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Number Systems
Part I: Introduction
Introduction
Numbers form an integral part of our lives. In this lesson we will learn about the different types of numbers
and the different categories under which they fall. The concepts discussed in this lecture will be your first step
towards a general understanding of the mathematics requirements to clear MBA entrance exams. As we
proceed with this lecture, you will realise that you have already learnt many of the concepts, included in this
lesson, in school. This would further help build confidence in you. Although Number theory is important in the
context of all the MBA entrance exams, it gains all the more importance for the students aiming for success in
the CAT,

Understanding Numbers
A measurement carried out, of any quantity, leads to a meaningful value called the Number. This value may
be positive or negative depending on the direction of the measurement and can be represented on the
number line.

Natural Numbers (N)

The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…are known as natural numbers. The set of natural numbers is denoted by N.
Hence, N = {1, 2, 3, 4…}. The natural numbers are further divided as even, odd, prime etc.

Whole Numbers (W)

All natural numbers together with ‘0’ are collectively called whole numbers. The set of whole numbers is
denoted by W, and W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ……}

Integers (Z)
The set including all whole numbers and their negatives is called a set of integers. It is denoted by Z, and Z =
{– ∞, … – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ……. ∞}. They are further classified into Negative integers, Neutral integers
and positive integers.

Negative integers (Z–)

All integers lesser than Zero are called negative integers.
Z − = {– 1, – 2, – 3…– ∞ }

Neutral integers (Z0)

Zero is the only integer which is neither negative nor positive and it is called a neutral integer.

Positive integers (Z+)

All integers greater than Zero are called positive integers.
Z + = {1, 2, 3, …….., ∞ }

Classification of Numbers
i. Even Numbers:
All numbers divisible by 2 are called even numbers. E.g., 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 …Even numbers can be
expressed in the form 2n, where n is an integer. Thus 0, – 2, − 6, etc. are also even numbers.

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ii. Odd Numbers: TIP
All numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd numbers. e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7, If a number has no
prime factor equal to
9…Odd numbers can be expressed in the form (2n + 1) where n is any
or less than its square
integer. Thus – 1, − 3, − 9 etc. are all odd numbers. root, then the number
is a prime number.
iii. Prime Numbers:
A natural number that has no other factors besides itself and unity is a
prime number. Must Know
Examples: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 … 1 to 25 ⇒ 9 prime

1 t0 50 ⇒ 15 prime
Important Observation about prime numbers:
1 to 100 ⇒ 25 prime
A prime number greater than 3, when divided by 6 leaves either 1 or 5 as
the remainder. Hence, a prime number can be expressed in the form of 6K 1 to 200 ⇒ 45 prime
± 1. But the converse of this observation is not true, that a number leaving a
remainder of 1 or 5 when divided by 6 is not necessarily a prime number. For eg: 25, 35 etc

Ex.1 If a, a + 2, a + 4 are consecutive prime numbers. Then how many solutions ‘a’ can have?
(1) one (2) two (3) three (4) more than three
Sol. No even value of ‘a’ satisfies this. So ‘a’ should be odd. But out of three consecutive odd numbers,
atleast one number is a multiple of 3.
So, only possibility is a = 3 and the numbers are 3, 5, 7. Answer: (1)

iv. Composite Numbers: A composite number has other factors besides itself TIP
and unity. e.g. 8, 72, 39, etc. On the basis of this fact that a number with 1 is neither a prime
more than two factors is a composite we have only 34 composite from 1 to number nor a
50 and 40 composite from 51 to 100. composite number

v. Perfect Numbers: A number is said to be a perfect number if the sum of ALL its factors excluding itself
(but including 1) is equal to the number itself.
Or
The sum of all the possible factors of the number is equal to twice the number.

FUNDA: If the factors of any perfect number other than 1 are written and reciprocal of them are
added together then result is always unity.

Example:
6 is a perfect number because the factors of 6, i.e., 1, 2 and 3 add up to the number 6 itself.
1 1 1 1+ 2 + 3 6
Also + + = = = 1(Unity)
6 3 2 6 6
Other examples of perfect numbers are 28, 496, 8128, etc. There are 27 perfect numbers discovered
so far.

vi. Co-Prime numbers:

TIP
Two numbers are (prime or composite) said to be co-prime to one another, if The HCF of co-
they do not have any common factor other than 1. e.g. 35 & 12, since they prime numbers is
both don’t have a common factor among them other than 1. always 1

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vii. Fractions
A fraction denotes part or parts of a unit. Several types are:
2 17
1. Common Fraction: Fractions whose denominator is not 10 or a multiple of it. e.g. , etc.
3 18
2. Decimal Fraction: Fractions whose denominator is 10 or a multiple of 10.
2 6 8
3. Proper Fraction: In this the numerator < denominator e.g. , , etc. Hence its value < 1.
10 7 9
10 7 8
4. Improper Fraction: In these the numerator > denominator e.g. , , etc. Hence its value > 1.
2 6 7
5. Mixed Fractions: When a improper fraction is written as a whole number and proper fraction it is called
7 1 1
mixed fraction. e.g. can be written as 2 + = 2
3 3 3

