Due to vs Because of

In conversational English, we may hear or use sentences in which we present reason for
something by using the expression “due to”. While in certain cases, this usage may be
grammatically correct.

But in certain other scenarios, it is incorrect. In this post, I will discuss these scenarios. Through
this discussion, I will also answer the following question

Q: Can ‘due to’ and ‘because of’ be used interchangeably?

A: No. ‘due to’ is used to modify nouns only. ‘Because of’ is used to modify verbs. Thus, these
two expressions cannot be used interchangeably.
What is “Due To” Used for?

RULE 1: The expression ‘due to’ can only be used to modify nouns. Thus, you cannot use this
expression to present reason for an action in the clause

In sentence 1, use of ‘due to’ is incorrect because it is used to explain ‘why it is cold’. In other
words, it is used to explain the reason behind the “verb” or “action” in the clause. This is not
idiomatically correct.
RULE 2: ‘Due to’ is correct if the sentence makes sense when you replace ‘due to’ with ’caused
by’. If, it does not, then use of ‘due to’ is not correct

Here when ‘due to’ is replaced with ’caused by’, the sentence makes complete sense. This check
proves that usage of ‘due to’ is correct.

What is “Because of” used for?

Rule 3: The expression ‘because of’ is used to modify entire clauses. Thus, you can use this
expression to present reason for an action in the clause.

Sentence 1 above can be corrected by replacing ‘due to’ with ‘because of’. Now ‘because of’
modifies the clause presenting the reason why it is cold in Arizona.

What are correct and incorrect usages of ‘Due to’, ‘Caused

by’,& ‘Because of”?

The parent-teacher meeting was canceled due to heavy rains. – INCORRECT

‘Due to’ modifies the action in the preceding clause and hence is not used correctly.

The parent-teacher meeting was canceled caused by heavy rains. – INCORRECT

Note how when “due to” is replaced with “caused by”, the sentence no longer makes sense.

The parent-teacher meeting was canceled because of heavy rains. – CORRECT

‘because of’ modifies the action in preceding clause, indicating why the meeting was canceled.

The cancellation of parent-teacher meeting was due to heavy rains. – CORRECT

‘Due to’ modifies the noun – cancellation.

The cancellation of parent-teacher meeting was caused by heavy rains.- CORRECT

Note how when “due to” is replaced with “caused by”, the sentence makes complete sense.

What are the Key Take-Away Messages?

Use ‘due to’ only to modify nouns.

Usage of ‘due to’ is correct, if the sentence makes sense when ‘due to’ is replaced with
’caused by’.
Use ‘because of’ to modify verbs.
‘Due to’ & ‘because of’ are not interchangeable.
Official Sentences (Exercises)

Given this framework, let’s solve these official questions. But before we give the detailed
solution from the standpoint of “due to”, “because of”, and “because”, we want you to take a stab
at these. Give us your rationale for making your selection of the correct answer. Be sure to
provide a detailed analysis at least for “due to” aspect of the question.

OG12#6

In late 1997, the chambers inside the pyramid of the Pharaoh Menkaure at Giza were closed to
visitors for cleaning and repairing due to moisture exhaled by tourists, which raised its humidity
to such levels so that salt from the stone was crystallizing and fungus was growing in the walls.

A. due to moisture exhaled by tourists, which raised its humidity to such levels so that salt from
the stone was crystallizing
B. due to moisture that tourists had exhaled, thereby raising its humidity to such levels that salt
from the stone would crystallize
C. because tourists were exhaling moisture, which had raised the humidity within then to levels
such that salt from the stone would crystallize
D. because of moisture that was exhaled by tourists raising the humidity within them to levels so
high as to make the salt from the stone crystallize
E. because moisture exhaled by tourists had raised the humidity within them to such levels that
salt from the stone was crystallizing
GMATPrep

It seems likely that a number of astronomical phenomena, such as the formation of planetary
nebulas, may be caused by the interaction where two stars orbit each other at close range.

A. may be caused by the interaction where two stars orbit each other
B. may be caused by the interaction between two stars that each orbit the other
C. are because of the interaction between two stars that orbit each other
D. are caused by the interaction of two stars where each is orbiting the other
E. are caused by the interaction of two stars orbiting each other
 'Evidence of' versus 'evidence that'
I was recently asked about the difference between "evidence of" and "evidence that", and whether
"evidence of" can ever be logically correct. So here's the e-GMAT take on these terms!

