Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hindu Temple Fractal Geometry PDF
Hindu Temple Fractal Geometry PDF
Abstract
The underlying relationship between Hindu cosmology and fractal theory is manifested in Hindu temple where fractal geometry acts as
the language. This paper has analyzed the Kandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho as the paradigm of Hindu temples with regard to
fractal geometry and describes the syntheses of fractal features of the temple from the Hindu cosmology and philosophy.
r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Cosmic energy; Degree of details; Fractal dimension; Iteration; Self-similar repetitions; Vastu Purusha Mandala
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 1. Top: development of a fractal figure from a single circle by the iteration having some definite rule. Bottom: development of different fractal figure
from the same circle but by the iteration having different rule.
2. A brief review of hindu cosmology and philosophy gods found their elixir, and at the same time the every being
in the universe was produced.
Hindus believe that the universe is created, destroyed, According to Hindu philosophy, the main goal of man’s
and re-created in an endless repetitive series of cycles where life is to achieve the ultimate liberation from the illusionary
Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the sustainer and Shiva is world where he suffers from his endless rebirth. Krishna
the destroyer, and all of them are the trinity of says in Bhagavad Gita,9 if man worships, devotes and
Parameshwar, the Supreme Being who is the manifested meditates to the manifested form of the wholeness of
form of the whole infinity3. He is the principal creator of infinity, and sees the truth of its manifestation; he will
the universe. According to the myth, before each successive surpass the confusion of the never-ending cycles of rebirth
series of the creation of universe, a lotus is grown from the in this physical world, and finally will assimilate with the
navel of Vishnu and then Brahma is born over it as the God. 10 Hindu calls it moksha.11 It brings the ultimate
incarnation of the supreme God. Brahma starts creating the peace and harmony in man’s life. But how one, from the
universe in a Brahma-day and destroys it in a Brahma-night physical world, can practice to realize this ultimate truth of
and again creates the new universe next day. He repeats the creation? Brihatsamhita12 and Sthapatyaveda13 give the
this process for 100 Brahma-years until his death. After his solution as the temple which should act as the microcosm
death, Brahma is born again and starts the new cycle of of the cosmos [9]. It should be the bridge for the man of
creation. A universe takes 4,320,000,000 years to be physical world to the God of divine world [10].
survived and same years to be destroyed. Hence, a universe To connect the physical world with the divine world and
is the result of time that follows the cosmic order in which a to reflect the truth of creation, the layout of cosmos was
fraction of moment is the microcosm of biggest time unit. 4 copied graphically in the foundation of temple. Here, a
Another myth says that mount meru5 is the axis of the mythical incident was interwoven where a formless being
cosmos. According to the Mahabharata, 6 gods twisted the covered the sky and was, immediately, arrested down to the
mount meru to find their most precious elixir, amrita 7 earth by the creator Brahma and other gods. This
which was lost during the terrible flood in the cosmic supernatural fact was depicted graphically by vastu purusha
ocean8. During twisting, the ocean became churned and mandala, where vastu refers to physical environment,
purusha refers to energy, power or cosmic being, and
mandala is the diagram or chart. Central portion of the
3
Winthrop Sargeant and Chrostopher Chappel. Bhagavad Gita: an mandala represents the place of Brahma and other portions
interlinear translation from the sanskrit. State University of New York symbolize the other gods according to their capability. By
Press, revised edition, 1987. laying down this metaphysical diagram in the foundation,
4
100 Brahma-years—death and rebirth // kalpa—1000 mahayugas // various supernatural forces are captured beneath the
mahayuga—4 yugas //yuga—10,000 divine years // divine year—360
sidereal years // life cycle—birth, death, rebirth //year—summer and
temple whereas its centre is the source of cosmic energies.
winter // day and night // breathing: inhale–exhale // bhavanga— The basic shape of the vastu purusha mandala is a square
consciousness wave ðmsÞ (refer to [9, p.7]).
5
According to Hindu mythology mount meru is the center of universe
9
where Brahma dwells along with other deities. Mythology says that it is Bhagabat Gita is one of the most authentic Hindu scriptures in which
450,000 km high and located in Jambudvipa, one of the continents on earth there have own words’ of the Lord Krishna, a trinity of God.
