heat exchanger at varying heated

element surface temperatures and numerous flowrates, to characterize the smooth tube bundle and

finned tube bundle heating configurations, to obtain experimentally the heat transfer coefficients

for the system under various conditions, to determine the correlation between the Reynolds and

Nusselt numbers, and to compare findings to values from literature. Rate of heat transfer was

determined to vary primarily as a function of flowrate and temperature for the single smooth tube

configuration, increasing with increasing flowrate and active element temperature. In addition to

these two factors, active element position also played a significant role in determining rate of heat

18
transfer for both the smooth tube and finned tube bundles. Overall, the finned tube bundle was

determined to have a lower Reynolds number, higher rate of heat transfer, and lower heat transfer

coefficient compared to the smooth tube bundle. The correlations between Reynolds number and

the Nusselt number varied in accuracy compared to the literature values, with the correlation for

the smooth tube bundle being the only correlation with a high degree of similarity to literature

results. However, in order to allow for a more accurate conclusions regarding the validity of

comparing experimental results to values presented in the equipment manual, additional trials

would need to be obtained on numerous other Hilton Ltd. Crossflow units, which may behave

differently, to develop an average that could be used to eliminate or confirm the possibility of

inaccurate literature values as presented in the equipment manual. Additional experimental trials,

including triplicate trials for the bundled configurations and trials across a larger range of pressure

drops, would also need to be run and extraneous factors, such as air humidity, controlled for.

Analysis of the error associated with the voltmeter and voltage control used, in addition to possible

updates to both the heating equipment and fan, would also allow for more trustworthy results.

Combined, these additional findings would, ultimately, allow for a more certain application of the

experimental findings presented here to the design and operation of cross flow heat exchangers in

industrial applications.

19
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place in the dairy industry: Case study of an ultra-high temperature heat exchanger. Journal of
Dairy Science 2010, 93 (2), 808-821.

4. I. Kotcioglu, S. Caliskan, S. Baskaya, Transient Turbulent Flow and Heat Transfer Phenomena
in Plate-Fin Type Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger. Heat Transfer Engineering, 2011, 32 (1), 20-32.

5. N. Miller. Cross Flow Heat Exchanger, The University of Kentucky Department of Chemical
and Materials Engineering, Lexington, KY, January 2019.

6. P.A. Hilton Ltd., Cross Flow Heat Exchanger H350, P.A. Hilton Ltd., Hampshire, England.

7. A.M. Lewis, Measuring the hydraulic diameter of a pore or conduit. American Journal of
Botany 1992, 79 (10), 1158-1161.

8. “Viscosity of Air, Dynamic and Kinetic.” Engineers edge, 2019. Accessed March 4, 2019.
https://www.engineersedge.com/physics/viscosity_of_air_dynamic_and_kinematic_14483.htm

9. J.R Welty, G.L. Rorrer, and D.G. Foster, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Sixth
Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2015.

20
APPENDIX 1. DIMENSIONS, SURFACE AREA, AND HYDRAULIC DIAMETER

Table 1. Dimensions and relevant numbers for both the smooth tube heating element and
non-heated tubes and the finned heating element and non-heated tubes. Calculations and
associated error values for heated surface areas for both the smooth and finned heating
elements.

SMOOTH TUBE DIMENSIONS AND SURFACE AREA

Dimension Value Error
Length (m) 0.05 0.00005
Diameter (m) 0.01574 0.000005
Heated Area (m )2 0.002472 2.59418E-06
# Total Tubes in Cross-Section 27 --
# HEATED Tubes in Cross-Section 1 --

FINNED TUBE DIMENSIONS AND SURFACE AREA

Dimension Value Error
Length of Heating Surface (m) 0.0550 0.0005
Inner Diameter (m) 0.0128 0.000005
Outer Diameter (m) 0.0250 0.00005
Fin Thickness (m) 0.000520 0.000005
Fin Length (m) 0.00611 2.51247E-05
# Fin Wraps around Tube 14 --

Inner Edge Width (Linear) 0.565 --

Inner Sinusoidal Curve Length to 1.79 --
Linear Length Ratio
Inner Edge Width (Sinusoidal) 1.014 --
Outer Edge Width 1.101 --