Rational Numbers
Rational Number is defined as the ratio of two integers i.e. a number that can be represented by a fraction of
p
the form where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.They also can be defined as the non-terminating recurring
q
decimal numbers. Such as 3.3333…., 16.123123….. are all rational numbers as they can be expressed in the
p
form .
q
Examples: Finite decimal numbers, whole numbers, integers, fractions i.e.
3 16 2
, , 0.666…∞, , 7, 0 etc.
5 9 3

Irrational Numbers
p
Any number which can not be represented in the form where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0 is an irrational
q
number. On the basis of non-terminating decimals, irrational numbers are non-terminating non recurring
decimals. Such as 3.4324546345……. is a non-terminating, non-repeating number.
Examples: π, √5, √7, e

Non–Terminating Decimal Numbers

When we divide any number by other number, either we get a terminating number or a non – terminating
number. A non – terminating number on the basis of occurrence of digits after decimal can classified as
following.
1. Pure Recurring Decimals:
A decimal in which all the figures after the decimal point repeat, is called a pure recurring decimal.
. .
Examples: 0. 6 , 0 .6 are examples of pure recurring decimals. (0. 6 = 0. 6 = 0.666 ……….)

2. Mixed Recurring Decimals: A decimal in which some figures do not repeat and some of them are
repeated is called a mixed recurring decimal.
Examples: 0.2 3 , 0.35 27 ((0.2 3 = 0.23333….., 0.35 27 = 0.35272727………)

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3. Non – Recurring Decimals: A decimal number in which the figure don’t repeat themselves in any
pattern are called non-terminating non- recurring decimals and are termed as irrational numbers.

Converting Recurring Decimal as Fraction

All recurring decimals can be converted into fractions. Some of the common types can be 0.33….. ,
0.1232323…, 5.33…., 14.23636363…. etc.

Pure Recurring to Fractions

FUNDA 1: If a number is of the form of 0.ababab……. then divide the repeating digits with as many 9’s as we
have repeated digits.
36 4
eg. 0.363636… = =
99 11

Mixed Recurring to Fractions

FUNDA 2: If N = 0.abcbcbc…. Then
abc − a Re peated & non repeated digits − Non repeated digits
N= =
990 As many 9' s as repeated digits followed by as many zero as non − repeated digits
257 − 2 255 17
eg. 0.25757…..= = =
990 990 66

FUNDA 3: If N = a.bcbc…. Then

Write N = a + 0.bcbc….
Proceed as Funda 1
36 59
5.3636… = 5 + 0.3636… = 5 + =
99 11
Divisibility Test
No. Rule Example/s

2 Last digit of number is even or zero. 128, 146, 34 etc.

3 Sum of digits of a given number is divisible by 3 102, 192, 99 etc

Number formed by last two right hand digits of given

4 576, 144 etc.
number is divisible by 4 or 00

5 Last digit is either five or zero 111155, 3970, 145 etc.

6 Number is divisible by both 2 and 3 714, 509796, 1728 etc.

Let’s take 85437954 .

The rule which holds good for numbers with more
The groups are 85, 437, 954
than 3 digits is as follows:
Sum of odd groups = 954 + 85
(A) Group the numbers in three from units digit
= 1039
7 (B) Add the odd groups and even groups
Sum of even groups = 437
separately
Difference = 602.
(C) The difference of the odd and even groups
Which is divisible by 7, hence
should be 0 or divisible by 7
the number is divisible by 7.

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 512, 4096, 1304 etc.
Number formed by the last three right hand digits of
8
a number is divisible by ‘8’ or 000.

1287, 11583, 2304 etc.

9 Sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

100, 170, 10590 etc.

10 Unit digit is zero.

e.g.17259
Sum of digits in even places
When the difference between the sums of digits in
= 7 + 5 = 12,
11 the odd and even places taken from right to left is
Sum of digits in the odd places
either zero or a multiple of 11.
= 1 + 2 + 9 = 12
Hence 12 – 12 = 0.

672, 8064 etc.

12 It is divisible by 3 & 4 both.

Let’s take 35250799415

The groups are 035, 250, 799,
The rule which holds good for numbers with more 415
than 3 digits is as follows: Sum of odd groups = 035 + 799
(A) Group the numbers in three from units digit = 834
13 (B) Add the odd groups and even groups Sum of even groups
separately = 250 + 415 = 665
(C) The difference of the odd and even groups Difference = 834 – 615 =169
should be 0 or divisible by 13 which is divisible by 13, hence
the number is divisible by 13.