‘Evidence of’ should be followed by a noun, and this noun should be the entity whose existence has
been proved by the evidence. For example:

• Astronomers have discovered evidence of life on Mars. – CORRECT

• Scientists have discovered evidence of the dinosaurs being herbivores. – INCORRECT
• Scientists have discovered evidence that the dinosaurs were herbivores. – CORRECT

In the first sentence above, astronomers discovered evidence about something: about life on Mars. This
meaning is logically correct. But in the second sentence, ‘evidence’ is followed by ‘the dinosaurs’. Now,
scientists did not discover evidence that proved "the dinosaurs". The evidence they discovered showed
them that the dinosaurs were herbivores. This meaning is not brought out precisely in this sentence,
since ‘being herbivores’ is a modifier for ‘dinosaurs’. While this kind of usage is quite common in
everyday use, official questions are very precise, and the correct answers are extremely unlikely to allow
this imprecise use of an idiom. So, the third sentence makes the intended meaning far more precise by
replacing ‘evidence of’ with ‘evidence that’, and following it up with a clause that conveys the meaning
clearly.

Here are some more typical ways in which ‘evidence of’ and ‘evidence that’ are used:

• Experts examining the power plant found no evidence of leaks.

• The economy has shown evidence of a slowdown in the recent past.
• The government has insisted that there is no evidence that the recent employment cuts were targeted
at specific industries.
• Geologists have discovered evidence that some of the glaciers in the Arctic have survived previous
eras of global warming.

Examining how these sentences are constructed, we can see that ‘evidence of’ is typically followed by a
noun, whereas ‘evidence that’ is followed by a clause. So the usage of these terms depends on the
intended meaning of the sentence. If we mean that we have found evidence of a noun, we use
‘evidence of’. If we mean that we have found evidence of a particular action, we use ‘evidence that’
followed by a clause.

Try applying this understanding to these official questions:

1. Astronomers have uncovered evidence that a star that was as bright as the full moon exploding into
view 340,000 years ago, emitting dazzling radiation that could have disrupted Earth's protective ozone
layer and sunburned our Stone Age ancestors.

A. that a star that was as bright as the full moon exploding into view 340,000 years ago, emitting
B. that a star as bright as the full moon exploded into view 340,000 years ago, emitting
C. of a star that was as bright as the full moon exploding into view 340,000 years ago and that it emitted
D. of a star as bright as the full moon, exploding into view 340,000 years ago and emitting
E. of a star as bright as the full moon that exploded into view 340,000 years ago and that emitted

2. Scientists have found new evidence of people initially registering emotions like sadness or anger in
much the same way as heartburn—by monitoring what's going on within their bodies.

A. of people initially registering emotions like sadness or anger in much the same way as
B. of people initially registering emotions such as sadness or anger much the same as experiencing
C. that people initially register emotions such as sadness or anger in much the same way as they
experience
D. that a person initially registers emotions such as sadness or anger much the same way as
experiencing
E. that a person initially registers emotions like sadness or anger much the same as

I hope this understanding helps!

Meghna
'Idiomatic usage' of comparison markers
Is 'idiomatic usage' of comparison markers a good way to eliminate options in questions that test
comparisons?

My answer: not so much. The problem with focusing on idiomatic usage to analyze options is that our
understanding of ‘typically’ correct idioms interferes with our understanding of the meaning that the
option conveys. You need to be particularly careful about understanding the intended logic of the
sentence when it makes a comparison.

Let's look at this official question to illustrate this point. I'd especially like to focus on why we can't argue
that the correct answer is not 'really' correct because it doesn't use the "more X than Y" construction.

Officials at the United States Mint believe that the Sacagawea dollar coin will be used more as a
substitute for four quarters rather than for the dollar bill because its weight, only 8.1 grams, is far less
than four quarters, which weigh 5.67 grams each.

