Metrical Fundamentals

Metrical Fundamentals of Underwater Lens System

Lens System

Corner T.
Gomer McNeil
T. McNeil
McNeil Engineering
McNeil
Drive
10252 Hatherleigh Drive
Bethesda, Maryland
Bethesda, Maryland 20014

Abstract quires revision

revision and supplementation. The The U.
U.S.S.Navy,
Navy,fully
fully cog-
cog-
Presentation of
Presentation of the metrical
metrical fundamentals
fundamentals of underwater
underwater lens
lens nizant of this
this communication
communication andand standardization
standardization requirement,
requirement,
system
system that are
are associated
associated with
with the
the recording
recording phase
phase and
and are
are sponsored the publication
sponsored the publication of "Optical
"Optical Fundamentals
Fundamentals of of Under-
Under-
applicable for
applicable for an
an object space
space of
of water
water and
and an
an image
image space
space of water
water Photographys'
Photography" 1 as as an initial presentation to function
function as
as a
air. The
air. The metrical
metrical fundamentals
fundamentals are are presented
presented for cardinal
cardinal points;
points; springboard for revision
springboard for revision and
and supplementation.
supplementation. The
The optical
optical
dome window;
dome window; air air lens;
lens; lens
lens system
system asas combination
combination of domedome fundamentals
fundamentals for anan object
object space
space of
of water
water are
arealso
also presented
presented in
window and
window and air
air lens;
lens; water
water refractive index as
refractive index as a function
function ofof Ref. 2. Obviously,
Ref. Obviously, owing
owing to space
space limitations,
limitations, aa comprehensive
comprehensive
wavelength, temperature,
wavelength, temperature, salinity,
salinity, and
and pressure;
pressure; water
water depth and coverage of all details
coverage of details associated
associated with these optical
optical fundamen-
fundamen-
pressure relationship;
pressure relationship; andand water
water refractive
refractive indexes
indexes versus
versus lens
lens tals cannot be included in this paper.
system parameters,
system parameters, nodal
nodal image distances, and
image distances, and back focal
focal dis-
dis-
Cardinal Points
Cardinal Points
tances in
tances in the form of tables forfor the
the C201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN lens.
The
The optical
optical axis
axis of
of aalens
lenswhich
whichisiscomposed
composed of oftwotwospherical
spherical
Introduction surfaces isis aa straight
surfaces straight line
line passing through the centers
passing through centers of of curva-
curva-
ture of the
the two
twosurfaces.
surfaces. IfIf aa surface
surface is planar (sphere
(sphere of infinite
infinite
During
During the the past century,
century, thethe photogrammetric
photogrammetric process process of re- re-
radius),
radius), the optical
optical axis
axis isis perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
theplanar
planar surface.
surface.
cording, reading, and
cording, reading, and measuring
measuring the photograph has has developed
developed
Six cardinal
Six points are
cardinal points are located
located on on the
the optical
optical axis
axis of aa thick
thick
into aa highly
highly sophisticated,
sophisticated, elaborate,
elaborate, and and efficient
efficient procedure.
procedure.
lens. Cardinal points
points are
are used
usedtotosolve
solveproblems
problemsinvolving
involving image
image
For reasons
reasons involving
involving thethe evolutionary
evolutionary capabilities
capabilities and and require- and object
and object space
space relations.
relations. The The six
six cardinal
cardinal points
points andand their
their
ments of man,
ments man, thethe photogrammetric
photogrammetric process process has has been
been pre-
pre-
respective symbols are:
respective
dominately specializedfor
dominately specialized for the
the acquisition
acquisition of photographic
photographic re-
1. The first and
1. and second
second focal
focal points,
points, F1
F t and
and F2
F2 ..
cordings
cordings in in an
an object space
space of air.air. Man's
Man's probe into outer outer and
and
2. The
The first
first and
and second
second principal
principal points,
points,P1 PI and
andP2 P2 .
inner space
inner space hashas had
had aa significant
significant influence
influence on the the recording
recording
3. The
3. The first
first and
and second
second nodal
nodal points,
points,^N1 andand N2
N2 ..
phase of
phase of the
the photogrammetric
photogrammetric process.process. ItIt is is the purpose of this this
presentation to discuss
presentation discuss the physical nature of an object space space of
Second Focal, Principal, and Nodal Points
water
water on the the photogrammetric
photogrammetric process and, in in particular,
particular, on the
recording phase. A lens with an
A an object
object space
space of
of water
water andand an an image
image space
space of air
air is
The physical
The physical properties
properties pertaining
pertaining to to density,
density, refractive
refractive shown in
shown in Figure 1. 1. Paraxial
Paraxial rays
rays from
from an an infinitely
infinitely distant
distant axial
axial
index, light
index, light transmission,
transmission, and and pressure
pressure are are vastly
vastly different for object point in water
object water are refracted
refracted at bothboth surfaces
surfaces of the lenslens
air
air and sea sea water.
water. ForFor example,
example, the the density
density of of deep
deep seasea water
water and converge
and converge to to an image
image point in in air
air called
called the
the second
second focal
focal
is approximately
is approximately 900 times greater greater than that that forforair.
air. The
The refrac-
refrac- point F2.
F2 . The
The plane
plane perpendicular
perpendicular to the the optical
optical axis
axis and
and pass-
pass-
tive
tive index
index of deep deep sea
sea water
water for
for blue
blue light
light is is about
about 1.36
1.36 times
times ing through
ing through the second
second focal
focal point is is called
called the
the second
second focal
greater than air. The water
greater water pressure
pressure in the the deep
deep ocean
ocean trenches
trenches plane.
plane. The planeplane perpendicular
perpendicular toto the
theoptical
opticalaxisaxisand
andpassing
passing
is approximately
is approximately 1200 1200 times greater than the the air
air pressure
pressure at seasea through the intersections
through intersections of the
the incident
incident and and emergent
emergent raysrays is
is
level. The
level. The transmission
transmission in in the blueblue light
light region
region of ofCaribbean
Caribbean called the second principal
called principal plane.
plane. The
The intersection of the optical
waters
waters is is roughly
roughly 500 500 times less than in a horizontal
times less horizontal path of air axis and
axis and thethe second
second principal
principal plane
plane isis the thesecond
second principal
principal
under conditions classified
classified as good visibility
visibility by meteorologists.
meteorologists. point P2P2 .. The
The second
second focal length f/'is ' is the distance
distance P2 F2 from
P2 F2
The attenuation of
The of light
light in
in air
air depends
depends primarily
primarily on on scattering
scattering the second principal point
second principal point to the second focal focal point.
whereas
whereas the the transmission
transmission loss lossinin sea
sea water
water isis aa function
function of
scattering and absorption.
Aerial, terrestrial, and
Aerial, terrestrial, and laboratory cameras
cameras normally
normally function
in anan object
object andand image
image space
space of air.air. Under
Under this condition,
condition, the WATER OBJECT
W/)T£/? SPACE
OBJECT SPACE AIR /MAG€
A/R SPACE
/MA6ESPACE
first nodal plane coincides
coincides with the the first
first principal
principal plane and the SECOND FOCAL
second
second nodalnodal plane
plane coincides
coincides with the the second
second principal
principal plane.
plane. Po /NT
An underwater camera camera normally
normally functions in an object space space of 44.42, w 72.

