ANAPHY REVIWER: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

TERMS
Chemical Messengers
- Allows cells to communicate with each other to maintain chemical activity
- Secreted by epithelial cells in specific glands
Endocrine glands
- has receptor cells for hormones to react only with target cells
- secretes hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
- literal translation means “to set into motion”
- regulates almost every physiological process in the body
- travels through blood circulation to reach target tissues or effectors
Target tissues
- specific sites where hormones produce a specific response
Exocrine glands
- secretes into ducts that lead to the outside of the body or into a hollow organ
Functions of the Endocrine System
- Control of food intake and digestion
- Control of blood glucose and other minerals
- Control of reproductive functions
- Ion regulation
- Immune system regulation
- Metabolism
- Water balance
- Tissue development
- Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
- Uterine contractions and milk release
Types of Chemical Messengers: (A.P.N.E)
1. Autocrine- released by cells that has a local effect on the same cell or cell type (ex:
secretions of WBCs during infection)
2. Paracrine- released by cells that have a local effect on other types of cell types in close
proximity, and is secreted into extracellular fluid (ex: histamine released by WBCs in
the event of an allergic reaction)
3. Neurotransmitters- secreted by neurons that activate an adjacent cell, another neuron,
a muscle cell, or a glandular cell (NOTE: is considered in the strictest sense a paracrine
chemical messenger)
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 4. Endocrine- secreted into the bloodstream that affects cells distant from their source
(ex: hormones)
Hormones
Two types:
1. Lipid-soluble hormones
- Binds to nuclear-bound receptors
- Insoluble in water-based fluids
- Travel in bloodstream attached to binding proteins
- Degraded slowly and are not rapidly eliminated from circulation
- Lifespan ranges from a few days to several weeks

2. Water-soluble hormones
- Polar molecules
- Binds to membrane-bound receptors
- Can circulate as free hormones since they diffuse in the bloodstream (smaller water-soluble
hormones require attachment to binding proteins to avoid being filtered out)
- Do not readily diffuse through walls of capillaries
- Have relatively short half-lives
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Terms:
Receptors- proteins that hormones bind to in order to exert their specific action
Receptor site- portion of receptor molecule where hormones bind to
Specificity- tendency of each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor
Classes of Receptors:
1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear-bound receptors
- Tend to be relatively small and nonpolar
- Can freely cross cell membrane
- When bound to nuclear receptor, it interacts with DNA or cellular enzymes to regulate
transcription of particular genes in target tissue
- Is recognized to have rapid effects on target cells
- Examples include thyroid hormones, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, and
cortisol

2. Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound receptors

- Are polar molecules that cannot pass through cell membrane
- Membrane-bound receptors are proteins extending across cell membrane
- Hormone-binding sites are exposed on cell membrane’s surface
- When bound to membrane receptor, it initiates a response inside the cell
- Examples include proteins, peptides, epinephrine, and norepinephrine

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Action of Nuclear Receptors
- Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein synthesis
1. When hormone diffuses into cell membrane and binds to its receptors, it binds to DNA to
produce new proteins
2. Hormone-response elements are receptors that bind to DNA and have fingerlike projections
that recognize specific nucleotide sequences in DNA
3. Transcription factor is the combination of a hormone and its receptor that regulates
transcription of mRNA
4. new mRNA moves to cytoplasm to be translated into specific proteins at the ribosomes
5. the new proteins produce the hormone’s effect to the target cells
Example:
Testosterone stimulates synthesis of proteins that are responsible for secondary sex
characteristics (such as muscle mass and body structure).