10
in Hindu mythology. Winthrop Sargeant and Chrostopher Chappel. Bhagavad Gita: an
6
Mahabharata is the most ancient epic in India where the stories of Interlinear Translation from the Sanskrit. State University of New York
Krishna, one of the trinity of Hindu gods, were included along with other Pr, revised edition, 1987.
11
godly beings. ‘Moksha’ is a Sanskrit word which means ‘freedom’. In Hindu
7
According to Hindu mythology amrita is an elixir which makes the scriptures moksha depicts the ultimate liberation from the cycles of rebirth
gods alive forever. If someone drinks this amrita, death never comes to in this physical world.
12
him. Brihatsamhita is one the most authentic Hindu scriptures.
8 13
According to Hindu cosmology, the space of cosmos is a kind of ocean Sthapatya Veda is the most ancient scriptures for the Indian tradition
which is full of milk. of architecture.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 3
Fig. 2. Left: plan of Kandariya Mahadev temple (11th century): (1) Garbhagriha, (2) Pradakshinapth, (3) Mandapa, and (4) Arthamandapa. Right:
East–West section of Kandariya Mahadev temple.
which represents the earth [11]. Its four sides depict the first rays of sun. The whole structure consists of four major
four cardinal directions. It also symbolizes the order, the parts (Fig. 2):
completeness of endless life and the perfectness of life and
death [10]. According to Hindu philosophy, our mundane
1. Grbhagriha, i.e., sanctuary where the main deity has
life is controlled by the number four—four castes, four
been kept.
stages of life, four great epochs or mahayugas, four heads
2. Pradakshina path, i.e., circumambulatory path having
of Brahma, the four Vedas etc. [12].
three sides balcony bringing ventilation and light to the
There are various types of vastu purusha mandala, which
interior.
are nothing but the squares grids, produced from the basic
3. Mandapa, i.e., columned assembly hall having two sides
shape; namely, a square which is known as sakala mandala.
balcony.
Each smaller square within the grid is called one pada. The
4. Artha mandapa, i.e., entrance porch.
number of pada may vary from 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and so on
1024, where it follows the geometric progression of 1, 2, 3,
4, 5,y,32 of common ratio 2. The mandala having even Kandariya Mahadev temple stands out from other
numbers of pada in its grid known as yugma squares temples of the region due to its grand scale with elaborated
mandala whereas the mandala, having odd numbers of pada building design as a whole and ornamentation. The
known as ayugma squares mandala. Vastu purusha mandala well-controlled zigzag plan of the temple creates the
is also known as different distinctive names according to vertical visual rhythm, accentuated in the elevation
the numbers of pada within the grid. The mandala having through its sharp recessions and projections, whereas the
1,4,9,16,25 and 36 numbers of pada within the grid are horizontal friezes on the elevation create the horizontal
known as sakala mandala, pechaka mandala, pitah mandala, rhythmic growth upward (Fig. 3).
mahapitah mandala, manduka chandita mandala and para- The most distinctive part of the temple is its lofty curved
masayika mandala, respectively14. towers above the sanctuary. It is known as shikhara.
Shikhara is crowned by an amalaka,15 a ribbed circular
3. Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho, 1030 A.D. motif, and a pot finial, known as the kalasha, a sacred pot
in which the most precious elixir amrita had been kept.
Kandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho sets the Here in the shikhara, the amalgamation of the form of lotus
benchmark of Hindu art in India. This temple was blossom and that of mountain has been frozen into the
constructed in the middle of 11th century when Hindu form of multiple recursive archetypes. Replicas of the
temples had attained the highest point of matured design. towers are the most distinctive character in the Kandariya
During the period, all kinds of Hindu art including Mahadev temple.
sculpture, music and dance, were intermingled in temple Like exterior, interior of the Kandariya Mahadev temple
designs [22]. Kandariya Mahadev temple has height about is elaborated with ornamentation. At exterior it has more
31 m. It is elevated above a lofty plinth which makes the than 646 numbers of figures whereas 226 numbers of
temple structure sanctity and monumental. The structure is figures were sculpted in interior. There is no boundary
30.5 m long and 20 m wide, faced to the east to welcome the between interior and exterior in terms of ornamentation
and detailing.