A) more as a substitute for four quarters rather than for the dollar bill because its weight, only 8.1
grams, is far less than
B) more as a substitute for four quarters than the dollar bill because it weighs only 8.1 grams, far lighter
than
C) as a substitute for four quarters more than for the dollar bill because it weighs only 8.1 grams, far less
than
D) as a substitute for four quarters more than the dollar bill because its weight of only 8.1 grams is far
lighter than it is for
E) as a substitute more for four quarters rather than for the dollar bill because its weight, only 8.1
grams, is far less than it is for

Here’s how I would go about understanding this question. The original sentence contains a comparison
that is expressed using the comparison marker ‘more than’. Okay, so my focus needs to be on whether
the comparison makes logical sense in the original sentence. If it does, I know I need a correct answer
that doesn’t change the intended logic. But if it doesn’t make sense in the original sentence, then I need
to infer the correct logic from the original sentence, and then look for an answer that also uses the
correct intended meaning.

So far so good. Let’s do the meaning analysis.

Meaning Analysis

Since we're looking at the use of ‘more than’, I’m going to focus only on the comparison in this meaning
analysis.

Officials at the United States Mint believe that the Sacagawea dollar coin will be used more as a
substitute for four quarters rather than for the dollar bill because its weight, only 8.1 grams, is far less
than four quarters, which weigh 5.67 grams each.

So the original sentence has two comparisons:

1. the Sacagawea dollar coin will be used more as a substitute for four quarters rather than for the dollar
bill => Comparison between ‘four quarters’ and ‘the dollar bill’
2. its weight… is far less than four quarters => Comparison between ‘its weight’ and ‘four quarters’

While the first comparison is logically correct, the second clearly isn’t. ‘Weight’ can’t be compared to
‘quarters’. The weight of something can logically be compared only with the weight of something else.

Error Analysis

Comparison errors in this sentence:

1. the Sacagawea dollar coin will be used more as a substitute for four quarters rather than for the dollar
bill => ‘More’ can’t be followed by ‘rather than’. ‘More’ indicates a comparison while ‘rather than’ is
used to show contrast. Note that in the case of option A, it is perfectly fine to eliminate the option based
on the usage of ‘more than’ compared to the usage of ‘rather than’. This is because the two phrases are
used for different purposes. We already know from our meaning analysis that this sentence is making a
comparison, not a contrast. So ‘rather than’ is out.
2. its weight… is far less than four quarters => Illogical comparison between ‘its weight’ and ‘four
quarters’.

Process of Elimination:

As I've done above, I’m going to focus on the comparison issue to eliminate choices.

Option A: INCORRECT as discussed.

Option B: INCORRECT.

1. Comparison Error: ‘More as a substitute for four quarters than the dollar bill’ => This comparison is
ambiguous. It could mean one of two things:

i) The dollar coin will be used more as a substitute for four quarters than the dollar bill WILL. =>
Comparison between the dollar coin and the dollar bill.
ii) The dollar coin will be used more as a substitute for four quarters than FOR the dollar bill. =>
Comparison between four quarters and the dollar bill.

So you can see, there’s no justification for applying the ‘more X than Y’ logic here. In fact, I would say it’s
a misconception that this use is ‘idiomatic’. Saying so implies that this structure is always correct,
whereas really, it’s correct only when it conveys the intended logic correctly.

Option C: CORRECT

This choice says that the dollar coin will be used as a substitute for four quarters more than FOR the
dollar bill. So, it clearly resolves the ambiguity present in option B.

Option D: INCORRECT
1. Comparison Error: ‘For’ is missing, leading to ambiguity.

Option E: INCORRECT

1. Comparison Error: ‘More’ is followed by ‘rather than’.

So, as you can see, going by idiomatic usage is unlikely to be the best way to solve a comparison
question. Focusing on the logic behind the comparison is the way to go.

I hope these observations help.