FUNDA: TIP
How to calculate remainder, when a number is divided by 11, without # When any number with
division? even number of digits is
added to its reverse, the
Step 1: Add all the odd place numbers (O) and even place numbers (E)
sum is always divisible by
counted from right to left. 11. e.g. 2341 + 1432 =
Step 2: If O – E is positive, remainder will be the difference less than 11. 3773, which is divisible
Step 3: If O – E is negative, remainder should be (11 – difference). by 11.

# Any number written 6

Ex.2 What is the remainder when 2354789341 is divided by 11?
times consecutively will
Sol. Odd place digit sum (O) = 1 + 3 + 8 + 4 + 3 = 19. be divisible by 7 and 13
Even place digits sum (E) = 4 + 9 + 7 + 5 + 2 = 27.
Difference (D) = 19 – 27 = – 8
Remainder = 11 – 8 = 3.

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Ex.3 If 567P55Q is divisible by 88; Find the value of P + Q.
(1) 11 (2) 12 (3) 5 (4) 6 (5) 10
Sol. The number is divisible by 8 means; the number formed by the last 3 digits should be divisible by 8
which are 55Q. Only Q = 2 satisfy this. From the divisibility rule of 11, (2 + 5 + 7 + 5) – (5 + P + 6) is
divisible by 11. So 8-P is divisible by 11. if P= 8, then only it is possible. So P = 8 and Q = 2.
So P + Q = 10. Answer: (5)

Ex.4 If the first 100 natural numbers are written side by side to form a big number and it is divided by
8. What will be the remainder?
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4
(4) 7 (5) cannot be determined
Sol. The number is 1234…..9899100
According to the divisibility rule of 8, we will check only the last 3 digits.
If 100 is divided by 8, the remainder is 4. Answer: (3)

Ex.5 What will be the remainder when 4444……..44 times is divided by 7?

(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 5 (4) 6 (5) 0
Sol. If 4 is divided by 7, the remainder is 4.
If 44 is divided by 7, the remainder is 2.
If 444 is divided by 7, the remainder is 3
By checking like this, we come to know that 444444 is exactly divisible by 7.
So if we take six 4’s, it is exactly divisible by 7. Similarly twelve 4’s is also exactly divisible by 4 and 42
4’s will be exactly divisible by 7. So out of 44, the remaining two 4,s will give a remainder of 2.
So, answer (2).

Absolute value of a number

The modulus of a number is the absolute value of the number or we can say the distance of the number from
the origin. The absolute value of a number a is defined as
|a| = a, if a ≥ 0
= – a, if a ≤ 0
a is read as MODULUS of a or Mod a

Example: |79| = 79 & | – 45| = – (– 45) = 45

Also, | x – 3 | = x – 3, if x ≥ 3
= 3 – x, if x < 3.

Always Keep in Mind

The number 1 is neither prime nor composite.
1) 2 is the only even number which is prime.
2) (xn + yn) is divisible by (x + y), when n is an odd number.
3) (xn – yn) is divisible by (x + y), when n is an even number.
4) (xn – yn) is divisible by (x – y), when n is an odd or an even number.
5) The difference between 2 numbers (xy) – (yx) will always be divisible by 9.
6) The square of an odd number when divided by 8 will always give 1 as a remainder.

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7) Every square number is a multiple of 3 or exceeds a multiple of 3 by unity.
8) Every square number is a multiple of 4 or exceeds a multiple of 4 by unity.
9) If a square number ends in 9, the preceding digit is even.
10) If m and n are two integers, then (m + n)! is divisible by m! n!
⎧a if n is odd
11) (a)n / (a + 1) leaves a remainder of ⎨ .
⎩1 if n is even
12) Product of n consecutive numbers is always divisible by n!.

Ex.6 If ‘X’ is an even number; Y is an odd number, then which of the following is even?
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1) X + Y (2) X + Y (3) X + Y (4) X Y (5) None of these
2
Sol. Since X is even, X is even.
Y is odd, Y2 is odd
So options (1), (2), (3) are even + odd = odd.
Option (4) is (even) (odd) = Even. Answer: (4)

Ex.7 What is the difference between 0.343434....…and 0.2343434…… in fraction form?