14
For more information regarding vastu purusha mandala, its history
15
and application to the Indian traditional architecture in deep, see V. ‘Amalaka’ is a kind of fruit available in north part of India. According
Chakrabarti. Indian Architectural theory and practice; contemporary uses to Hindus amalaka is a sacred fruit. In most of the Hindu temples,
of vastu vidya. Routledge Curzon, 1999. amalaka was adopted as the finial on shikhara.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 3. Left: front elevation; middle: north elevation; and right: back elevation.
4. Fractal dimension and box counting method high textureness and abundance of details. Roughness of
the images having fractal dimensions 1.21–1.25 or the
In fractal geometry, fractal dimension is the quantity dimensions 1.81–1.86 are visually not so much distinguish-
which measures the fractalness of an object. For any fractal able by naked eyes. But naked eyes can easily distinguish
object fractal dimension is always non-integer, i.e., unlike the images having fractal dimensions 1.1, 1.2, 1.3,y, 1.8
integer-dimensional objects (zero-dimensional point, one and 1.9, separately.
dimensional line, two dimensional square and three To evaluate the fractal dimension of an image by ‘box
dimensional cube) fractal object is a fractional-dimensional counting method’, firstly a squares grid is overlaid on the
which may be in between one dimensional and two image where the size of each grid box, let ‘S’, determines
dimensional object, or in between two dimensional and the scale of the grid. Then the boxes, having any mark or
three dimensional object. For in between one-dimensional line of the image within the grid, are counted; let it is ‘N’.
and two-dimensional fractal object fractal dimension ‘D’ is After repeating the same process on the same image by
always more than 1 and less than 2 (i.e., 1oDo2Þ, whereas changing the box size, fractal dimension ‘D’ of that image
for in between two- and three-dimensional fractal object can be obtained by transforming the results of ‘S’ and ‘N’
the fractal dimension ‘D’ is always more than 2 and less into the log–log graph. The slope of the resulting line of the
than 3 (i.e., 2oDo3Þ. log–log graph determines the fractal dimension of the
There are various methods to evaluate the fractal image.
dimension, among which the ‘box counting method’ is There are various software that can directly calculate the
suitable for measuring the fractal dimension of the fractal dimension of an image by following the basic
elevation of buildings, mountains, trees or any objects process of ‘box counting method’. In this paper, the
which are not true fractal. Albeit, ‘self-similarity dimension software of ‘Box Counting Demonstration’17 has been
method’ is very common for calculating the fractal employed for counting the marked boxes. For the analyses,
dimension, but the method is only applicable for the true all parts of the temple have been taken as two-dimensional
mathematical fractals where self-similar structures are images by keeping the information about image sizes and
found at all zooming scales.16 their resolutions.
Fractal dimension calculated by ‘box counting method’ For example, by taking the box sizes or grid sizes 24, 12,
measures the fractalness of an image on the basis of 6 and 3 of a squares grid for a fractal image of 60 mm
roughness or textureness or the amount of details. Images 43:5 mm with resolution 80 pixels/cm, marked boxes are
having fractal dimensions 1.1–1.5 indicate less roughness counted by the ‘Box-Counting Demonstration’ software
and details they have, whereas images having fractal (Fig. 4). Then by taking the log of grid sizes ðSÞ on the
dimension 1.6–1.9 but less than integer value 2, exhibit X -axis and log of marked boxes ðNÞ on the Y -axis
following results have been obtained as shown in Table 1
16
(Graph 1).
Other well known methods include ‘measured dimension method’ or Slope of the resulting line in log–log graph shows the
‘structured walk method’ which is only applicable for the overlapping
curves, while the other methods (like box counting and self-similarity
fractal dimension of the image is 1.55. The resulted points
dimension methods) cannot include the part of overlapping curves. Self- lied on a smooth straight line in the graph indicate the
similarity dimension is believed to be the standard fractal dimension of a uniformity of details of the image in different scales. Here
pure fractal object and equivalent to Mandelbrot’s fractal dimension. But fractal dimension 1.55 confirms that the level of details of
‘box counting method’ measures the fractal dimension of those objects the fractal image is medium.
which are not true mathematical fractal. This method basically measures
the rate of roughness or detail-ness of an image, but not an object itself.