Meghna
[Year]
e-GMAT LLC

Payal Tandon

[USAGE OF AS AND LIKE]

In this article we will first discuss why there is confusion with regards to usage of like and as. Then
we will apply our knowledge in a structured step by step manner to solve the above GMATprep
question.
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CONTENTS

Like And As................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

Like and As – The Point of Confusion ......................................................................................................................... 2
Like and As - state Comparison............................................................................................................................... 3
As – Can also Present Function ................................................................................................................................ 3
Like and As – Confusion Resolution ............................................................................................................................ 4
Structured Approach to Solving GMAT SC questions .......................................................................................... 5
Concluding Words .............................................................................................................................................................. 5
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LIKE AND AS

Two seemingly simple words – like

and as – often create havoc in the
minds of test takers when they
both appear in the answer choices
in a sentence correction question.
People wonder about the following
two points:

1. For stating comparison

should I use “as” or “like”?
2. When is “as + noun” correct
and when is “as + clause” correct?

Lets consider for example the following GMATPrep question.

As with those of humans, the DNA of grape plants contains sites where certain unique sequences of
nucleotides are repeated over and over.
A. As with those of humans, the DNA of grape plants contains sites where
B. As human DNA, the DNA of grape plants contain sites in which
C. As it is with human DNA, the DNA of grape plants, containing sites in which
D. Like human, the DNA of grape plants contain sites where
E. Like human DNA, the DNA of grape plants contains sites in which

The two main things to keep in mind to solve such questions are as follows:
 Understand what meaning like and as communicate
 Understand the intended meaning of the sentence so that you can wisely choose the
appropriate word.

In this article we will first discuss why there is confusion with regards to usage of like and as. Then
we will apply our knowledge in a structured step by step manner to solve the above GMATprep
question.

LIKE AND AS – THE POINT OF CONFUSION

‘As’ plays multiple roles and thereby is used in different grammatical constructions, one of which
coincides with how like is used.

As Like
for stating Comparison  
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for stating Function  

Both ‘like’ and ‘as’ are used for stating a comparison. So often people are confused whether they
should use ‘like’ or ‘as’ to state the comparison. Furthermore, ‘as’ is also used to present function.
And this brings us to another point of confusion.

As Like
for stating Comparison As + Clause Like + Noun
for stating Function As + Noun N/A

Because ‘as’ and ‘like’ are followed by nouns but they do so while presenting two different
meanings, there is often a confusion regarding the intended meaning communicated by the
sentence and the grammatical correctness of the sentence.

Now lets see this in detail.

LIKE AND AS - STATE COMPARISON

Both ‘like’ and ‘as’ are used to state comparisons. For example:

 Amy takes care of the children in the day care like a mother. 
 Amy takes care of the children in the day care as a mother does.

Both sentences are correct. Both the sentences above convey the meaning that Amy takes care of
the children “in the same way” as a mother takes care of her children.

But notice the usage here – ‘like’ is followed by a noun and ‘as’ is followed by a clause. This
grammatical construction should be kept in mind.

WHEN USED TO STATE COMPARISON, ‘AS’ SHOULD BE FOLLOWED BY

A CLAUSE.

LIKE IS ALWAYS USED TO SHOW COMPARISON AND IS FOLLOWED BY

A NOUN OR A PRONOUN.

AS – CAN ALSO PRESENT FUNCTION

Apart from stating comparison, “as” can also be used to state “role” or “function”. For example:

John has joined the organization as a researcher.

In this sentence, ‘as’ does not show a comparison. This sentence implies that John is indeed a
researcher in the new organization. Notice that per this sentence John has not been compared to a
researcher. John is indeed a researcher. So his role has been presented. And hence ‘as’ is used to
present role or function of a person.
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Notice the grammatical construction – ‘as’ has been followed by a noun. This should always be kept
in mind.

WHEN USED TO STATE ROLE OR FUNCTION, ‘AS’ SHOULD BE

FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.

LIKE AND AS – CONFUSION RESOLUTION

Now that we understand the source of confusion between like and as, lets see how we can resolve
this confusion. The most sure shot way of resolving this confusion is to understand from the
context of the sentence whether a comparison needs to be presented or function needs to be
presented. Once you determine this, then you may use like and as appropriately to state the
intended meaning.

Lets take John’s example again:

John has joined the organization as a researcher.

Here is my thought process:

Step 1. I see the word “as”.

Step 2. I ask the question – “does the sentence intend to draw a comparison or state a role”?