Aldosterone stimulates synthesis of proteins that increase sodium and potassium

transport, which results to the decrease of sodium and increase in potassium loss in urine.
Membrane-bound Receptors and Signal Amplification
- usually employed by water-soluble hormones
- G proteins (guanine nucleotide-binding proteins) transmit signals from a variety of stimuli from
the outside of the cell to the inside
- Membrane-bound receptors activate in two ways:
• Effects the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the cell membrane
• Directly affects activity of intracellular enzymes
- a ligand (a molecule which produces a signal by binding to target protein) binds to its membrane-
bound receptor
- Second messengers are elicited responses in cells from the activation of G proteins or intracellular
enzymes that produce molecules
- Second messengers then activates specific cellular responses inside the cell in response to the
hormone
1. G protein consists of 3 subunits: alpha (largest), beta, and gamma (smallest) that freely floats
in cell membrane
2. When hormone binds to receptor, receptor changes shape to allow G protein to bind to it
where guanine diphosphate (GDP) is replaced with guanine triphosphate (GTP) on the alpha
subunit
3. The G protein then separates from receptor (leaving behind the beta and gamma subunits as
well), letting the GTP link alpha subunit activate cellular responses
4. When hormone separates from receptor, G proteins are no longer activated, thus binding
GDP to the alpha subunit with the removal of phosphate

Stimulation and Inhibition of Hormone Release

1. Humoral Stimuli
- “humoral” refers to body fluids including blood
- Blood-borne chemicals that can directly affect release of hormones
- Sensitive to blood levels of a particular substance (such as glucose, calcium, sodium)
for it to release a specific hormone
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 Example:
If blood pressure is low, adrenal cortex releases aldosterone, which regulates salt
and water in the body.

- There exists a companion hormone whose release is inhibited by the same humoral
stimulus
- Companion hormone has effects that oppose that of secreted hormone and counteracts its
action

Example:
If blood pressure is high, the atria of the heat releases ANP which increases salt
excretion. (NOTE: water always follows sodium)

2. Neural Stimuli
- Is characterized by the release of a neurotransmitter into synapse following action potential
- Increases hormone secretion
- Some neurons release neuropeptides directly into the bloodstream, which stimulate
hormone secretion from other endocrine cells (specialized neuropeptides are called
releasing hormones)

Example:
Exercise stimulates adrenal gland secretion of epinephrine (increases heart rate) and
norepinephrine (mobilizes brain and body for action).

- If there is no action potential to stimulate the release of a neurotransmitter, the target

endocrine gland will not secrete its hormone

Example:
When exercise stops, neural stimulation declines, thus decreasing the release of
epinephrine and norepinephrine.

3. Hormonal Stimuli
- Involves a hormone stimulating the release of other hormones
- Most common example are tropic hormones which stimulate the release of a hormone from
a particular endocrine gland

Example:
Releasing hormones from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary gland
to release tropic hormones, which then regulate secretion of thyroid hormones from
the thyroid gland.

- Some hormones inhibit the release of other hormones, conveniently called inhibiting
hormones

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 Example:
The hypothalamus releases inhibiting hormones to prevent the anterior pituitary
gland from secreting tropic hormones.

Hormone Level Regulation in Blood

Two major mechanisms:
1. Negative feedback
- a hormone’s secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels have reached a
certain point or if there is an adequate hormone release to activate a target cell
- hormones may also inhibit other hormones
- if there is a decrease, the response would be to increase (or vice versa)

2. Positive Feedback
- Hormones stimulated by tropic hormones can promote the synthesis of more tropic
hormones in addition to stimulating target cell, which stimulates further secretion of
original hormone
- Is a self-propagating system
- If there is an increase, the response would be to increase

Endocrine Glands & their Hormones

Hypothalamus
- In charge of endocrine control and the autonomic nervous system
- Recall: location is inferior to thalamus
- Considered the master of the pituitary gland
- Controls the pituitary gland by hormonal control and direct innervation
Pituitary Gland
- Known as the master gland
- Divided into two parts: anterior pituitary (made up of epithelial cells) and posterior
pituitary (extension of the brain composed of nerve cells)
- Connected to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum
- Controls the function of other glands

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 GLAND HORMONE/S FUNCTION/S TARGET
TISSUE/S
Anterior Pituitary FSH (Follicle stimulating) Promotes follicle maturation & Follicles in ovaries &
(FLAT People estrogen secretion seminiferous tubules
Give More)