Accordingly, ‘box counting method’ is the suitable and preferable method
17
to calculate the fractal dimension of the images of buildings, mountains, The software of ‘Box-Counting Demonstration’ was developed by
trees or any objects which are not true fractal. Box counting dimension is Martin Nezadal, Institute of Physical and Applied Chemistry, Brno
also equivalent to Mandelbrot’s fractal dimension. For more details, refer University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic for determining the
to Lorenz [13]. fractal dimension of an image through box counting method.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 5
Fig. 4. Box counting operation of a fractal figure. Extreme left—fractal figure; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size 12; (c) grid size 6; and (d) grid size 3.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 5. Fractal characteristics of different mandalas and their iterations from the sakala mandala.
Fig. 6. (a) ‘Field of forces’ within the square ([4]; redrawn by the author);
(b) radiation of forces from 9-squares grid [23]; redrawn by the author);
(c) radiation of forces from 81-squares grid.
of energy radiations whereas in the plan of Parvati temple Stage 2 Plan of Vishnu temple
it was only the symbolical expression. In the sixth century Daogarh, 7th Century
to the seventh century A.D. Hindu temples were usually c
constructed on this modified plan by following the same
grids of mandala. Vishnu temple at Deogarh, constructed
in the late sixth century, is the example of this type of
temple (Fig. 7b).
As time goes, the shape of Hindu temple plan became Plan of Surya temple,
more complex where each sides of the square of mandala Stage 3 Modhara, 11th Century
bumps up twice. By repeating the same process, i.e., by d
iterating, each side of the square of mandala attains a
fractal like pattern in which this time it expresses the
directions of radiating cosmic energies more clearly. This
pattern was employed on the plan of Surya temple at
Modhera in the 11th century (Fig. 7c). In this temple the
developed pattern was overlapped by the self-similar
pattern towards the east direction at the same axis leading Plan of Kandarya Mahadev
Stage 4
temple, Kahnjraho, 11th Century
the entrance to the sanctuary and got the final outcome.
Lastly, during the 11th century, the plan of Hindu Fig. 7. Evolution of the plan of Kandariya Mahadev temple from the
temple had attained its final shape as the result of third vastu purusha mandala through the above stages which is lead by the
radiation of cosmic energy. (a) Plan of Parvati temple, Nachna from
fractal iteration of mandala. This modified and matured
simple square mandala; (b) plan of Vishnu temple, Deogarh from the first
plan was widely adopted in the North Indian temples; iteration of mandala; (c) plan of Surya temple, Modhera from the second
among those Kandaraiya Mahadev temple at Kahjuraho is iteration of mandala; and (d) plan of Kandarya Mahadev temple,
the most remarkable (Fig. 7d). Evolution of this temple Khajuraho from the third iteration of mandala.
plan is the process of fractal iteration. Here the iteration
was lead by the cosmological events as well the symbolic Mahadev temple. In this geometric operation one smaller
geometries and sacred proportions. There are two square within the grid of mandala, i.e., one pada has been
hypotheses about the geometric operations of mandala to taken as one unit. The outward energies generated from the
evolve the final plan of Kandariya Mahadev temple. center of mandala have bumped up the middle of each side
According to the first hypothesis, pitah mandala, i.e., one unit along the four directions (Fig. 8a) as the first
nine-square grid is considered as the primary shape for the iteration. Then all the newly born outer corners have been
geometric operation to evolve the plan of Kandariya filled with meandering elements which are developed from
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 7
Fig. 8. (a) Top: 9-Squares mandala. Bottom: sides of a 9-squares mandala are bumped up 1 pada along the cardinal directions. (b) Left: plan of Kandariya
Mahadev temple. Right up: outer corner of ‘Fig. 8a-bottom’, i.e., 1 pada and development of a element having golden proportion with a quarter of the
pada. Right bottom: outer corner of ‘Fig. 8a-bottom’ filled by the newly born element from a pada in its three sides and overlapped with the self similar but
opposite pattern to get final fractal patterned plan of the temple.