Step 3. I answer the question from the context –

i. John has joined the organization.
ii. Lets first find out if comparison makes sense here.
 Saying that John has joined organization as a researcher does – is
non-sensical. It is not a common characteristic of a researcher to
join organization. So stating comparison is not logical here.
iii. Lets now find if role has been presented here.
 Saying that John will play a role of a researcher in this new
organization makes perfect sense. So here as has been used to
present role.

Step 4. I check if grammatically “as” has been used appropriately.

i. Yes, since “as” is used to present function, it should be followed by a noun.
In this sentence “a researcher” is a noun. So correct.

Lets take another example:

John has joined Biotech industry as his brother.

Here is my thought process:

Step 1. I see the word “as”.

Step 2. I ask the question – “does the sentence intend to draw a comparison or state a role”?
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Step 3. I answer the question from the context –

i. John has joined the organization.
ii. Lets first find out if comparison makes sense here.
 Saying that John has joined biotech industry as his brother did
makes sense. His brother joined biotech industry and so did John.
So stating comparison is logical here.
iii. Lets now make sure that stating a “role” is clearly non-sensical
 Saying that John will play a role of his own brother in biotech
industry is non-sensical. What does being a brother in an industry
mean? Nothing. Yes being a researcher in an industry means
something but not being a brother. So notice how context drives the
logical and illogical meaning.

Step 4. I check if grammatically “as” has been used appropriately.

i. No, since “as” is used to present comparison, it should be followed by a
clause. In this sentence “his brother” is a noun and hence this sentence is
not correct. It should be corrected in one of the following ways:
 John has joined Biotech industry as his brother did.
 John has joined Biotech industry like his brother.

STRUCTURED APPROACH TO SOLVING GMAT SC QUESTIONS

With this understanding, now we can solve the GMATPrep question. Here we will integrate our
knowledge of as and like with e-GMAT 3-step process.

1. Understand the meaning of the original sentence.

2. Determine the errors in the original sentence.
3. Apply process of elimination to find the correct answer.

Our knowledge of “like” vs “as” will be applicable in step 1 – we will determine the intended role of
the word in the context of the sentence. Then our knowledge of grammatical construction of like
and as will be applicable in step 2 – we will make sure that the word has been used appropriately.

CONCLUDING WORDS

In order to cover the usage of like and as, we have developed 4 files.

1. Like Concept File – This file explains how like should be used correctly in a sentence. In all
there 15 example sentences and 10 questions in the quizzes in this concept file.
2. As Concept File – This file explains the various functions of as. In all there are 6 examples
and 8 questions in the quiz.
3. Like vs As Concept File – In this file we first explain the source of confusion between as and
like. Then we discuss how this confusion should be resolved and how this process can be
used when solving SC questions. We present the confusion and its resolution using 6
different examples. We also solve 3 official SC questions using the suggested approach.
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4. Like Vs. As Application File – Like a typical SC application file, you will first attempt 8 SC
questions and then you will be able to view detailed solutions.
 USAGE OF ‘LIKE’

‘Like’ is a comparison marker that often causes confusion in terms of its usage on the GMAT. Let’s
understand how to use ‘like’ correctly. We’ll start with a few simple examples and then discuss some
official questions.

The correct usage of ‘like’ in a sentence ensures that the following four conditions are met:
• ‘Like’ shows similarity between two noun entities.
• ‘Like’ presents a logical comparison.
• ‘Like’ is followed by a noun/pronoun. (It cannot be followed by a clause)
• The sentence conveys the meaning clearly. There should be no ambiguity in the meaning.

Let’s have a look at a few questions. In the following sentences, try to identify:
• Which of these sentences are correct/incorrect?
• What are the meanings conveyed by these sentences?
• Which entities are being compared?

1. The US needs a president like Lincoln.

2. Mike can play the guitar like a professional guitarist.

3. Tom needs a gym instructor like James.

4. Like my brother, I want to be an investment banker.

Now, let’s discuss the above sentences one by one:

1. The US needs a president like Lincoln.

This sentence tells us that the US needs a president similar to Lincoln The comparison is between
‘president’ and ‘Lincoln’. So, the compared entities are logically parallel. The sentence conveys perfectly
clear meaning without any ambiguity.
Let’s take one more example:
• India needs an opening batsman like Sachin Tendulkar.
Here the comparison is between ‘opening batsman’ and ‘Sachin Tendulkar’. The meaning is that India
needs an opening batsman who is similar to Sachin Tendulkar: i.e. the comparison is between “an
opening batsman” and “Sachin Tendulkar”. There is no ambiguity here.