*FLAT are tropic LH (Luteinizing) Promotes ovulation and Ovaries and testes
hormones progesterone production;
promotes testosterone synthesis
and sperm production
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic) Increases secretion of Adrenal cortex
glucocorticoid hormones &
increases skin pigmentation
TSH (Thyroid stimulating) Increases thyroid hormone Thyroid gland
secretion
Prolactin Stimulates milk production & Ovaries, mammary
prolongs progesterone secretion glands, and testes
Growth hormone Increases gene expression & Most tissues
blood glucose levels
MSH (Melanocyte stimulating) Increases melanin production Melanocytes

Posterior Pituitary ADH (Antidiuretic) Conserves water and constricts Kidney

(OA) blood vessels
Oxytocin Increases uterine contractions Uterus and mammary
(yields positive feedback) gland
Thyroid Gland Calcitonin Decreases rate of bone Bone
(CT) breakdown & prevents large
increase in Ca2+ after meal
Thyroid hormones Increases metabolic rates Most cells
(thyroxine or T4 &
triiodothyronine or T3)
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone Increases rate of bone Bone and kidney
Glands breakdown via osteoclasts
(increases vitamin D synthesis)
Adrenal medulla Epinephrine & a little Increases cardiac output (blood Most cells
norepinephrine flow to skeletal muscles and
heart); prepares body for
physical activity
Adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids Increases rate of sodium Kidneys, intestines,
(MAG) (Aldosterone) transport; Increases potassium sweat glands
excretion
Glucocorticoids (cortisol) Increases lipid & protein Most tissues
breakdown; inhibits
inflammation response
Adrenal androgens Increases libido Most tissues
Pancreas Insulin Increases uptake of glucose and Liver, adipose tissue,
(SIG) amino acids skeletal muscle
Glucagon Increases breakdown of liver
glycogen and release of glucose
Somatostatin Inhibits secretion of pancreatic Most tissues
hormones
Testes Testosterone Aids sperm production and Most tissues
secondary sex characteristics

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 Ovaries Estrogens & Progesterone Aid in uterine contractions, Most tissues
menstruation, secondary sex
characteristics
Uterus Prostaglandins Mediates inflammatory Most tissues
response; increase uterine
contractions & ovulation
Thymus Thymosin Promotes immune system Immune tissues
response
Pineal gland Melatonin Inhibits reproduction Hypothalamus, among
others

Hormonal Control of Anterior Pituitary & Innervation of Posterior Pituitary

- Anterior pituitary synthesizes hormones; Hypothalamus controls secretion
- Capillary beds in charge of releasing and inhibiting hormones are called the hypothalamic-
pituitary system
1. Neurons from hypothalamus produce neuropeptides to be secreted into capillary beds
2. Neuropeptides are then transported to capillary bed in anterior pituitary
3. Neuropeptides then leave blood and bind to membrane-bound receptors
4. Hypothalamic neuropeptides act as either releasing or inhibiting hormones
(Releasing hormones stimulate anterior pituitary hormone secretion; inhibiting
hormones decrease secretion of anterior pituitary hormone)
- Posterior pituitary serves as storage for two hormones synthesized by hypothalamus
- Neural stimulation in hypothalamus controls secretion of posterior pituitary hormones
- Hormones produced in nerve cell bodies are transported to axon endings in posterior
pituitary for storage
- When nerve cells are stimulated, the hypothalamus send action potentials to release
hormone from axon endings
Additional Information on Glands and Their Hormones:
Thyroid Gland
- Requires iodine to function
- Made up of two lobes connected by an isthmus ( a constriction) located on either side of
trachea, inferior to larynx
- One of the largest endocrine glands
- Highly vascular
- Surrounded by connective tissue capsule
- Thyroid hormones bind to nuclear receptors in cells to regulate metabolism
- Hormones are synthesized and stored in thyroid follicles (small spheres made up of simple
cuboidal epithelium within walls of gland)
- Each follicle is filled with protein thyroglobulin to which the hormone is attached
- Between follicles are capillaries (C cells) that produce calcitonin
- Thyroid hormones have negative feedback effect ( ↑ TH, ↓ TSH)
- A lack of TH results in Hyperthyroidism, which can lead to cretinism (mental retardation)
and myxedema (accumulation of fluid in subcutaneous tissue)