the quarter of one pada. Each meandering element is the sanctuary is also the offset of outer plan, which makes whole
combination of a golden rectangle and a square born from the plan as fractal. For analyzing the roughness of the plan
the same rectangle. After filling the outer corners, it has got of Kandariya Mahadev temple, ‘Box-Counting Demonstra-
the fractal pattern which is overlapped with a self similar tion’ software has been employed on the image of plan by
pattern, planned for the mandapa, along the axis of taking its size 50 mm 70 mm having resolution 80 pixels/
entrance to the sanctuary. Lastly, by projecting the cm and grid sizes 24, 12, 6 and 3 (Fig. 10). It gives the
entrance part along the same axis, it has attained the final following results (Table 2 (Graph 2)):
shape (Fig. 8b). From the slope, shown in Graph 2, it is obtained that it
According to second hypothesis, the plan of Kandariya has fractal dimension 1.70 which depicts its high degree of
Mahadev temple is the result of third iteration of pitah roughness or details. The smooth curve as a straight line in
mandala (36-squares grid). Here the pitah mandala is rest the graph describes the uniformity of its roughness. This
within the manduka chandita mandala (100-squares grid) on degree of roughness or details of plan has been accentuated
the same grids. The iteration of each side is guided by the in the structure to make the whole structure complex and
gridlines and a circle which touches the corners of pitah textured.
mandala. The circle depicts the endless cycles of times, the
wholeness and the consciousness due to its never-ending
shape18. The sides of another square, placed diagonally by 5.2. Elevation
touching its corners to the outer edges of the manduka
chandita mandala, indicate the iteration points. Hindu cosmology, manifested in the plan of Hindu
Each iteration starts from the intersection between a side temple two dimensionally, was also manifested in its
of the diagonal square and the last iterated line, and stops elevation but three dimensionally and more symbolically.
at the intersection between grid line and the circle. Finally, For the elevation too, sthapati19 took the fractal as a
the iteration stops at the corners of the diagonal square medium to visualize the manifested form of cosmos and to
(Fig. 9). The elongations of the last iterated forms depict make the pilgrims meditating for spiritual journey. To
the four cardinal directions. On the temple structure, these apply the fractal as a tool for constructing the temple,
last projected parts are open verandas, symbolizes the perhaps, sthapati did not use any mathematical fractal
cardinal directions. theory or formulae, but he influenced by the nature where
This fractal operation of the plan of Kandariya Mahadev God himself create mountains, trees, leaves, etc. as the
temple makes it fractal in terms of roughness and irregular examples of fractal [5].
shape. Not only the outer plan but also the plan of central In the structure of almost all Hindu temples, sthapati
took the mountain as a model of fractal object where
18 19
According to Kumar, ‘‘the circle is logically the perfect metaphor for In Brihatsamhita and Sthapatyaveda, architects of Hindu temples and
heaven since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end, signifying residences were called as sthapati. It’s a Sanskrit term comes from the
timelessness and eternity, a characteristically divine attribute.’’ (see [12]). ancient Hindu scriptures.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 9. Geometric operation of mandalas and that of some symbolic geometry for the development of the plan of Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Fig. 10. Box counting operation of the plan of Kandariya Mahadev temple. Extreme left—plan; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size 12; (c) grid size 6; and (d) grid
size 3.
4
Table 2
3.5
Step Grid size ðSÞ Marked boxes ðNÞ Log ðSÞ Log ðNÞ
3
1 24 249 1.380 2.396 y = -1.7013x + 4.7409
2 12 806 1.079 2.906 2.5
log (N)
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 9
Fig. 11. (a) Repetitions of towers and their elements in the shikhara; and (b) whole form of shikhara is repeated in a part within another part (marked by
red color). Repetitions of tower above the mandapas (marked by green color) create angle for upward eye movement to the summit of main shikhara.