2. Mike can play the guitar like a professional guitarist.

This sentence compares ‘Mike’ with ‘a professional guitarist’. It conveys the meaning that Mike is as
good at playing the guitar as a professional guitarist is.
3. Tom needs a gym instructor like James.
This sentence presents two possible comparisons and hence it has two possible meanings.
• Tom needs a gym instructor like James.
Meaning 1: Tom needs a gym instructor who is like James: i.e. a gym instructor similar to James. Here,
the compared entities are ‘gym instructor’ and ‘James’.

• Tom needs a gym instructor like James.

Meaning 2: Tom needs a gym instructor as James does. Here, the compared entities are ‘Tom’ and
‘James’. So, this meaning indicates that both Tom and James need gym instructors.

Since this sentence does not convey one clear meaning, it is incorrect.
Why does this sentence convey an ambiguous meaning? What is the difference between this sentence
and the first two sentences?
In the first sentence there is only one logical comparison possible i.e. between ‘president’ and ‘Lincoln’.
The comparison between ‘the US’ and ‘Lincoln’ is not possible so there is no ambiguity.
Similarly, in the second sentence there is only one logical comparison possible i.e. the comparison
between ‘Mike’ and ‘a professional guitarist’. Since neither of them can be compared with ‘guitar’, there
is no ambiguity.
Now, in the third sentence both the comparisons are logically possible, and hence it presents an
ambiguous meaning.

4. Like my brother, I want to be an investment banker.

In the above sentence, the comparison is between ‘I’ and ‘my brother’. My brother wants to be an
investment banker, and so do I. This same meaning can be conveyed if we say:
• I want to be an investment banker, like my brother. (‘I’ compared with ‘investment banker’)

Let’s take a couple more examples:

• Unlike the honey bees, the masonry bees prefer to live in solitude.
Here, the comparison is between ‘honey bees’ and ‘masonry bees’. While ‘like’ shows similarity between
two noun entities, ‘unlike’ shows the dissimilarity.
This sentence tells us that the masonry bees prefer to live in solitude. This characteristic is unlike the
honey bees i.e. the honey bees don’t prefer to live in solitude.

• Lisa takes care of her siblings like a mother does.

This sentence is incorrect since ‘like’ is followed by a clause (a mother does). The correct way to write
this sentence using ‘like’ is:
• Lisa takes care of her siblings like a mother.
‘Lisa’ is compared to ‘a mother’. Lisa takes care of her siblings in the same way a mother does.
Now, try to apply this learning on the following official questions:

• Like Auden, the language of James Merrill is chatty, arch, and conversational- given to complex
syntactic flights as well as to prosaic free-verse strolls.

A. Like Auden, the language of James Merrill

B. Like Auden, James Merrill's language
C. Like Auden's, James Merrill's language
D. As with Auden, James Merrill's language
E. As is Auden's the language of James Merrill

• Unlike auto insurance, the frequency of claims does not affect the premiums for personal property
coverage, but if the insurance company is able to prove excessive loss due to owner negligence, it may
decline to renew the policy.

A. Unlike auto insurance, the frequency of claims does not affect the premiums for personal property
coverage,
B. Unlike with auto insurance, the frequency of claims do not affect the premiums for personal property
coverage,
C. Unlike the frequency of claims for auto insurance, the premiums for personal property coverage are
not affected by the frequency of claims,
D. Unlike the premiums for auto insurance, the premiums for personal property coverage are not
affected by the frequency of claims,
E. Unlike with the premiums for auto insurance, the premiums for personal property coverage is not
affected by the frequency of claims,

TAKE AWAYS
1. When ‘like + noun’ is separated from the sentence by a comma, the comparison is between the
subject of the sentence and the noun following ‘like’.

2. When ‘like + noun’ is not separated from the sentence by a comma, the comparison is between the
object of the sentence and the noun that follows ‘like’. Note that this usage is correct only when there is
no ambiguity about which two nouns are being compared.