water and and anan image space of

image space of air.
air. Under
Under thisthis condition, the nodal OPT /CAL AX /8 w
planes
planes are are not coincident
coincident with
with their
theirrespective
respective principal
principal planes.
planes. ori w,u.Nti z-Z- w
It is
is apparent
apparent that that more
more optical
optical terms
terms are are involved
involved withwith under-
under-
water photography
water photography becausebecause the the principal
principal and nodal planes are
planes are
separated. ItIt is
separated. is important,
important, therefore,
therefore, that the the terms
terms be be defined
defined
and standardized.
and standardized. The The current technical
technical jargon for for communica-
communica- u,
tion
tion of of the
theparameters
parameters of ofunderwater
underwater geometrical
geometrical optics optics re-
re- f'
S£CON0 PR /NC /PALPLfiNE
SECOND PRINCIPAL ARNE

Ocn -102received
Paper Ocn-102 December 17,1976,
receivedDecember 17, 1976. Figure 1. Second
Second Principal
Principal Plane.
Plane.

128 / March -April 1977

March-April 1977 // Vol.
Vol. 16
16 No. 2 / OPTICAL
OPTICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

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 METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
METRICAL FUNDAMENTALSOF
OF UNDERWATER
UNDERWATER LENS
LENS SYSTEM
SYSTEM

The distance from

The distance from the
the second nodal point N2
second nodal N2 to the
the second
second the first nodal
the nodal point
point andand aanegative
negative sign
sign a distance
distance to to the left.
principal
principal point PI
P2 is perpendicular to
The plane perpendicular to the
theoptical
opticalaxis
axisand
andpassing
passing through
through
the first nodal point is is called the first nodal plane.
N2P2=f(n-n)In"
=f'(n-n")/n" (1)
(1) The principal point as
The principal as used
used inin photogrammetry
photogrammetryisisassociated
associated
with the
with the photograph
photograph whereas
whereas thethe first
first and
andsecond
second principal
principal
where points used in optics
optics areare associated
associated with
with the
the lens.
lens. One
One means
means ofof
being specific
being specificisis to
to refer
refer to thethe photograph
photograph principal
principal point or
/'
f " = second
second focal length the lens
the lens principal
principal points.
points. IfIf the
thespecific
specific terms
terms first
first principal
principal
point and second
point second principal
principal point are are used,
used, nono conflict
conflict occurs
occurs
n ==refractive
refractive index
index of
of object
object space
space with the
with the photogrammetric
photogrammetric terminology becauseno
terminology because no first
first or
second principal points
second principal points exist
exist on thethe photograph;
photograph; only only aa princi-
princi-
of image
n "= refractive index of image space.
space. pal point.
A
A positive
positive sign
sign represents
represents a distance
distance measured
measured to the right of Graphical Location of of Nodal
Nodal Points
Points
the second nodal
nodal point and and aa negative
negative sign a distance
distance to the left.
The
The plane
plane perpendicular
perpendicular to the the optical
opticalaxis
axis and
and passing
passing through A camera is is an
an angle-
angle-recording
recording device
device in in the
the concept of of aa photo
photo--
the second
second nodal point is is called
called the
the second
second nodal
nodal plane.
plane. In
In this
this grammetrist.
grammetrist. He He is is interested in in locating
locating the position of the two
publication, the
publication, the refractive
refractive index
index of anan optical
optical material
material refers
refers to points on the the optical
optical axisaxis that
thatserve
serveasasorigins
origins to to subtend
subtend equal
equal
the relative
the refractiveindex
relative refractive index that
that is
is defined
defined as as the
the ratio of the angles
angles in in image
image and object space space for the the ultimate
ultimate in in simplicity
simplicity
velocity
velocity ofof light
light in
in air
air to
to that material.
that in the optical material. of data
data reduction,
reduction, whether
whether the the procedure
procedure be be analytical
analytical or opto-opto-
AA lens
lens system
system with
with moremore than oneone lens
lens element
element isis presented
presented mechanical.
mechanical. These These two points are called the first nodal point for
in detail
in detail later; however,
however, for an initial simplified