Fin Area top + bottom (m2) 0.0129 --

Fin Area edge (m2) 0.000573 --
Total Finn Area (m2) 0.0135 --

Exposed Primary Surface Area (m2) 0.00168 --

Total Heat Transfer Area (m2) 0.0152 --

# Total Tubes in Cross-Section 18 --
# HEATED Tubes in Cross-Section 1 --

21
Table 2. Diameter and hydraulic diameter calculations for the crossflow heat exchanger.

CROSSFLOW CROSS-SECTION DIMENSIONS AND HYDRAULIC DIAMETER

Specification Value
Width (m) 0.157
Depth (m) 0.0625
Area (m2) 0.00984
Wetted Perimeter (m) 0.439
Hydraulic Diameter (m) 0.0895

Hydraulic Diameter is calculated according to the following equation where A is cross-sectional

area and P is perimeter:7

4𝐴 (12)7
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑃

22
APPENDIX 2. RAW VOLTAGE AND PRESSURE DROP DATA

Table 3. Raw experimental pressure drop and voltage data for both the single smooth tube
heating configuration for all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration for
all trials.

SMOOTH SINGLE TUBE SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Pressure Drop Voltage Pressure Drop Voltage
Trial (mmH2O) (ohms) Trial (mmH2O) (ohms)
70C - Trial 1 5 36 Position A 3 28.2
70C - Trial 1 8 38.1 Position A 3.3 28.2
70C - Trial 1 13.25 39.9 Position A 3.6 29
70C - Trial 1 18.25 41.1 Position A 3.7 29
70C - Trial 1 20.25 41.3 Position A 3.8 29.1
90C - Trial 1 4.5 42 Position B 3.1 30.8
90C - Trial 1 8 44.2 Position B 3.3 31
90C - Trial 1 13.5 46 Position B 3.6 31.5
90C - Trial 1 18.25 47.8 Position B 3.7 31.8
90C - Trial 1 20.25 48.6 Position B 3.8 32
50C - Trial 1 5 28.4 Position C 3.1 34.1
50C - Trial 1 9 30 Position C 3.3 35
50C - Trial 1 14.5 31.6 Position C 3.6 35.8
50C - Trial 1 18.5 32.1 Position C 3.7 35.9
50C - Trial 1 21 32.2 Position C 3.8 35.7
50C - Trial 2 5 28.2 Position D 3.1 34.2
50C - Trial 2 9 29.9 Position D 3.3 34.2
50C - Trial 2 14.5 31 Position D 3.6 35.8
50C - Trial 2 18.5 32.1 Position D 3.7 35.2
50C - Trial 2 21 32.4 Position D 3.8 35.5
50C - Trial 3 5 28 Position E 3.1 33.9
50C - Trial 3 9 29.9 Position E 3.3 34
50C - Trial 3 14.5 31 Position E 3.6 34.2
50C - Trial 3 18.5 31.9 Position E 3.7 35
50C - Trial 3 21 31.9 Position E 3.8 35.2
Position F 3.1 33.8
Position F 3.3 34
Position F 3.6 34.2
Position F 3.7 34.3
Position F 3.8 34.6

23
Table 4. Raw experimental pressure drop and voltage data for the finned tube bundle heating
configuration for all trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Pressure Drop Voltage
(mmH2O) (ohms)
Position A 2.8 57.8
Position A 3.3 58.1
Position A 3.6 59
Position A 3.7 59.2
Position A 3.8 59.4
Position B 2.8 61.5
Position B 3.3 62.2
Position B 3.6 63
Position B 3.7 63.2
Position B 3.8 63.8
Position C 2.8 62.1
Position C 3.3 63
Position C 3.6 63.8
Position C 3.7 63.9
Position C 3.8 64
Position D 2.8 62
Position D 3.3 63
Position D 3.6 64
Position D 3.7 64.1
Position D 3.8 64.2

24
APPENDIX 3. RAW TEMPERATURE DATA

Table 5. Raw ambient and heating element surface temperature data for both the single
smooth tube heating configuration for all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating
configuration for all trials.