6 6 9 9 5
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
55 11 55 13 11
34 234 − 2 232
Sol. 0.343434….. = and 0.23434….. = =
99 990 990
34 232 108 6
∴ Difference = - = =
99 990 990 55

Ex.8 How many of the following numbers are divisible by at least 3 distinct prime numbers 231, 750,
288 and 1372?
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3 (5) 4
Sol. 231 = 3 × 7 × 11 (3 prime factors)
750 = 2 × 3 × 5 3
(3 prime factors)
288 = 2 × 35 2
(only 2 prime factors)
1372 = 22 × 73 (only 2 prime factors)
So, only 231 & 750 has 3 prime factors. Answer: (3)

Ex.9 n3 + 6n2 + 11n + 6 (where n is a whole no) is always divisible by

(1) 4 (2) 5 (3) 6 (4) 8 (5) 12
3 2
Sol. n + 6n + 11n + 6 = (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3).
Product of 3 consecutive numbers is always divisible by 3! = 6.
(or)
Take n = 0, 1, 2, 3 and check it is always divisible by 6. Answer: (3)

Ex.10 What is the remainder, if 351 × 352 × 353 × - - - - - - - × 356 is divided by 360?
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3 (5) 359
Sol. Since the given is the product of 6 consecutive numbers, it is always divisible by 6! = 720.
⇒ it is divisible by 360 also. So, the remainder will be 0. Answer: (1)

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Ex.11 If a is an even integer, except 0, b is a positive integer c is an odd integer, then (ab)c is always
(1) odd (2) Positive (3) Negative
(4) Even (5) cannot be determined
Sol. Here we don’t know whether ‘a’ is negative or positive. Still we can say that (ab)c is always even
because ‘a’ is even & hence ab is even and any exponent of an even number is always even.
Answer: (4)

Ex.12 The digits of a 3 digit no reversed to form another number. The difference between this no and
the original number is always divisible by.
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8 (5) 11
Sol. If abc is the number
then cba is the other number.
abc = 100a + 10b + c and
cba = 100c + 10b + a.
Difference = 99(a ∼ c).
This is always divisible by 9 & 11. Answer: (5)

Ex.13 How many two digit numbers can be formed such that sum of its digits is equal to the product
of the digits?
Sol. If xy is the number, then
x + y = xy ⇒ x (y – 1) – y = 0 ⇒ (x – 1) (y – 1) = 1
Only (0, 0) & (2, 2) satisfy this
But 00 is not a 2 digit no.
So only 22 satisfy this.
Only 1 such number satisfies.

Ex.14 The sum of all the two digit numbers which has both the digits even.
(1) 2060 (2) 1080 (3) 1272 (4) 2160 (5) 1560
Sol. The no’s are 20, 22, - - - - , 28 ← 120
40, 42, - - - - , 48 ← 120 + 20 × 5 = 220
60, 62, - - - - , 68 ← 320
80, 82, - - - - , 88 ← 420
Sum = 120 + 220 + 320 + 420 = 1080 Answer: (2)

Ex.15 If we add a two digit number to another two digit number (N), the digits of N will get reversed.
Again if we add the same no to this result, again the same digits of N will come, but with a zero
in between them. What is the number added.
(1) 27 (2) 36 (3) 45 (4) 54 (5) 50
Sol. Let xy be the number (N).
N = xy = 10x + y. ……..(1)
If we add a two digit number A (say), it will become yx = 10y + x = A + N ……..(2)
Again, if we add the same number, it will be x0y = 100x + y = 2A + N ……..(3)
(2) – (1) = (3) – (2) = A
∴ (10y + x) – (10x + y) = (100x + y) – (10y + x) ⇒ y = 6x
Since x and y all digits, only x = 1 and y = 6 will satisfy this.
∴ A = (2) – (1) = 9y – 9x = 45 Answer: (3)

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Number Systems
Part II: Finding Remainders

Finding Remainders of a product (derivative of remainder theorem)

If ‘a1‘is divided by ‘n’, the remainder is ‘r1’ and if ‘a2’ is divided by n, the remainder is r2. Then if a1+a2 is
divided by n, the remainder will be r1 + r2
If a1 – a2 is divided by n, the remainder will be r1 – r2
If a1 × a2 is divided by n, the remainder will be r1 × r2
Ex. If 21 is divided by 5, the remainder is 1 and if 12 is divided by 5, the remainder is 2.
Then if (21 + 12 = 33) is divided by 5, the remainder will be 3 (1 + 2).
If 9(21 – 12) is divided by 5, the remainder will be 1 – 2 = – 1.
But if the divisor is 5, – 1 is nothing but 4. 9 = 5 × 1 + 4.
So, if 9 is divided by 5, the remainder is 4 and 9 can be written as 9 = 5 × 2 – 1.
So here – 1 is the remainder. So – 1 is equivalent to 4 if the divisor is 5. Similarly – 2 is equivalent to 3.
If 252(21 × 12) is divisible by 5, the remainder will be (1 × 2 = 2).

If two numbers ‘a1’ and ‘a2‘ are exactly divisible by n. Then their sum, difference and product is also exactly
divisible by n.
i.e., If ‘a1’ and ‘a2’ are divisible by n, then
a1 + a2 is also divisible by n
a1 – a2 is also divisible by n
and If a1 × a2 is also divisible by n.

Ex.1 12 is divisible by 3 and 21 is divisible by 3.

Sol. So, 12 + 21 = 33, 12 – 21 = – 9 and 12 × 21 = 252 all are divisible by 3.