simplified presentation, aa the angular
angular originorigin of objectobject space
space and and thethe second
second nodalnodal point
point
single
single element
elementlenslenswith
with an an object
object space
space of water and and an
an image
image for the
the angular
angular origin
origin of of image
image space. For aa conventional
conventional camera
space of air is
space is shown
shown in Figure 1. 1. lens, the first
lens, first principal
principal and andnodal
nodalpoints
pointscoincide
coincideand, and,similarly,
similarly,
the
the second
second principal
principal and and nodal
nodal pointspoints coincide
coincide becausebecause the the
First Focal, Principal, and Nodal Points media on
media on the two two sides
sides of of the
the lens
lens are are the
thesame.same. For Foran anunder-
under-
water camera lens
water camera lens with
with an imageimage spacespace of air, air, thethe media
media on the
The position
The position of of the first
first focal
focal point F1 F^ in in the
the object
object space
space of
two sides
two sides of of thethe lens
lens areare different
different and and the the nodal
nodal points
points areare
water
water is established ifif the emergent paraxial
is established paraxial rays
rays from the the lens
lens
are
are parallel
parallel inin the image space of air (Figure 2).
image space 2). The
The plane
plane per-
per- equally
equally translated
translated from from theirtheir corresponding
corresponding principal principal points in
the direction of water object object space.
space.
pendicular
pendicular to the optical
optical axis
axis and
and passing
passing through the first focal focal
point
point is called the first focal plane. The plane
called the plane perpendicular
perpendicular to Although the
Although the locations
locations of the nodal nodal points
points relative
relative to to the
the optical
the optical axisaxis and
and passing
passing through
through thethe intersections
intersections of the the principal points
principal points are are given
given by by Eqs.
Eqs. (1) (1) andand (2), (2), aagraphical
graphical
incident and
incident and emergent
emergent rays
rays is called
called the first
first principal
principal plane.
plane. method locating the
method of locating the first
first and
and second
secondnodal nodalpointspointsfollows
follows as
The
The intersection
intersection of the optical
optical axis
axis and
and the
the first
first principal
principal plane
plane aa means
means to reinforce
reinforce the nodal nodal point
point concepts
concepts and and its
its practical
practical
is
is the first principal point P1. PI . The
The first
first focal
focal length f is the
length/is the dis-
dis- significance.Figure
significance. Figure 33 showsshows a line line from
from object
object spacespace passing
passing
tance
tance from
from the
the first
first principal
principal point
point to the first
first focal
focal point. through the
through the first
first focal
focal point F1 F1 atat an anangle
angle O0 relative
relative to the the
optical axis.
optical axis. ThisThis line
line intersects
intersects the the first
first principal
principal planeplane at at
point a. A A line
line isis drawn
drawn from from point
point aa parallel
parallel to to the
the optical
optical axis
axis
until it intersects
intersects the the focal
focal plane
plane at at image
image pointpoint b. b. The
The line
line from
from
image
image point traced backwards
point b traced backwards and and parallel
parallel to toline
line F1F1 a inter-
inter-
WATER OBJ£CT
WATER OBJECT SPACE A/R IMAGE SPACE sects the
sects the optical
optical axisaxis at the the second
second nodal nodal point
point N2 7V2 .. Line
Line bN2,
bN2 ,
FlRSTFOCfU.ro/NT
FIRST FOCAL PO /NT v however,
however, intersects
intersects the second principal principal plane plane at point point c.c. AA line
line
drawn from
is drawn from point c parallel parallel to the the optical
optical axis axis until it inter-
inter-
sects
sects the principal plane
the first principal plane at at point
point d. d. AA lineline isis drawn
drawn fromfrom
OPT /CAL AXIS point dd parallel
parallel to to line
line F1F1 a until
until ititintersects
intersectsthe theoptical
opticalaxisaxis atat
the first
first nodal
nodal point
point N1.NI . TheThe line
line dNidNl isisdrawn
drawnparallel
parallel to to line
line
Fiaa because
F1 because all all rays leaving
leaving aa point on on thethe focal
focal plane
plane emerge
emerge
w Gt.f.t.-- t.2.2-c4
from the lens parallelparallel to each other.
LL.22.6e../