temples are mountainous, but they are unique from each mathematical basis of the universe.21 Almost in every
other regarding the styles of repetition of towers, Hindu temple in North India, the rule of repetition of
ornamentations on tower facades, tower slopes and their towers is almost the same. On the shikhara above the
geometric structures. sanctuary of Kandariya Mahadev temple, the second larger
In the case of Kandariya Mahadev temple, the main tower is just half in size of the main central tower and the
tower above the sanctuary is repeated at its four sides shorter towers are one-third and one-fourth in size of the
and the same process of repetition is continued in main tower. Placing of the smaller towers on the elevation
each newly born smaller tower, and again this process is such that the peaks of each smaller tower pointing
repeated in the last newly born smaller tower (Fig. 11a). At towards the summit of main central tower, makes the
the same time smaller towers are repeated on the body impression of unity in infinity towards cosmic axis.
of main tower in which the whole tower attains It turns out that the stratification of the towers above the
such an arrangement where one can easily feel the sanctuary follows the golden sequence as the basic rule for
whole in a part within another part. Above the assembly arrangement. Let’s take the distance between two peaks of
hall, i.e., mandapa the main tower is repeated within main tower and second tower as a side of a square
its own body and at the same time its whole body is (ABCD). Then, an arc is drawn whose center is located at
repeated along the axis of mandapa to the entrance. This M point and radius is MA (Fig. 12). The arc touches the
arrangement of repetitive towers above the mandapa peak of third tower and intersects the extension of a line
(assembly hall) and arthamandapa (entrance porch) is such DC at point G. Then, a square (EFGC) is drawn by taking
that it makes to move up one’s eyes automatically to the a line CG as a side. Now the square (EFGC) is copied as
main tower above sanctuary and from that travel up FHIG whose side GI determines the distance between third
through the summit of finial to the axis of cosmos peak and fourth peak. Again a second arc is drawn from a
(Fig. 11b). This highest point of the shikhara above point O by taking the radius OF which touches the peak of
sanctuary is believed as the ultimate point of liberation fifth tower. It produces a new square (JKLI). Interestingly,
from the physical world. the peaks of alternative towers, i.e., the peaks of first, third
The beauty of shikhara lies behind the proportions of the and fifth towers also obey the golden ratio, where the
arrangement of replicas. In Hindu temples the repetitions distance between peaks of first and third towers determines
of the towers are not arbitrarily, but follow some rules and the square (XYGD) and that of third and fifth towers
proportions for the welfare of the society as well as the determines the square (UVLG).
universe.20 Its proportions have deep significance; because Another significance of such arrangement of smaller
if the temple is constructed according to the mathematical towers on the shikhara of Kandariya Mahadev temple is
system properly, then it can function in harmony with the the man’s perception for seeing the whole body of shikhara
in its self-similar parts from any location of view (Fig. 13).
20
According to Brihatsamhita Hindu temples must be perfect which will This fractal property is also reflected from the degree of
reflect the perfectness in this world as well as in spiritual world. R. J. details in each part of shikhara.
Mehta found out that ‘‘There was the necessity for perfection but not One can experience the same level of details of the whole
necessarily absolute perfect. The ancient texts lay down the mathematical body of shikhara in its self-similar parts. To analyze the
concept of imperfection, that is, not a whole number but one where a small consistency of details or roughness of whole shikhara and
fraction is left over on division [15]’’. Whereas Volwahsen points out, in
Hindu architecture the rules of proportion makes the structure well- that of its parts more concretely, ‘box counting method’
balanced, architecturally pleasant and perfect within the mathematical
21
concept of imperfection (see [11]). Michell [10, p. 73].
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
10 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 14. Box counting operation of the shikhara ‘Fig. 13a’. Extreme left—Shikhara, ‘Fig. 13a’; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size 12; (c) grid size 6; and (d) grid
size 3.
Fig. 15. Box counting operation of the part of shikhara ‘Fig. 13b’. Extreme left—part of shikhara, ‘Fig. 13b’; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size 12; (c) grid size 6;
(d) grid size 3.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 11
Fig. 16. Box counting operation of the smaller part of shikhara ‘Fig. 13c’. Extreme left—Smaller part of shikhara, ‘Fig. 13c’; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size
12; (c) grid size 6; and (d) grid size 3.