Finding Remainders of powers with the help of Remainder theorem:

Ex.2 What is the remainder if 725 is divided by 6?
Sol. If 7 is divided by 6, the remainder is 1. So if 725 is divided by 6, the remainder is 125 (because 725 = 7
× 7 × 7… 25 times. So remainder = 1 × 1 × 1…. 25 times = 125).

Ex.3 What is the remainder, if 363 is divided by 14.

3 63 3 21
Sol. If 3 is divided by 14, the remainder is – 1. So 3 can be written as (3 ) .
21
So the remainder is (– 1) = – 1. If the divisor is 14, the remainder – 1 means 13. (14 – 1 = 13)

By pattern method
Ex.4 Find remainder when 433 is divided by 7.
If 41 is divided by 7, the remainder is 4. (4 = 4 = 7 × 0 + 4)
1
Sol.
2
If 4 is divided by 7, the remainder is 2 (42 = 16 = 7 × 2 + 2) 4 → 4
3
If 4 is divided by 7, the remainder is 1 (43 = 42 × 4, So the 42 → 2
Remainder = 4 × 2 = 8 = 1) 43 → 1
44 → 4
4
If 4 is divided by 7, the remainder is 4 (44 = 43 × 4, so the
45 → 2
Remainder = 1 × 4 = 4)

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The remainders of the powers of 4 repeats after every 3rd power.
So, as in the case of finding the last digit, since the remainders are repeating after every 3rd power, the
remainder of 433 is equal to the remainder of 43 ( since 33 is exact multiple of 3) = 1. (OR)
If 43 is divided by 7, the remainder is 1. So 433 = (43)11 is divided by 7, the remainder is 111 = 1.

Application of Binomial Theorem in Finding Remainders

The binomial expansion of any expression of the form
(a + b)n = nC0 an + nC1 an – 1 × b1 + nC2 × an – 2 × b2 + ..…. + nCn – 1 × a1 × bn – 1 + nCn × bn
Where nC0, nC1, nC2, ….. are all called the binomial coefficients.
n!
In general, nCr =
r ! (n − r )!
There are some fundamental conclusions that are helpful if remembered, i.e.
a. There are (n + 1) terms.
b. The first term of the expansion has only a.
c. The last term of the expansion has only b.
d. All the other (n – 1) terms contain both a and b.
If (a + b) is divided by a then the remainder will be b n such that bn < a.
n
e.

Ex.5 What is the remainder if 725 is divided by 6?

Sol. (7)25 can be written (6 + 1)25. So, in the binomial expansion, all the first 25 terms will have 6 in it. The
26th term is (1)25. Hence, the expansion can be written 6x + 1.
6x denotes the sum of all the first 25 terms.
Since each of them is divisible by 6, their sum is also divisible by 6, and therefore, can be written 6x,
where x is any natural number.
So, 6x + 1 when divided by 6 leaves the remainder 1. (OR)
When 7 divided by 6, the remainder is 1. So when 725 is divided by 6, the remainder will be 125 = 1.

Wilson’s Theorem
If n is a prime number, (n – 1)! + 1 is divisible by n.
Let take n = 5
Then (n – 1)! + 1 = 4! + 1 = 24 + 1 = 25 which is divisible by 5.
Similarly if n = 7
(n – 1)! + 1 = 6! + 1 = 720 + 1 = 721 which is divisible by 7.

Corollary
If (2p + 1) is a prime number (p!)2 + (– 1)p is divisible by 2p + 1.
e.g If p = 3, 2p + 1 = 7 is a prime number
(p!)2 + (– 1)p = (3!)2 + (– 1)3 = 36 – 1 = 35 is divisible by (2p + 1) = 7.

Property
If “a” is natural number and P is prime number then (ap – a) is divisible by P.
e.g. If 231 is divided by 31 what is the remainder?
231 231 − 2 + 2
= So remainder = 2
31 31

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Fermat’s Theorem
If p is a prime number and N is prime to p, then Np –1 – 1 is a multiple of p.
Corollary
Since p is prime, p – 1 is an even number except when p = 2.
p −1 p −1
Therefore ( N 2 + 1) ( N 2 – 1) = M(p).
p −1 p −1 p −1
Hence either N 2 + 1 or N 2 – 1 is a multiple of p, that is N 2 = Kp ± 1, where, K is some positive integer.

Base Rule and Conversion

This system utilizes only two digits namely 0 & 1 i.e. the base of a binary number system is two.
e.g. 11012 is a binary number, to find the decimal value of the binary number, powers of 2 are used as weights
in a binary system and is as follows:
1 × 23 = 8
1×2 = 2
4
0×2 = 1
0
1×2 = 0
1
Thus, the decimal value of 11012 is 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 13.