.un,ri iA.ti(.u/ cu. e-u/

f F/ffSTPR
kg- FIRST Pff/NC/PfiL
/NC /PAL PLANE
PLANE
SECOND NODAL PLANE
A
Figure 2.
Figure 2. First
First Principal
Principal Plane.
Plane.

The distance
The distance from the first nodal point N\
N1 to the first princi- d
pal point PI
pal point Pi is
is "*.,
9
r,uri} wA_ N2 F2

Nl
A^iPl =f(n-n")/n
= f(n -n ")/n 00 c,t....,
(2) cut, /u".uv SECOND PR /NC /PAL
FIRST PR/NC/PAL PLANE --1.- PLANE
where F f'

/f ==first
firstfocal
focal length
length
Figure 3. Graphical
Figure 3. Graphical Location of
of Nodal
Nodal Points.
Points.
nn ==refractive
refractive index
index of
of object
object space
space
nn "= refractive index of
of image
image space.
space. Figure 33 illustrates
Figure that ifif aaray
illustrates that rayfrom
fromobject
objectspace
space passes
passes
through the first
first nodal
nodal point
pointN1 NIandandisisinclined
inclinedatatan
anangle
angle O
0 to
A positive
A positive sign
sign represents measured to the right
represents a distance measured right of
of the optical
optical axis,
axis, the
the ray
rayemerges
emerges fromfrom the
thelens
lensinto
intoimage
image space
space

March -April 1977

March-April 1977// Vol.
Vol. 16 No. 22 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
16 No. ENGINEERING // 129

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 METRICAL
METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
FUNDAMENTALSOF
OFUNDERWATER
UNDERWATERLENS
LENSSYSTEM
SYSTEM