SMOOTH SINGLE TUBE SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Ambient Surface Ambient Surface
Trial Temp (K) Temp (K) Trial Temp (K) Temp (K)
70C - Trial 1 294.75 343.15 Position A 294.65 323.15
70C - Trial 1 294.75 343.15 Position A 294.65 323.15
70C - Trial 1 294.65 343.15 Position A 294.55 323.15
70C - Trial 1 294.85 343.15 Position A 294.55 323.15
70C - Trial 1 294.75 343.15 Position A 294.65 323.15
90C - Trial 1 294.75 363.15 Position B 294.65 323.15
90C - Trial 1 294.55 363.15 Position B 294.65 323.15
90C - Trial 1 294.55 363.15 Position B 294.65 323.15
90C - Trial 1 294.65 363.15 Position B 294.65 323.15
90C - Trial 1 294.35 363.15 Position B 294.65 323.15
50C - Trial 1 294.75 323.15 Position C 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 1 294.75 323.15 Position C 294.65 323.15
50C - Trial 1 294.65 323.15 Position C 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 1 294.65 323.15 Position C 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 1 294.65 323.15 Position C 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 2 294.35 323.15 Position D 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 2 294.45 323.15 Position D 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 2 294.35 323.15 Position D 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 2 294.25 323.15 Position D 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 2 294.35 323.15 Position D 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 3 294.25 323.15 Position E 294.75 323.15
50C - Trial 3 294.35 323.15 Position E 294.85 323.15
50C - Trial 3 294.35 323.15 Position E 294.85 323.15
50C - Trial 3 294.35 323.15 Position E 294.85 323.15
50C - Trial 3 294.55 323.15 Position E 294.85 323.15
Position F 294.85 323.15
Position F 294.85 323.15
Position F 294.85 323.15
Position F 294.95 323.15
Position F 294.85 323.15

25
Table 6. Raw ambient and heating element surface temperature data for the finned tube
bundle heating configuration for all trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Ambient Surface
Temp (K) Temp (K)
Position A 294.75 323.15
Position A 294.75 323.15
Position A 294.75 323.15
Position A 294.75 323.15
Position A 294.75 323.15
Position B 294.95 323.15
Position B 294.85 323.15
Position B 294.75 323.15
Position B 294.95 323.15
Position B 294.75 323.15
Position C 294.95 323.15
Position C 294.95 323.15
Position C 294.95 323.15
Position C 294.95 323.15
Position C 294.85 323.15
Position D 294.95 323.15
Position D 295.05 323.15
Position D 294.95 323.15
Position D 294.95 323.15
Position D 294.85 323.15

26
APPENDIX 4. RAW DUCT AIR VELOCITY DATA

Table 7. Raw duct air velocity data for both the single smooth tube heating configuration for
all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration for all trials.

SMOOTH SINGLE TUBE SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Air Velocity Air Velocity Effective Air
Trial (m/s) Trial (m/s) Velocity (m/s)
70C - Trial 1 8.96 ± 0.005 Position A 6.94 ± 0.005 16.26
70C - Trial 1 11.33 ± 0.005 Position A 7.28 ± 0.005 17.05
70C - Trial 1 14.58 ± 0.005 Position A 7.60 ± 0.005 17.81
70C - Trial 1 17.12 ± 0.005 Position A 7.71 ± 0.005 18.05
70C - Trial 1 18.03 ± 0.005 Position A 7.81 ± 0.005 18.29
90C - Trial 1 8.50 ± 0.005 Position B 7.05 ± 0.005 16.53
90C - Trial 1 11.33 ± 0.005 Position B 7.28 ± 0.005 17.05
90C - Trial 1 14.72 ± 0.005 Position B 7.60 ± 0.005 17.81
90C - Trial 1 17.12 ± 0.005 Position B 7.71 ± 0.005 18.06
90C - Trial 1 18.02 ± 0.005 Position B 7.81 ± 0.005 18.29
50C - Trial 1 8.96 ± 0.005 Position C 7.06 ± 0.005 16.53
50C - Trial 1 12.02 ± 0.005 Position C 7.28 ± 0.005 17.05
50C - Trial 1 15.26 ± 0.005 Position C 7.60 ± 0.005 17.81
50C - Trial 1 17.23 ± 0.005 Position C 7.71 ± 0.005 18.06
50C - Trial 1 18.36 ± 0.005 Position C 7.81 ± 0.005 18.30
50C - Trial 2 8.95 ± 0.005 Position D 7.06 ± 0.005 16.53
50C - Trial 2 12.01 ± 0.005 Position D 7.28 ± 0.005 17.05
50C - Trial 2 15.25 ± 0.005 Position D 7.60 ± 0.005 17.81
50C - Trial 2 17.22 ± 0.005 Position D 7.71 ± 0.005 18.06
50C - Trial 2 18.35 ± 0.005 Position D 7.81 ± 0.005 18.30
50C - Trial 3 8.95 ± 0.005 Position E 7.06 ± 0.005 16.53
50C - Trial 3 12.01 ± 0.005 Position E 7.28 ± 0.005 17.058
50C - Trial 3 15.25 ± 0.005 Position E 7.60 ± 0.005 17.82
50C - Trial 3 17.22 ± 0.005 Position E 7.71 ± 0.005 18.06
50C - Trial 3 18.36 ± 0.005 Position E 7.81 ± 0.005 18.30
Position F 7.06 ± 0.005 16.53
Position F 7.28 ± 0.005 17.06
Position F 7.60 ± 0.005 17.82
Position F 7.71 ± 0.005 18.07
Position F 7.81 ± 0.005 18.30