Conversion from decimal to other bases

We will study only four types of Base systems,
1. Binary system (0, 1)
2. Octal system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
3. Decimal system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
4. Hexa-decimal system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C D, E, F) where A = 10, B = 11 … F = 15.

Let us understand the procedure with the help of an example

Ex.6 Convert 35710 to the corresponding binary number.
Sol. To do this conversion, you need to divide repeatedly by 2, keeping track of the remainders as you
go. Watch below:
As you can see, after dividing repeatedly by 2, we end up with these remainders:
2 357 1
2 178 0
2 89 1
2 44 0

2 22 0
2 11 1
2 5 1

2 2 0
1
These remainders tell us what the binary number is! Read the numbers outside the division block, starting
from bottom and wrapping your way around the right-hand side and moving upwards. Thus,

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(357)10 convert to (101100101)2.
This method of conversion will work for converting to any non-decimal base. Just don't forget to include the
first digit on the left corner, which is an indicator of the base. You can convert from base-ten (decimal) to any
other base.

Conversion from other bases to Decimal

We write a number in decimal base as
345 = 300 + 40 + 5 = 3 × 102 + 4 × 101 + 5 × 100
Similarly, when a number is converted from any base to the decimal base then we write the number in that
base in the expanded form and the result is the number in decimal form.

Ex.7 Convert (1101)2 to decimal base

Sol. (1101)2 = 1 × 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= 8 + 4 + 1 = 13
So (1101)2 = (13)10

Ex.8 Convert the octal no 3456 in to decimal number.

Sol. 3456 = 6 + 5 × 8 + 4 × 82 + 3 × 83
= 6 + 40 + 256 + 1536
= (1838)10

Ex.9 Convert (1838)10 to octal.

Sol.
8 1838
229 - 6
28 - 5
3 - 4 = (3456)8

Ex.10 What is the product of highest 3 digit number & highest 2 digit number of base 3 system?
(1) (21000)3 (2) (22200)3 (3) (21222)3 (4) (21201)3 (5) None
Sol. The highest 3 digit & 2 digit numbers are 222 & 22
222 = 2 + 2 × 3 + 2 × 32 = 26
22 =2+2×3=8
∴ Product = 26 × 8 = 208
Convert back to base
(21201)3
3 208
69 - 1
23 - 0
7 - 2
2 - 1

Answer: (4)

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Ex.11 What is the remainder, if 2429 + 3429 is divided by 29?
Sol. an + bn is always divisible by a + b, if is odd.
∴ 2429 + 3429 is always divisible by 24 + 34 = 58.
So, it is always divisible by 29. So, the remainder is 0.

Ex.12 What is the remainder, if 12243 is divided by 10?

Sol. 12243

12 → 2
12 →
2
4
123 → 8
12 →
4
6
12 →
5
2

The remainder repeats after every 4th power.

So, the required answer is the remainder of 123 is divided by 10. i.e. 8

Ex.13 What is the value of (FBA)16 in binary system?

Sol. A = 10, B = 11, F = 15
Since 24 = 16,
While converting each digit of the decimal, can be written as 4 digit binary no:
A = 1010, B = 1011, F = 1111
(FBA)10 = (111110111010)2

Ex.14 Convert (721)8 to binary.

3
Sol. Since 2 = 8, write each digit of octal no. as 3 digits of binary which gives equivalent value.
7 = 111, 2 = 010, 1 = 001
∴ (721)8 = (111 010 001)2

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Number Systems
Part III: More Concepts

Cyclicity
At times there are questions that require the students to find the units digit in case of the numbers occurring in
3 5
powers. If anyone asks you to find the unit digit of 3 , you will easily calculate it also you can calculate for 3
99
but if any one ask you the unit digit of 173 , it will be hard to calculate easily.

But it’s very simple if we understand that the units digit of a product
is determined by whatever is the digit at the units place irrespective
of the number of digits. E.g. 5 × 5 ends in 5 & 625 × 625 also ends in 5.
Now let’s examine the pattern that a number generates when it occurs in
powers of itself.
See the last digit of different numbers.

Unit Digit Chart

TABLE SHOWING THE UNIT DIGIT OF A NUMBER FOR DIFFERENT EXPONENTS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Power N N N N N N N N N N
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 4 8 6 2 4 8 6 2
3 3 9 7 1 3 9 7 1 3
4 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 9 3 1 7 9 3 1 7
8 8 4 2 6 8 4 2 6 8
9 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9

From the above table we can conclude that the unit digit of a number repeats after Know me
an interval of 1, 2 or 4. Precisely we can say that the universal cyclicity of all the
4 is the universal
numbers is 4 i.e. after 4 all the numbers start repeating their unit digits.
cyclicity for finding

Therefore, to calculate the unit digit for any exponent of a given number we have the unit digit of any
to follow the following steps number
Step 1: Divide the exponent of the given number by 4 and calculate the remainder.

