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Unit4 Radiation PDF
Unit4 Radiation PDF
UNIT–IV
Thermal radiation is the process by which the surface of an object radiates its
thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. An example of thermal
radiation is the infrared radiation emitted by a common household radiator or
electric heater. A person near a raging bonfire will feel the radiated heat of the fire,
even if the surrounding air is very cold. Thermal radiation is generated when heat
from the movement of charged particles within atoms is converted to
electromagnetic radiation. Solar radiation heats the earth during the day, while at
night the earth re-radiates some heat back into space.
The yellow-orange glow is the visible part of the thermal radiation emitted due to
the high temperature. Everything else in the picture is glowing with thermal
radiation as well, but less brightly and at longer wavelengths that the human eye
4.1
cannot see. A far-infrared camera will show this radiation.
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4.2
Figure 2: Electromagnetic-Spectrum
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Stefan-Boltzman Law
E=σT4
where:
E = total amount of radiation emitted by an object per square meter (Watts m-2)
σ is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 Watts m-2 K-4
T is the temperature of the object in K
Consider the earth and sun:
Sun: T = 6000 K
so E = 5.67 x 10-8 Watts m-2 K-4 (6000 K)4 = 7.3 x 107 Watts m-2
4.3
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Weins Law
4.4
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4.5
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Radiative Equilibrium
4.6
Figure7
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Emissivity
The radiation from real sources is always less than that from a blackbody.
Emissivity (ε) is a measure of how a real source compares with a blackbody. It is
defined as the ratio of the radiant power emitted per area to the radiant power
emitted by a blackbody per area.
Kirchoff's Law
Kirchoff’s Law states that the emissivity of a surface is equal to its absorptance,
where the absorptance (α) of a surface is the ratio of the radiant power absorbed to
the radiant power incident on the surface.
Black body is an idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that
falls on it. No electromagnetic radiation passes through it and none is reflected.
Because no light (visible electromagnetic radiation) is reflected or transmitted, the
object appears black when it is cold. However, a black body emits a temperature-
dependent spectrum of light. This thermal radiation from a black body is termed
black-body radiation.
E=σT4 4.7
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Bodies that emit less thermal radiation than a blackbody have surface emissivities ε
less than 1. If the surface emissivity is independent of wavelength, then the body is
called a "gray" body, in that no particular wavelength (or color) is favored.
The net heat transfer from a small gray body at absolute temperature T with surface
emissivity ε to a much larger enclosing gray (or black) body at absolute
temperature Te is given by,
The above equations for blackbodies and graybodies assumed that the small body
could see only the large enclosing body and nothing else. Hence, all radiation
leaving the small body would reach the large body. For the case where two objects
can see more than just each other, then one must introduce a view factor F and the
heat transfer calculations become significantly more involved.
The view factor F12 is used to parameterize the fraction of thermal power leaving
object 1 and reaching object 2. Specifically, this quantity is equal to,
Likewise, the fraction of thermal power leaving object 2 and reaching object 1 is
given by,
4.8
The case of two blackbodies in thermal equilibrium can be used to derive the
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Radiation view factors can be analytically derived for simple geometries and are
tabulated in several references on heat transfer (e.g. Holman, 1986). They range
from zero (e.g. two small bodies spaced very far apart) to 1 (e.g. one body is
enclosed by the other).
In general, for any two objects in space, a given object 1 radiates to object 2, and to
other places as well, as shown in Figure a.
4.9
Figure b: Radiation between two arbitrary surfaces
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For body 1, we know that is the emissive power of a black body, so the energy
leaving body 1 is . The energy leaving body 1 and arriving (and being
(i)
Suppose both surfaces are at the same temperature so there is no net heat exchange.
If so,
4.10
but also . Thus
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Equation (i) is the shape factor reciprocity relation. The net heat exchange between
the two surfaces is
We know that , i.e., that all of the energy emitted by 1 gets to 2. Thus
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Figure d: Total emittances for different surfaces [from: A Heat Transfer Textbook, J. Lienhard]
4.12
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4.13
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Figure f: View factor for aligned parallel rectangles [from: Fundamentals of Heat
Transfer, F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, John Wiley and Sons]
Figure g: View factor for coaxial parallel disks [from: Fundamentals of Heat
Transfer, F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, John Wiley and Sons] 4.14
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There are three factors that control the amount, or dose, of radiation received from
a source. Radiation exposure can be managed by a combination of these factors:
Shielding design
This means when added thicknesses are used, the shielding multiplies. For
example, a practical shield in a fallout shelter is ten halving-thicknesses of packed
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dirt, which is 90 cm (3 ft) of dirt. This reduces gamma rays by a factor of 1/1,024,
which is 1/2 multiplied by itself ten times. Halving thicknesses of some materials,
that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% (1/2.
Column Halving Weight in the chart above indicates mass of material, required to
cut radiation by 50%, in grams per square centimetre of protected area.
Gas Radiation
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Beer’s Law
• If Io is the intensity of radiation at the source and I is the observed intensity after
a given path, then optical depth τ is defined by the following equation:
Figure8
Characterization of Participating Media
References:
1://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/
chapter2/ebal2.html.
2://www.efunda.com/formulae/heat_transf
er/radiation/blackbody.cfm
3://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body
4: web.iitd.ac.in/~prabal/gas-radiation.pdf
5: Heat and Mass Transfer - A Practical
Approach by Yugnus-A-Cengel. 4.17
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