27
Table 8. Raw duct air velocity and effective air velocity data for the finned tube bundle
heating configuration for all trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Air Velocity Effective Air Velocity
Trial (m/s) (m/s)
Position A 6.71 ± 0.005 14.53
Position A 7.28 ± 0.005 15.77
Position A 7.60 ± 0.005 16.48
Position A 7.71 ± 0.005 16.70
Position A 7.81 ± 0.005 16.93
Position B 6.71 ± 0.005 14.53
Position B 7.28 ± 0.005 15.78
Position B 7.60 ± 0.005 16.48
Position B 7.71 ± 0.005 16.71
Position B 7.81 ± 0.005 16.93
Position C 6.71 ± 0.005 14.53
Position C 7.28 ± 0.005 15.78
Position C 7.61 ± 0.005 16.48
Position C 7.71 ± 0.005 16.71
Position C 7.81 ± 0.005 16.93
Position D 6.71 ± 0.005 14.53
Position D 7.28 ± 0.005 15.78
Position D 7.61 ± 0.005 16.48
Position D 7.71 ± 0.005 16.71
Position D 7.81 ± 0.005 16.93

28
APPENDIX 5. RAW RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER DATA
Table 9. Raw rate of heat transfer data for both the single smooth tube heating configuration
for all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration for all trials.
SINGLE SMOOTH TUBE
Trial Rate of Heat
Transfer, Q (W)
70C - Trial 1 18.84 ± 0.174
70C - Trial 1 21.09 ± 0.174
70C - Trial 1 23.14 ± 0.174
70C - Trial 1 24.55 ± 0.174
70C - Trial 1 24.79 ± 0.174
90C - Trial 1 25.64 ± 0.174
90C - Trial 1 28.39 ± 0.174
90C - Trial 1 30.76 ± 0.174
90C - Trial 1 33.21 ± 0.174
90C - Trial 1 34.33 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 1 11.72 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 1 13.08 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 1 14.51 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 1 14.98 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 1 15.07 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 2 11.56 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 2 12.99 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 2 13.97 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 2 14.98 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 2 15.26 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 3 11.39 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 3 12.99 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 3 13.97 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 3 14.79 ± 0.174
50C - Trial 3 14.79 ± 0.174
29
SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE
Trial Rate of Heat
Transfer, Q (W)
Position A 11.56 ± 0.174
Position A 11.56 ± 0.174
Position A 12.22 ± 0.174
Position A 12.22 ± 0.174
Position A 12.31 ± 0.174
Position B 13.79 ± 0.174
Position B 13.97 ± 0.174
Position B 14.42 ± 0.174
Position B 14.69 ± 0.174
Position B 14.88 ± 0.174
Position C 16.90 ± 0.174
Position C 17.81 ± 0.174
Position C 18.63 ± 0.174
Position C 18.73 ± 0.174
Position C 18.52 ± 0.174
Position D 17.00 ± 0.174
Position D 17.00 ± 0.174
Position D 18.63 ± 0.174
Position D 18.01 ± 0.174
Position D 18.32 ± 0.174
Position E 16.70 ± 0.174
Position E 16.80 ± 0.174
Position E 17.00 ± 0.174
Position E 17.81 ± 0.174
Position E 18.01 ± 0.174
Position F 16.61 ± 0.174
Position F 16.80 ± 0.174
Position F 17.00 ± 0.174
Position F 17.10 ± 0.174
Position F 17.40 ± 0.174
Table 10. Raw rate of heat transfer data for the finned tube bundle heating configuration
for all trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Rate of Heat
Transfer, Q (W)
Position A 34.44 ± 0.174
Position A 34.80 ± 0.174
Position A 35.87 ± 0.174
Position A 36.13 ± 0.174
Position A 36.37 ± 0.174
Position B 38.99 ± 0.174
Position B 39.88 ± 0.174
Position B 40.92 ± 0.174
Position B 41.18 ± 0.174
Position B 41.96 ± 0.174
Position C 39.76 ± 0.174
Position C 40.92 ± 0.174
Position C 41.96 ± 0.174
Position C 42.09 ± 0.174
Position C 42.23 ± 0.174
Position D 39.63 ± 0.174
Position D 40.92 ± 0.174
Position D 42.23 ± 0.174
Position D 42.36 ± 0.174
Position D 42.49 ± 0.174

30
APPENDIX 6. RAW HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT DATA

Table 11. Raw heat transfer coefficient data for both the single smooth tube heating
configuration for all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration for all trials.