D2
D2 == desired
desired nodal
nodal object
object distance Substituting
Substituting 0.004
0.004 for An
An in
in Eq.
Eq. (22),
(22),
DI
D1 == actual
actual nodal
nodal object distance Ab
Ab == (12.3)
(12.3) (0.004)
YI
vl == distance
distance from
from front
front vertex
vertex to
to first
first nodal
nodal point
point of Ab
Ab == 0.05
0.05 mm.
lens
lens system
system for a water refractive index of n1.
nj. The approximate
The approximate equation
equation to determine
determine the change
change in sea
sea
water
water depth owing to aa change
depth owing change in the
the refractive
refractive index
index of
of sea
sea
v2 distance from
v2 = distance from front vertex to first
first nodal
nodal point of water at
at approximately
approximately00°C temperatureandand3535°/oo
°C temperature salinity is
° /oo salinity is
lens system
system for a water refractive index of n2.
n2 . presented as follows:
r1 = radius
TI radius of
of first lens
lens surface
surface in
in contact
contact with
with the
the AZ = 6.6
6.6x 10s An
x 105 (25)
water.
where
Equation (21)
Equation (21) isis based
based on the
the work
work conducted
conducted by
by Washer
Washer
and
and Gardner9
Gardner9 at at the National Bureau
Bureau of Standards
Standards on depth of AZ
AZ == change
change in
in sea
sea water
water depth
depth in meters.
focus of lenses.
When
= CN
R=Ob
R (21) An
An == 0.004,
Ab
then
where
AZ == 2,640 m.
AZ
R
R ==lens
lens resolution
resolution in
in cycles
cycles per mm
In summary
summary a change
change of ±2,640
±2,640 meters
meters in the
the depth
depth of
of sea
sea
CC ==constant
constant of
of1.25
1.25 for
for high
high contrast
contrast target (100:1) water
water atat approximately
approximately 00°C°C temperature
temperatureand and3535°/oo
° /oo salinity
salinity
and
and 0.625
0.625 for low
low contrast
contrast target
target (1.6:1)
(1.6:1) causes
causes aa change
change of ±0.004
±0.004 in the the refractive
refractive index
index of the
the sea
sea
water which, in turn,
water which, turn, causes
causes aa change
change of ±0.05mm
±0.05mm in the the back
back
N
N ==lens
lensf-f-number
number focal distance
focal distance that limits
limits the
the resolution
resolution of
ofthe
theC201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN
Lens working
Lens working atat f/4 to
toapproximately
approximately 50 50 cycles
cycles per
per mm
mm for a
Ab
Ab == change
change in
in back
back focal
focal distance
distance of
of lens
lens in mm.
mm. low
low contrast
contrast target
target (1.6:1). Film
Film resolution in addition to water,
lighting, shutter,
lighting, shutter, and
and vibration
vibration conditions
conditions further
further reduce
reduce the
For the
the C201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN Lens,
Lens, the change
change inin back
back focal
focal dis-
dis- system resolution
system resolution ofof the
the operational
operational camera
camera appreciably.
appreciably.
tance
tance in millimeters,
millimeters, for all practical
for all practical purposes,
purposes, is is equal
equal to
12.3 times
12.3 times the change in
the change in the water
water refractive
refractive index
index for
for fixed
fixed
nodal object
nodal object distances
distances from
from 22 meters
meters to
to infinity
infinity and
and through a Standardized C201 ELCAN ELCAN Lens Data
water refractive
water refractive range
range from
from 1.330
1.330 to
to 1.360.
1.360.This
This approximate
approximate C201 ELCAN
The C201 ELCAN Water Water Contact
Contact LensLenswaswas designed
designed and and manu-
simple linear
but simple linear relationship
relationship can be substituted
substituted for
for the
the precise
precise factured in the earlyearly 1960s
1960sby byE.E.Leitz
LeitzCanada
Canada Limited
Limited withwith an an
more involved
but more involved Eq. with no
Eq. (20) with no significant
significant error
error for
for the
the in-
in- image space