Table 3 4
Step Grid size ðSÞ Marked boxes ðNÞ Log ðSÞ Log ðNÞ 3.5
log (N)
4 3 6123 0.477 3.787 2
1.5
Table 4 0.5
Step Grid size ðSÞ Marked boxes ðNÞ Log ðSÞ Log ðNÞ
0 0.5 1 1.5
1 24 123 1.380 2.090 log (s)
2 12 443 1.079 2.646
3 6 1608 0.778 3.206 Graph 4. Fractal dimension 1.83.
4 3 5537 0.477 3.743
Table 5 3.5
Step Grid size ðSÞ Marked boxes ðNÞ Log ðSÞ Log ðNÞ 3
y = -1.7970x + 4.5723
1 24 122 1.380 2.086 2.5
log (N)
0.5
4
0 0.5 1 1.5
3.5
log (s)
3
y = -1.8422x + 4.6702 Graph 5. Fractal dimension 1.80.
2.5
log (N)
1.5
From the slope it is obtained that it has fractal
dimension 1.87 which is higher but near about similar to
1 that of whole shikhara (above sanctuary) and its self similar
0.5 parts within the shikhara (i.e., ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ in ‘Fig. 13’),
and its resulted smooth straight line in the graph describes
0 0.5 1 1.5
its uniformity of details. Thus it is observed that not only
from the distinctive part, shikhara, but also from the whole
log (s)
elevation one can experience the consistent degree of details
Graph 3. Fractal dimension 1.84. from anywhere outside.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
12 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 17. Box counting operation of the front elevation. Extreme left—front elevation; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size 12; (c) grid size 6; and (d) grid size 3.
Table 6
Step Grid size ðSÞ Marked boxes ðNÞ Log ðSÞ Log ðNÞ
3.5
3
y = -1.859x + 4.667
2.5
log (N)
1.5
0.5
Fig. 18. Elevations and plans of: (a) Shikhara of Adinatha temple (900
AD); (b) Shikhara of Paraswanatha temple (950 AD); and (c) Shikhara of
0 0.5 1 1.5 Kandariya Mahadev temple (1050 AD).
log (s)
time this process is guided by the shape of foundation
Graph 6. Fractal dimension 1.87.
(Figs. 19 and 20).
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 13
Fig. 19. Plan of shikhara. Development of the multipratiti shikhara of Kandariya Mahadev temple from unipratiti by the process of iteration.
Fig. 20. Development of multipratiti shikhara as the multi square-prisms from a single square-prism by repeating the smaller scaled self-similar prism
outwards.
Fig. 21. (a) Ceiling of mandapa in Kandariya Mahadev temple (source: internet); and (b) development of the pattern of ceiling panel in Kandariya
Mahadev temple from a bud by the process of iteration.
microcosm of the largest time unit, cosmos. Like the analyze the consistency of degree of details in the whole
exterior, the interior of Kandariya Mahadev temple is also structure, the ‘Box Counting Demonstration’ software has
full of figuristic and floral details in which figuristic details been employed. In this case, the image size of a part of
protects the sanctuary from demons and floral details ceiling details has been taken as 50 mm 50 mm with the
depicts the cosmic events. On the ceiling of this temple, the resolution 80 pixels=cm (Fig. 22). By taking the grid sizes
floral pattern of panels is most noteworthy for depicting 16, 8, 4 and 2 the following results are obtained as shown in
the cosmos where, again, fractal takes the main role for Table 7 (Graph 7).
depiction. Here the combination of some ceiling panels From the slope it is obtained that it has fractal
makes the pattern such a way that it seems the flowers are dimension 1.78 depicting high degree of details and its
blossomed from buds recursively. From each bud four smooth curve as straight line depicts the uniformity of
petals are bloomed then from four petals eight petals are details in the panel.
generated and again from this eight petal-flower a 12 petal Fractal pattern of the plan of Kandariya Mahadev
bloom is born. Here the bloom depicts the creation of temple, replicas of detailed towers, and rhythmic growth of
universe from the lotus bud sprouting from the navel of horizontal friezes, create a harmony of fractal characters in
Vishnu. Each bloom from a single bud is stratified by the whole complex. High level of details in everywhere of
making the level difference. These differences of levels and the temple adds fractal flavor of roughness throughout the
concentric floral patterns make a passage for the spiritual structure.