SINGLE SMOOTH TUBE SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Heat Transfer Trial Heat Transfer
Trial Coefficient, h (W/m2 K) Coefficient, h (W/m2 K)
70C - Trial 1 125.93 ± 2.68 Position A 131.23 ± 2.68
70C - Trial 1 141.06 ± 2.68 Position A 131.23 ± 2.68
70C - Trial 1 154.38 ± 2.68 Position A 138.29 ± 2.68
70C - Trial 1 164.48 ± 2.68 Position A 138.29 ± 2.68
70C - Trial 1 165.74 ± 2.68 Position A 139.74 ± 2.68
90C - Trial 1 121.29 ± 2.68 Position B 156.55 ± 2.68
90C - Trial 1 133.94 ± 2.68 Position B 158.58 ± 2.68
90C - Trial 1 145.07 ± 2.68 Position B 163.74 ± 2.68
90C - Trial 1 156.87 ± 2.68 Position B 166.88 ± 2.68
90C - Trial 1 161.46 ± 2.68 Position B 168.98 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 1 133.57 ± 2.68 Position C 192.56 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 1 149.04 ± 2.68 Position C 202.15 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 1 164.78 ± 2.68 Position C 212.24 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 1 170.04 ± 2.68 Position C 213.43 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 1 171.09 ± 2.68 Position C 211.07 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 2 129.86 ± 2.68 Position D 193.69 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 2 146.50 ± 2.68 Position D 193.69 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 2 156.93 ± 2.68 Position D 212.24 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 2 167.69 ± 2.68 Position D 205.19 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 2 171.43 ± 2.68 Position D 208.69 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 3 127.59 ± 2.68 Position E 190.31 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 3 145.99 ± 2.68 Position E 192.11 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 3 156.93 ± 2.68 Position E 194.38 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 3 166.18 ± 2.68 Position E 203.58 ± 2.68
50C - Trial 3 167.34 ± 2.68 Position E 205.91 ± 2.68
Position F 189.86 ± 2.68
Position F 192.11 ± 2.68
Position F 194.38 ± 2.68
Position F 196.21 ± 2.68
Position F 198.95 ± 2.68

31
Table 12. Raw heat transfer coefficient data for the finned tube bundle heating
configuration for all trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Heat Transfer
Coefficient, h (W/m2 K)
Position A 79.97 ± 2.68
Position A 80.81 ± 2.68
Position A 83.33 ± 2.68
Position A 83.89 ± 2.68
Position A 84.46 ± 2.68
Position B 91.18 ± 2.68
Position B 92.94 ± 2.68
Position B 95.01 ± 2.68
Position B 96.29 ± 2.68
Position B 97.44 ± 2.68
Position C 92.97 ± 2.68
Position C 95.68 ± 2.68
Position C 98.13 ± 2.68
Position C 98.44 ± 2.68
Position C 98.39 ± 2.68
Position D 92.67 ± 2.68
Position D 96.02 ± 2.68
Position D 98.75 ± 2.68
Position D 99.05 ± 2.68
Position D 99.01 ± 2.68

32
APPENDIX 7. REYNOLDS AND NUSSELT NUMBERS AND THEIR CORRELATION

Reynolds number is given by equation 6,13where U is duct air velocity (m/s), D is the
hydraulic diameter of the system (m, see appendix 1) and 𝜈 is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid
(m2/s).
𝑈𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = (13)5
𝜈

The Nusselt number is given in equation 14 where h is the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2*K), D
is the wetted diameter of the active element (m), and k is the thermal conductivity constant of the
active element (W/m*K) at the film temperature, or the average of the heated surface temperature
and the ambient fluid temperature.
ℎ𝐷 (14)5
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
The correlation between the Reynolds and Nusselt numbers is linear, and is given by
equation 15, where n is an experimentally determined slope and C is a constant.
log10 (𝑁𝑢) = 𝑛 log10 (𝑅𝑒) + 𝐶 (15)5

33
APPENDIX 8. RAW REYNOLDS NUMBER DATA

Table 13. Raw Reynolds number data for both the single smooth tube heating configuration
for all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration for all trials.