image space of air and and an anobject
objectspace
spaceofofwater
waterasasan anintegral
integral
application. Therefore, the
tended application. the following
following approximate
approximate equa-equa- component
component of the underwater
underwater opticaloptical system.
system. The The C201
C201 Lens
Lens
tion is presented for the
the C201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN Lens: covers an
covers f-number
an f- numberrangerange from
from f/4
f/4 to f/22
f/22 and
andan anangular
angularfield
field
90° on
of 90° on70mm
70mmfilm filmwithwitha 2'/a
a 2V4x x21/4-inch
2^-inch format.
format. The The C201
C201
Ob = 12.30n
Ab 12.3 An (22) Lens has
Lens has served
served as as a veteran workhorse
workhorse in in the
the underwater
underwater en- en-
vironment
vironment for for more
more than aa decadedecade by by aadiverse
diverse array
array of end end
where users.
Tables
Tables 4, 5, 5, and
and 66listlistC201
C201LensLensparameters,
parameters,nodal nodalimage
image
An == change
change in
in water
water refractive index. distances, and back
distances, back focal
focal distances
distances forforwater
waterrefractive
refractive indexes
indexes
from 1.330
from 1.330 to 1.360.
1.360. The
The data
data presented
presented in in Tables
Tables 4, 4, 5, and
and 6
Substituting Eq. (22)
Substituting Eq. (22) in
in Eq. (21)
(21) for
for aalow
lowcontrast
contrast target
target shall be considered as
shall as standardized
standardized lens lens data.
data.Naturally,
Naturally, aa C201
C201
f-number
and f- number of 4. Lens was
Lens was never
never manufactured with with precisely
precisely thethe same
same param-
param-
closely approximated
eters but closely approximated the the standardized
standardized lens lens data. The
(0.625) (4) standardized C201
standardized C201 Lens data tabulated
tabulated in in Tables
Tables 4, 5, 5, and 6 are
R- presented for the the following
following purposes:
purposes:
K~ 12.3 An
12.3 On
(23) 1. Determine the
1. Determine the changes
changes in in the
the dimensions
dimensions of the the lens
lens
1 1 parameters, nodal
parameters, nodal image
image distances,
distances, andand back
back focal
focal dis-
dis-
R= tances with aa change
tances change in in the
the water
waterreflective
reflective indexes.
indexes. TheThe
5An
dimensional change
dimensional change may be be determined
determined by byaagross
grossvisual
visual
or inspection
inspection or by elementary
elementary computations to conclude conclude if
the magnitude
magnitude of the the dimensional
dimensional change
change is tolerable
tolerable to to
An
An == 5R
5R .' (24) conform with the the lens
lens system
system specifications.
specifications.
2.
2. Confirm
Confirm the validity
validity of of computer
computer programs
programs of of related
related
equations
equations with dispatch by utilizing the tabulated data as
with dispatch as
Assume that
Assume that a limiting
limiting resolution
resolution of 50
50 cycles
Cycles per mm
mm is per- the numerical example.
missible for
missible for the change
change in back
back focal
focal distance.
distance. Substituting
Substituting aa The
The standardized
standardized C201 C201 LensLens data of Tables
Tables 4, 4, 5,5, and
and 66 does
does
value of SO
value 50 for
for RR in
in Eq.
Eq. (24), not include
not include the waterwater pressure
pressure effects
effects of change
change in the the radii,
radii,
thickness,
thickness, translation,
translation, and and refractive index of the
refractive index the concentric
concentric
11 meniscus
meniscus lenslens which
which isis commonly
commonly referred
referred to as as the
the dome
dome win-
win-
On -
An dow lens
lens or dome lens.
(5) (50)
Tables
Tables 4, 5, and
4, 5, and 66 were
were prepared
prepared expediently
expediently by use use of the
the
On == 0.004 ..
An programmable
programmable hand calculator calculatorSR SR-52 andPC
-52 and PC-100
-100 printer with with