Step 2: The unit digit of the number is same as the unit digit of the number raise to
the power of calculated remainder. Last two digits
Step 3: If the remainder is zero, then the unit digit will be same as the unit digit of N4. For 25N = 25

For 76N = 76
Let us consider an example
Ex.1 Find the last digit of (173)99.
Sol. We notice that the exponent is 99. On dividing, 99 by 4 we get 24 as the quotient & 3 as the remainder.
Now these 24 pairs of 4 each do not affect the no. at the units place So, (173) 99 ≈ (173)3. Now, the
number at the units place is 33 = 27.

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Factors
A factor is a number that divides another number completely. e.g. Factors of 24 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24.

Number of Factors
FUNDA
If we have a number, N = pa × qb × rc
All the perfect
Where p, q, and r are prime numbers and a, b, and c are the no. of times each squares have odd
prime number occurs , then the number of factors of n is found by (a + 1) (b + number of factors
1)(c + 1). and other number
Example: have even number of
factors
Find the number of factors of 24 × 32.
Number of factors = (4 + 1) (2 + 1) = 5(3) = 15

Number of Ways of Expressing a Given Number as a Product of Two Factors

When a number is having even number of factors then it can be written as a product of two numbers in
(a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)
ways.
2
But if a number have odd number of factors then it can be written as a product of two different numbers in
(a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1) − 1 ways and can be written as a product of two numbers (different or similar) in
2
(a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1) + 1 ways.
2

Examples:
6
1. 148 can be expressed as a product of two factors in or 3 ways.
2
{Because (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) in the case of 148 is equal to 6}.

2.
4 2
144 (2 .3 ) can be written as a product of two different numbers in
(4 + 1)(2 + 1) −1 i.e. 7 ways
2

Sum of the factors of a number:

If a number N is written in the form of N = ap .bq.c r ,where a, b & c are prime numbers and p, q & r are positive
integers, then the sum of all the factors of the number are given by the formula

Sum of factors =
(a p +1
)( )( )
− 1 bq +1 − 1 c r +1 − 1
(a − 1)(b − 1)(c − 1)
Factorial
Factorial is defined for any positive integer. It is denoted by or !. Thus “Factorial n” is written as n!
or n
n! is defined as the product of all the integers from 1 to n.
Thus n! = 1.2.3. …. n. (n! = n(n – 1)!)

Finding the Highest power of the number dividing a Factorial

Ex.2 Find the largest power of 3 that can divide 95! without leaving any remainder.
OR
Find the largest power of 3 contained in 95!.
Sol. First look at the detailed explanation and then look at a simpler method for solving the problem.

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 When we write 95! in its full form, we have 95 × 94 × 93 ….. × 3 × 2 × 1. When we divide 95! by a power
3, we have these 95 numbers in the numerator. The denominator will have all 3’s. The 95 numbers in
the numerator have 31 multiples of 3 which are 3, 6, 9….90, 93.Corresponding to each of these
multiplies we can have a 3 in the denominator which will divide the numerator completely without
31
leaving any remainder, i.e. 3 can definitely divide 95!

Further every multiple of 9, i.e. 9, 18, 27, etc. after canceling out a 3 above, will still have one more 3
left. Hence for every multiple of 9 in the numerator, we have an additional 3 in the denominator. There
are 10 multiples of 9 in 95 i.e. 9, 18….81, 90. So we can take 10 more 3’s in the denominator.

Similarly, for every multiple of 33 we can take an additional 3 in the denominator.

Since there are 3 multiples of 27 in 91 (they are 27, 54 and 81), we can have three more 3’s in the
denominator.

Next, corresponding to every multiple of 34 i.e. 81 we can have one more 3 in the denominator. Since
there is one multiple of 81 in 95, we can have one additional 3 in the denominator.

Hence the total number of 3’s we can have in the denominator is 31 + 10 + 3 + 1, i.e., 45. So 345 is the
largest power of 3 that can divide 95! without leaving any remainder.

The same can be done in the following manner also.

Divide 95 by 3 you get a quotient of 31. Divide this 31 by 3 we get a quotient of 10. Divide this 10 by 3
we get a quotient of 3. Divide this quotient of 3 once again by 3 we get a quotient of 1. Since we cannot
divide the quotient any more by 3 we stop here. Add all the quotients, i.e. 31 + 10 + 3 + 1 which gives
45 which is the highest power of 3.

3 95
3 31 ---> Quotient

3 10 ---> Quotient
3 3 ---> Quotient
1 ---> Quotient

Add all the quotients 31 + 10 + 3 + 1, which give 45.

{Note that this type of a division where the quotient of one step is taken as the dividend in the
subsequent step is called “Successive Division”. In general, in successive division, the divisor need
not be the same (as it is here). Here, the number 95 is being successively divided by 3.
Please note that this method is applicable only if the number whose largest power is to be found out is
a prime number.
If the number is not a prime number, then we have to write the number as the product of relative
primes, find the largest power of each of the factors separately first. Then the smallest, among the
largest powers of all these relative factors of the given number will give the largest power required.