SINGLE SMOOTH TUBE SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Reynolds Number Trial Reynolds Number
70C - Trial 1 50400 ± 26 Position A 91500 ± 26
70C - Trial 1 63800 ± 26 Position A 95900 ± 26
70C - Trial 1 82000 ± 26 Position A 100000 ± 26
70C - Trial 1 96300 ± 26 Position A 102000 ± 26
70C - Trial 1 101000 ± 26 Position A 103000 ± 26
90C - Trial 1 47800 ± 26 Position B 92900 ± 26
90C - Trial 1 63700 ± 26 Position B 95900 ± 26
90C - Trial 1 82800 ± 26 Position B 100000 ± 26
90C - Trial 1 96300 ± 26 Position B 102000 ± 26
90C - Trial 1 101000 ± 26 Position B 103000 ± 26
50C - Trial 1 50400 ± 26 Position C 93000 ± 26
50C - Trial 1 67600 ± 26 Position C 95900 ± 26
50C - Trial 1 85800 ± 26 Position C 100000 ± 26
50C - Trial 1 96900 ± 26 Position C 102000 ± 26
50C - Trial 1 103000 ± 26 Position C 103000 ± 26
50C - Trial 2 50300 ± 26 Position D 93000 ± 26
50C - Trial 2 67600 ± 26 Position D 95900 ± 26
50C - Trial 2 85800 ± 26 Position D 100000 ± 26
50C - Trial 2 96900 ± 26 Position D 102000 ± 26
50C - Trial 2 103000 ± 26 Position D 103000 ± 26
50C - Trial 3 50400 ± 26 Position E 93000 ± 26
50C - Trial 3 67600 ± 26 Position E 95900 ± 26
50C - Trial 3 85800 ± 26 Position E 100000 ± 26
50C - Trial 3 96900 ± 26 Position E 101000 ± 26
50C - Trial 3 103000 ± 26 Position E 103000 ± 26
Position F 93000 ± 26
Position F 95900 ± 26
Position F 100000 ± 26
Position F 102000 ± 26
Position F 103000 ± 26

34
Table 14. Raw Reynolds number data for the finned tube bundle heating configuration for
all trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Reynolds Number
Position A 81800 ± 26
Position A 88800 ± 26
Position A 92700 ± 26
Position A 93900 ± 26
Position A 95200 ± 26
Position B 81800 ± 26
Position B 88800 ± 26
Position B 92700 ± 26
Position B 94000 ± 26
Position B 952004 ± 26
Position C 81800 ± 26
Position C 88800 ± 26
Position C 92700 ± 26
Position C 94000 ± 26
Position C 95200 ± 26
Position D 81800 ± 26
Position D 88800 ± 26
Position D 92700 ± 26
Position D 94000 ± 26
Position D 95300 ± 26

35
APPENDIX 9. RAW NUSSELT NUMBER DATA

Table 15. Raw Nusselt number data for both the single smooth tube heating configuration
for all trials and for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration for all trials.

SINGLE SMOOTH TUBE SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Nusselt Number Trial Nusselt Number
70C - Trial 1 72.29 ± 1.56 Position A 77.48 ± 1.56
70C - Trial 1 80.97 ± 1.56 Position A 77.48 ± 1.56
70C - Trial 1 88.63 ± 1.56 Position A 81.66 ± 1.56
70C - Trial 1 94.41 ± 1.56 Position A 81.66 ± 1.56
70C - Trial 1 95.14 ± 1.56 Position A 82.50 ± 1.56
90C - Trial 1 67.76 ± 1.56 Position B 92.42 ± 1.56
90C - Trial 1 74.84 ± 1.56 Position B 93.63 ± 1.56
90C - Trial 1 81.06 ± 1.56 Position B 96.67 ± 1.56
90C - Trial 1 87.65 ± 1.56 Position B 98.52 ± 1.56
90C - Trial 1 90.25 ± 1.56 Position B 99.77 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 1 78.85 ± 1.56 Position C 113.67 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 1 87.981 ± 1.56 Position C 119.35 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 1 97.29 ± 1.56 Position C 125.29 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 1 100.39 ± 1.56 Position C 125.99 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 1 101.02 ± 1.56 Position C 124.59 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 2 76.70 ± 1.56 Position D 114.34 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 2 86.52 ± 1.56 Position D 114.34 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 2 92.69 ± 1.56 Position D 125.29 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 2 99.06 ± 1.56 Position D 121.12 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 2 101.25 ± 1.56 Position D 123.19 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 3 75.37 ± 1.56 Position E 112.34 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 3 86.23 ± 1.56 Position E 113.39 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 3 92.69 ± 1.56 Position E 114.73 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 3 98.15 ± 1.56 Position E 120.16 ± 1.56
50C - Trial 3 98.81 ± 1.56 Position E 121.54 ± 1.56
Position F 112.06 ± 1.56
Position F 113.39 ± 1.56
Position F 114.73 ± 1.56
Position F 115.79 ± 1.56
Position F 117.43 ± 1.56