March -April 1977

March-April 1977// Vol.
Vol. 16 No. 22 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
16 No. ENGINEERING / 133

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 METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF UNDERWATER
UNDERWATER LENS
LENS SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Reference
Reference 33 presents the refractive index of distilled water at Table 1.
Table 1. Refractive
Refractive Index
Index of
of Water
Water by Eq.
Eq. (16) and
and from Ref.
Ref. 5
atmospheric pressure
atmospheric pressure for
for visible
visible radiation
radiation at temperatures from
from
00 to 60 °C. Reference
60°C. Reference 4 isis of
of particular
particular significance
significance since
since it in-
in- Water
Water Refractive
cludes the refractive
cludes the index of pure
refractive index pure water
water over
over wide
wide ranges
ranges ofof Index Difference
pressure, temperature, and wavelength.
pressure, wavelength.
T,°C Eq.
Eq. 16-
The following
The empirical equation
following empirical equation is presented
presented to determine
determine A, nm
ñ, nm T, °C S, °°/°o
S, / °O P, kg
kg//cm2
cm2 16
Eq. 16 Ref. 55 Ref. 5
the water refractive
refractive index of sea, fresh, or pure water for practi-
cal operational
cal operational purposes
purposes when
when thethe wavelength,
wavelength, temperature,
temperature, 500 0 0 0 1.33739 1.33742 -0.00003
salinity, and pressure are given:
500 10 0 0 1.33714 1.33714 0.00000
103 A~-22 -
n = 1.3247 + 3.3 xx 103X 3.2xx107X
- 3.2 -4
107 A~4 500 0 35 0 1.34439 1.34442 -0.00003
- 2.5 x 10 -6T2
-2.5xlO~6 T2 +(5
+(5 -2x 10"
-2 x 10 2 T)(4x
-2T) 10~ 5 S)
(4 x 10-5S) 500 10 35 0 1.34386 1.34385 0.00001
+(1.45x10-
+ (1.45 x 10"5P)(1.021- 6x10lO^S)
5 P)(1.021 -6x -4 S) 500 0 0 700 1.34775 1.34783 -0.00008

(1
(1 --4.5
4.5 xx 10
10~-3T)
3 T) (16) 500 10 0 700 1.34703 1.34719 -0.00016
500 0 35 700 1.35454 1.35460 -0.00006
where
500 10 35 700 1.35355 1.35357 -0.00002
n ==refractive
refractive index of water
540 0 0 0 1.33564 1.33567 -0.00003
XX == wavelength
wavelength of light in nanometers
540 10 0 0 1.33539 1.33541 -0.00002
T ==temperature
temperatureofofwater
waterinindegrees
degreesCelsius
Celsius
540 0 35 0 1.34264 1.34263 0.00001
S
S ==salinity
salinity of
of water
water in
in parts
parts per
per thousand
thousand
540 10 35 0 1.34211 1.34207 0.00004
P ==pressure
pressure of
ofwater
waterininkilograms
kilograms per
per square
square 540 0 0 700 1.34600 1.34581 0.00019
centimeter.
540 10 0 700 1.34529 1.34509 0.00020
Reference 55 is
Reference is aa technical
technical report that that reviews
reviews previous
previous work work
and presents
presents closely
closely interpolated
interpolated tables
tables ofof the
the refractive
refractive index
index 540 0 35 700 1.35279 1.35281 -0.00002
of sea
sea water with
with parameters
parameters of ofwavelength,
wavelength, temperature,
temperature, salin-salin-
and pressure.
ity, and pressure. Reference
Reference 55 is,is, indeed,
indeed,aapractical
practicaland and signifi-
signifi- 540 10 35 700 1.35180 1.35175 0.00005
cant contribution
cant contribution to to oceanography
oceanography and and thethe related
related fields
fields of of
science and engineering.
Table 11 lists
lists the
the water
water refractive
refractive indexindex as as computed
computed by by P0 = water density at
po at water
watersurface
surfaceining/m1(old)
g/ml(old)
Eq. (16) and and asas interpolated
interpolated from
from Ref.Ref. 55 with
with aa variation
variation of the
given values of
given values of wavelength,
wavelength, temperature, salinity, salinity, and
and pressure.
pressure. p ==water
waterdensity
densityatatwater
waterdepth
depthZZiningg/ml(old).
/ml(old) .
Since empirical
Since empiricalEq. Eq. (16)
(16) was
was derived
derived particularly
particularly for for the practi-
practi-
cal realm
cal realm ofof sea
sea water,
water, the
the greatest
greatest differences
differences of of the
the water re- Solving for PP in Eq.
Solving for Eq. (17),
(17), the
theapproximate
approximate water
water pressure
pressure at
fractive indexes
fractive indexesnaturally
naturally occurred
occurred for for pure
pure water at at the
the high
high water depth Z is
pressure of 700 kg
pressure kg/cm2
/cm2.. Reference 55 is is the
the reference
reference source
source for
the most
most reliable
reliable water refractive index data data with
with ease
ease of of inter-
inter- P== 0.05Z(po
0.05Z(p +p) (18)
polation; however, Eq.
polation; however, Eq. (16) isis conveniently
conveniently programmed
programmed on a
small
small magnetic
magnetic card card computer
computer andand the water water refractive
refractive index For example,
example, utilizing
utilizing the data
data presented
presented in
in Table
Table 2,
2, deter-
deter-
computed in
computed in aa few
few seconds
seconds ofof time
time for forvariations
variations in in the
thegiven
given mine
mine the sea
sea water
water pressure
pressure for aa depth
depth of
of 7,000
7,000 meters,
meters, tem-
tem-
data of wavelength,
wavelength, temperature,
temperature, salinity,
salinity, and
and depth with practi- perature of
of 00°C, and salinity
°C, and salinity ofof3535°/oo. The following
° /oo. The following density
density
cal
cal accuracy
accuracy for many applications. data is
is obtained from Table 2:
Table
Table 2 2 data
data is is extracted
extracted from
from the thenumerous
numeroustables tables on on sea
sea
water presented
water presented in 1910 1910 byby Bjerknes
Bjerknes and and different
different collabora-
collabora- po == 1.02813
pQ 1.02813
tors.6 It is
tors.6 is of
of interest
interest to feature
feature the statistics
statistic 8 that 99.8599.85 per-
cent of the total
cent total ocean
oceanbottom
bottomareaareaisislocated
locatedbetween
between sea sea level
level pp == 1.05978.
1.05978.
and the
and the sea
sea water
water depth of of 7,000
7,000 meters.
meters. TableTable 2, 2, therefore,
therefore,
covers sea
covers sea water
water depths
depths and
and pressures
pressures for for 99.85
99.85 percent
percent of the Substituting in Eq. (18).
total ocean bottom area.
The approximate
The equation to determine
approximate equation determine the water
water depth
depth is
is PP == (0.05)
(0.05)(7,000)
(7,000)(1.02813
(1.02813 ++1.05978)
1.05978)