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 - An elevated rate of TH causes Hyperthyroidism, which increases metabolic rate, and can
cause Graves disease (immune system produces abnormal proteins) accompanied by
exophthalmia (bulging of eyes)
- TH cannot be secreted or produced without iodine (T4 and T3 stands for the number of
iodine atoms it carries)
- Calcitonin bind to membrane-bound receptors of osteoclasts and inhibits them
- Calcitonin is secreted when blood Ca2+ is too high
Parathyroid Glands
- 2 parathyroid glands are embedded on each thyroid gland (4 in total)
- Decreased Ca2+ in the blood increase PTH secretion
- Increased PTH increased bone reabsorption
- An abnormally high PTH secretion leads to Hyperparathyroidism (probable cause is a
tumor in the gland)
- An abnormally low PTH secretion leads to Hypothyroidism (probable causes are injury or
surgical removal of thyroid and parathyroid glands)
Adrenal Glands
- Superior to the kidneys (the beanie-looking glands)
- More sensitive to potassium levels in the blood than sodium levels
- Each has an inner part called the adrenal medulla, and an outer part called the adrenal
cortex which functions as separate endocrine glands
- Adrenal medulla secretion is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system
- The AM’s hormones bind to membrane-bound receptors in target tissues
- AM’s hormones are called the flight-or-fight hormones (prepares the body for intense
physical activity)

1. Stored energy is released to support increased physical activity (release of glucose and
fatty acids)
2. Heart rate increases, which raises blood pressure
3. Smooth muscle contraction increases, which also raises blood pressure
4. Blood flow to skeletal muscle increases
5. Metabolic rate increases in several tissues

- Adrenal cortex secretes 3 steroid hormones (mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, &

androgens)
- Aldosterone binds to receptor molecules in kidney
- Aldosterone retains sodium and water and excretes potassium
- Changes in blood pressure results in a negative feedback effect

Example:
1. Low blood pressure causes a release of renin from kidneys
2. Renin manifests as an enzyme which converts the protein angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I
3. The angiotensin-converting enzyme converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, which
then constricts smooth blood vessels and increases aldosterone secretion

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 4. Aldosterone then retains sodium and water, thus increasing blood pressure

- Glucocorticoids regulate blood nutrient levels

- Cortisol increases lipid and protein breakdown and converts then to energy
- Cortisol also breaks down proteins into amino acids then releases them into the
bloodstream
- in stressful conditions, cortisol is secreted in higher amounts to provide body with energy
- ACTH regulate the secretion of cortisol
- Androgens stimulate secondary sex characteristics
Pancreas
- Pancreatic islets contain 3 cell types which secrete different hormones:
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Beta cells secrete insulin
Delta cells secrete somatostatin
- These regulate blood nutrient levels, most especially glucose levels
- Liver converts fatty acids to ketones which reduce the pH of the body
- Low glucose levels and the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the
secretion of insulin
- Diabetes mellitus is the body’s inability to regulate blood glucose levels
- Hyperglycemia is the abnormally high levels of glucose in the blood
- Glucagon is released when there is low blood glucose levels
- Glucagon binds to membrane-bound receptors in the liver to convert stored glycogen into
glucose
Testes & Ovaries
- Otherwise known as gonads
- Mainly functions in relation to the reproductive system’s maintenance and development
Pineal Gland
- Is usually affected by light (otherwise known as the sleep hormone)
- Melatonin inhibits the reproductive hypothalamic-releasing hormone, which prevents the
secretion of reproductive tropic hormones
Other Hormones
- Prostaglandins function as intercellular signals that function mainly as autocrine or
paracrine chemical signals
- Some cause the relaxation of blood vessels, while others contract the blood vessels
- Prostaglandins also play a role in inflammation, in which they are released by damaged
tissues to produce platelets to begin blood clotting
- The right atrium of the heart secretes atrial natriuretic hormones (ANP) that elevates blood
pressure from the heart itself
- ANP inhibits sodium reabsorption in kidneys, causing more urine to be produces, lowering
blood pressure

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- Kidneys secrete erythropoietin that acts on the bone marrow to increase production of red
blood cells
- The placenta in pregnant women is the most important source of hormones that maintain
the pregnancy and stimulate breast development

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