36
Table 16. Raw Nusselt number data for the finned tube bundle heating configuration for all
trials.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Trial Nusselt Number
Position A 74.98 ± 1.56
Position A 75.76 ± 1.56
Position A 78.13 ± 1.56
Position A 78.66 ± 1.56
Position A 79.19 ± 1.56
Position B 85.47 ± 1.56
Position B 87.13 ± 1.56
Position B 89.08 ± 1.56
Position B 90.26 ± 1.56
Position B 91.36 ± 1.56
Position C 87.14 ± 1.56
Position C 89.69 ± 1.56
Position C 91.98 ± 1.56
Position C 92.27 ± 1.56
Position C 92.24 ± 1.56
Position D 86.86 ± 1.56
Position D 89.99 ± 1.56
Position D 92.56 ± 1.56
Position D 92.85 ± 1.56
Position D 92.82 ± 1.56

37
APPENDIX 10. RAW LITERATURE DATA

Table 17. Raw literature data for the single smooth tube heating configuration.
SINGLE SMOOTH TUBE
Air Duct Heat Transfer
Voltage Pressure Drop Ambient Surface Rate of Heat Reynolds Nusselt
Velocity Coefficient, h
(Volts) (mmH2O) Temp (K) Temp (K) Transfer, Q (W) Number Number
(m/s) (W/(m^2*K))
37.5 4.00 19.00 94.0 20.44 7.98 110.23 46800 378
40.5 11.00 19.00 94.0 23.84 13.23 128.57 77600 440
43.5 20.00 19.00 94.0 27.50 17.84 148.32 105000 508
47.0 32.50 19.00 95.0 32.11 22.74 170.87 133000 586
48.0 44.00 18.00 93.0 33.49 26.42 180.60 156000 621
50.0 54.00 18 94 36.34 29.27 193.38 173000 665
51.0 64.00 18 95 37.81 31.86 198.58 188000 683

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Table 18. Raw theoretical data for the smooth tube bundle heating configuration.

SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE

Rate of Heat Air Duct Heat Transfer
Voltage Pressure Drop Ambient Surface Reynolds Nusselt
Position Transfer, Q Velocity Coefficient, h
(Volts) (mmH2O) Temp (K) Temp (K) Number Number
(W) (m/s) (W/(m^2*K))
A 35.20 1.50 23.00 96.00 18.01 11.53 99.78 66000 329
A 37.00 2.40 23.00 95.00 19.90 14.58 111.78 83500 369
A 40.00 4.00 22.00 94.00 23.26 18.79 130.64 108000 433
A 41.20 5.50 22.00 94.00 24.67 22.03 138.60 127000 459
A 44.80 8.70 22.00 95.00 29.17 27.71 161.63 159000 536
A 46.00 10.80 22.00 94.00 30.76 30.87 172.77 178000 573
B 39.60 1.60 23.00 95.00 22.79 11.90 128.04 68200 423
B 42.00 2.50 23.00 96.00 25.64 14.88 142.06 85200 469
B 44.60 4.20 23.00 95.00 28.91 19.29 162.41 110000 537
B 46.00 5.60 23.00 94.00 30.76 22.27 175.20 128000 579
B 50.00 8.50 23.00 95.00 36.34 27.44 204.12 157000 675
B 51.60 10.90 23.00 96.00 38.70 31.07 214.42 178000 709
C 42.80 1.60 23.00 96.00 26.63 11.90 147.52 68200 488
C 45.20 2.50 23.00 94.00 29.70 14.88 169.16 85200 559
C 49.20 4.00 23.00 94.00 35.18 18.82 200.43 108000 663
C 53.00 5.80 23.00 96.00 40.83 22.66 226.21 129000 748
C 56.60 9.00 23.00 95.00 46.56 28.23 261.57 162000 865
C 59.00 10.80 24.00 95.00 50.60 30.98 288.23 176000 950
D 42.60 1.60 24.00 96.00 26.38 11.92 148.17 67900 488
D 43.00 2.40 24.00 95.00 26.88 14.60 153.10 83200 505
D 49.50 4.00 24.00 94.00 35.61 18.85 205.78 107000 678
D 52.20 5.50 24.00 95.00 39.61 22.11 225.62 126000 744
D 55.80 8.50 24.00 94.00 45.26 27.48 261.49 157000 862
D 58.20 10.80 24.00 95.00 49.23 30.98 280.46 176000 925