journey to the unit ness of infinity and thus help the man to Fractal dimensions of the plan of Kandariya Mahadev
practice for getting the ultimate liberation (Fig. 21). temple, its elevation, parts of the elevation and smaller
The ceiling panels are also finely detailed which maintain details are ranging from 1.7 to 1.8, which confirms the high
the degree of skillful roughness in the whole complex. To fractal value of the whole temple complex from any view
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
14 I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 22. Box counting operation of the ceiling panel. Extreme left—ceiling panel; (a) grid size 24; (b) grid size 12; (c) grid size 6; and (d) grid size 3.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
ARTICLE IN PRESS
I. Md Rian et al. / Building and Environment ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 15
the old buildings and the existed urban patterns and growth, [11] Volwahsen A. Living architecture: Indian. London: Macdonald;
but also helps to create a countless unimaginable forms and 1969.
patterns for finding new possibilities of space as well as [12] Kumar N. The Hindu temple—where man becomes God. The
cultured traveler, 2005; vol. 7; December.
aesthetic in contemporary architecture. [13] Lorenz WE. Fractals and fractal architecture. Vienna, Vienna
University of Technology; 2003. hhttp://www.iemar.tuwien.ac.at/
Acknowledgment modul23/Fractalsi.
[14] Arnheim R. Art and visual perception. Los Angeles: University of
This work was supported by an Inha University research California Press; 1954.
[15] Mehta RJ. Masterpieces of Indian temples. Bombay: D.B. Tarapor-
grant. evala Sons; 1974.
[16] Elliot TS. Four quarters 1. Burnt Norton 1935.
References [17] Ostwald MJ and Moore RJ. Fractal architecture: a critical evaluation
of proposed architectural and scientific definitions. In Kan WT,
[1] Bovill C. Fractal geometry in architecture and design. Boston: editor. Architectural science, informatics and design (shan-Ti:
Birkhäuser; 1996. Chinese University in Hong Kong; 1996. p. 137–48.
[2] March L. From sky-scraping to land-hugging. The Journal of the [18] Bangura AK. Review of African fractals: modern computing and
National University of Singapore, special issue The City (10) indigenous Design. Nexus Network Journal 2000; 2(4).
December, 1992. p. 12–9. [19] Salingaros NA. Ecology and the fractal mind in the new Architecture
[3] Ostwald M. Fractal architecture: late 20th century connections KHANEH Quarterly 2003; 4, 5.
between architecture and fractal geometry. Nexus Network Journal, [20] Frankhauser P. Comparing the morphology of urban patterns in
Winter 2001; 3(1). Europe — a fractal approach. Europoean Cities — insights on
[4] Batty M, Longley P. The fractal city. In: Mapelli EG, editor. AD, outskirts, Report COST Action 10 Urban Civil Engineering, vol 2,
Urban environments. New York: Wiley-Academy; 2001. structures. 2004. p. 79–105.
[5] Mandelbrot BB. The fractal geometry of nature. New York: W. H. [21] Stiny G, Gips J. Shape grammars and the generative specification of
Freeman and Company; 1982. painting and sculpture. IFIP Congress. Amsterdam: North Holland;
[6] Thomas D. Architecture and the urban environment: a vision for the 2nd ed. 1972.
new age, 1st ed. Architectural Press; June 2002. [22] Mehta RJ. Masterpieces of Indian sculpture. Stosius Inc/Advent
[7] Jencks C. The architecture of the jumping universe. New York: Books Division; June 1979.
Wiley; 1997. [23] Kalfazade N. Diagrammataic potency of the ‘‘Nine Square Grid’’
[8] Jackson WJ. Heaven’s fractal net: retrieving lost visions in the in architectural design. Masters thesis. The Graduate School
humanities. Indiana University Press; 2004. of Natural and Applied Sciences, Middle East University, June
[9] Steirlin H. Architecture of the world: India. Compagnie du Livre d’ 2004.
Art, S.A.; 1996. [24] Jencks C. The new paradigm in architecture, (seventh edition of The
[10] Michell G. The Hindu temple: an introduction to its meaning and Language of Post-Modern Architecture). London, New Haven: Yale
forms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1988. University Press; 2002.
Please cite this article as: Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building
and Environment (2007), doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028