Ex.3 Find the largest power of 12 that can divide 200!

Sol. Here we cannot apply Successive Division method because 12 is not a prime number. Resolve 12 into
a set of prime factors. We know that 12 can be written as 3 × 4. So, we will find out the largest power of
3 that can divide 200! and the largest power of 4 that can divide 200! and take the LOWER of the two
as the largest power of 12 that can divide 200!.

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 To find out the highest power of 4, since 4 itself is not a prime number, we cannot directly apply the
successive division method. We first have to find out the highest power of 2 that can divide 200!. Since
two 2’s taken together will give us a 4, half the power of 2 will give the highest power of 4 that can
divide 200!. We find that 197 is the largest power of 2 that can divide 200!. Half this figure-98-will be the
largest power of 4 that can divide 200!.

Since the largest power of 3 and 4 that can divide 200! are 97 an 98 respectively, the smaller of the
two, i.e., 97 will be the largest power of 12 that can divide 200! without leaving any remainder.

Ex.4 What is the last digit of 234 × 334 × 434

Sol. Given = (24)34
Last digit of 4n is 6, if n is even. ⇒ Answer 6

Ex.5 What is the right most non zero digit of (270)270

Sol. The required answer is the last digit of 7270.
Last digit of 7 powers repeat after every 4.
So, the last digit of 7270 is the last digit of 72 = 9.

Ex.6 How many factors do 1296 have?

Sol. 1296 = 4 × 324
= 4 × 4 × 81
=2 ×3
4 4

Number of factors = (4 + 1) (4 + 1) = 25.

Ex.7 If x is the sum of all the factors of 3128 and y is the no of factors of x and z is the number of
ways of writing ‘y’ as a product of two numbers, then z = ?
Sol. 3128 = 4 × 782
= 4 × 2 × 391
= 23 × 17 × 23
⎛ 2 4 − 1 ⎞⎛ 17 2 − 1 ⎞⎛ 23 2 − 1 ⎞
∴x = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟⎜ 17 − 1 ⎟⎜ 23 − 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
= 15 × (17 + 1) (23 + 1)
=3×5×9×2×8×3
= 24 × 34 × 5
∴y = (4 + 1) (4 + 1) (1 + 1)
= 2 × 52
1
∴z = { (1 + 1) (2 + 1) } = 3
2

Ex.8 How many cofactors are there for 240, which are less than 240?
Sol. 240 = 16 × 15
= 24 × 3 × 5
Number of co primes to N, which are less than N
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞
= N ⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟ − − − −
⎝ a ⎠⎝ b ⎠

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 if N = ab × bq × - - - - (a, b, - - - - are Prime no.s)
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞
∴ Number of co primes to 240 = 240⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 5 ⎠
1 2 4
= 240 × × × = 64
2 3 5

Ex.9 What is the sum of all the co primes to 748? Which are less than N?
Sol. 748 = 4 × 187
= 22 × 11 × 17
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞
Number of co primes = 748 ⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 11 ⎠⎝ 17 ⎠
1 10 16
= 748 × × × = 320.
2 11 17
N
Sum of all the co primes to N. which are less than N is (number of co primes to N, which are less
2
than N.
748
∴ Sum = × 320
2
= 119680

Ex.10 In how many ways 5544 can be written as a product of 2 co primes?

Sol. If N = ap × bq × - - - -, where a, b, - - - - are prime numbers
N can be written as a product of two co primes in 2n-1 ways, where n is the number of prime factors to
N.
∴ 5544 = 11 × 504
= 11 × 9 × 56
= 11 × 9 × 8 × 7
= 23 × 32 × 7 × 11
∴ Answer: = 24-1 = 23 = 8. (Because, 2, 3, 7 & 11 are four different prime factors).

Ex.11 If n! have 35 zeroes at the end. What is the least value ‘n’ will take?
(1) 110 (2) 120 (3) 130 (4) 140 (5) 145
Sol. Since the number of zeroes are 35, 535 should exactly divide n! by trail & error, take n = 140.
.

5 140
28
5
1

So, there are 34 zeroes.

∴ The answer should be 145. Answer: (5)

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Ex.12 ‘N’ is a five digit number. The last digit of N35 is 2. What is the last digit of N?
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 7
(4) 8 (5) Cannot be determined
Sol. The last digit repeats after every 4th power.
Since the last digit of N35 is 2
⇒ The last digit of N3 is 2
Which is possible only for 8. Answer: (4)

40 40
Ex.13 What is the right most non zero digit in
20 20
2 80 × (10 )
40
40 40
Sol. = = 2 60 × 10 20
20 20
2 20
× 10 20

The required answer is the last digit of 260 = 6

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