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 SMOOTH TUBE BUNDLE CONTINUED
Rate of Heat Air Duct Heat Transfer
Voltage Pressure Drop Ambient Surface Reynolds Nusselt
Position Transfer, Q Velocity Coefficient, h
(Volts) (mmH2O) Temp (K) Temp (K) Number Number
(W) (m/s) (W/(m^2*K))
E 42.00 1.60 24.00 94.00 25.02 11.92 144.57 67900 488
E 47.00 2.60 24.00 96.00 32.11 15.20 180.36 86600 595
E 48.80 4.10 24.00 94.00 34.61 19.09 200.00 109000 659.33
E 51.00 5.50 24.00 94.00 37.81 22.11 218.44 126000 720
E 55.20 8.70 24.00 95.00 44.29 27.80 252.29 158000 832
E 57.00 10.80 24.00 95.00 47.22 30.98 269.02 176000 887
F 41.50 1.60 24.00 96.00 25.03 11.92 140.62 67900 464
F 42.00 2.30 24.00 95.00 25.64 14.30 146.06 81400 482
F 48.00 3.80 24.00 96.00 33.49 18.38 188.12 105000 620
F 51.00 5.50 24.00 95.00 37.81 22.11 215.36 126000 709
F 54.80 8.70 24.00 96.00 43.65 27.80 245.20 158000 808
F 57.00 10.70 24.00 96.00 47.22 30.84 265.28 176000 875

40
Table 19. Raw theoretical data for the finned tube bundle heating configuration.

FINNED TUBE BUNDLE

Rate of Heat Air Duct Heat Transfer
Voltage Pressure Drop Ambient Surface Reynolds Nusselt
Position Transfer, Q Velocity Coefficient, h
(Volts) (mmH2O) Temp (K) Temp (K) Number Number
(W) (m/s) (W/(m^2*K))
A 44.10 1.80 24.00 40.00 19.45 11.70 80.16 66600 271
A 46.00 2.50 24.00 39.00 21.16 13.79 93.03 78500 314
A 50.00 3.70 24.00 39.00 25.00 16.77 109.91 95500 371
A 53.20 5.00 24.00 40.00 28.30 19.50 116.65 111000 394
B 58.50 5.00 24.00 40.00 34.22 19.50 141.05 111000 476
B 53.20 3.70 24.00 39.00 28.30 16.77 124.43 95500 420
B 50.80 2.50 24.00 40.00 25.81 13.79 106.36 78500 359
B 47.00 1.80 24.00 40.00 22.09 11.70 91.04 66600 308
C 47.20 1.80 24.00 41.00 22.28 11.70 86.42 66600 291
C 49.00 2.50 24.00 39.00 24.01 13.79 105.55 78500 357
C 52.20 3.20 24.00 39.00 27.25 15.60 119.79 88800 405
C 56.00 5.10 24.00 39.00 31.36 19.69 137.87 112000 466
D 57.00 5.00 24.00 39.00 32.49 19.50 142.83 111000 483
D 55.30 3.70 24.00 40.00 30.58 16.77 126.04 95500 426
D 51.00 2.40 24.00 40.00 26.01 13.51 107.20 76900 362
D 47.20 1.80 24.00 40.00 22.28 11.70 91.82 66600 310

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APPENDIX 11. RELEVANT CONSTANTS

Table 20. Relevant constants used in calculations.

PARAMETER VALUE
Smooth Tube Active Element Resistance (Ohms) 68.8
Finned Tube Active Element Resistance (Ohms) 97.5
Ambient Pressure (N/m2) 101325
Kinematic Viscosity of Air at 25ᴼC and 1 atm (m2/s)8 0.00001562
Thermal Conductivity of Air at 25ᴼC and 1 atm (W/m*K)9 0.02666372

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APPENDIX 12. LAB NOTEBOOK PAGES

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