2QP
20P
PP == (0.1044)
(0.1044) (7,000)
(7,000)
Z -
Z = (17)
po+p PP == 730.8
730.8 kg/cm2
kg/cm2

where versus

ZZ == water
water depth in meters P == 731.0
731.0kg /cm2 from
kg/cm2 from Table
Table 2.

PP ==water
water pressure
pressure at
at water
waterdepth
depthZZininkg /cm2
kg/cm2 The following
following empirical equation is presented
empirical equation presented for standard
standard

March -April1977
March-April 1977// Vol.
Vol. 16 No. 2 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
16 No. ENGINEERING / 131

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 GOMER T. McNEIL
GOMERT.

Table
Table 2. Depthvs.
2. Depth vs. Pressure
Pressure and
and Density
Density of Sea Waterfor
Sea Water for Standard
Standard Conditions
Conditions of 00 °C
C Temperature,
35°/oo
35 ° /oo Salinity, and 9.8
Salinity, and 9.8 m
m/sec2 Gravity at
/sec2 Gravity atSea
Sea Level
Level

Depth Pressure Density

meters feet kg/cm2

kg/ cm 2 decibars g/ml (old)* g/cm
atm lb/in2 g/cm33 (cgs) lb/ft
lb/ft33

00 00 0 0O 0 0 1.02813 1.02810 64.182

1,000 3,280.8 103.0 1,010 99.7 1,465 1.03290 1.03287 64.480
1,524 5,000.0 157.1 1,541 152.1 2,235 1.03536 1.03533 64.634
2,000 6,561.7 206.4 2,024 199.8 2,936 1.03758 1.03755 64.772
3,000
3,0Ó0 9,842.5 310.5 3,045 300.5 4,416 1.04219 1.04216 65.060
3,048 10,000.0 315.5 3,094 305.4 4,487 1.04241 1.04238 65.074
4,000 13,123.4 414.9 4,069 401.6 5,902 1.04670 1.04667 65.342
4,572 15,000.0 475.0 4,658 459.7 6,756 1.04925 1.04922 65.501
5,000 16,404.2 519.9 5,098 503.1 7,394 1.05114 1.05111 65.619
6,000 19,685.0 625.3 6,132 605.2 8,894 1.05550 1.05547 65.891
6,096 20,000.0 635.5 6,232 615.1 9,039 1.05591 1.05588 65.916
7,000 22,965.9 731.0 7,169 707.5 10,398 1.05978 1.05975 66.158

*(old) is inserted subsequent to

to gg/ml
/ml to indicate the old
old liter
liter prior
priortotoredefining
redefiningthe
theliter
literininOctober
October19647.
1964^.The
Thedifference
differenceininthe
thevolume
volume of the liter
liter isis only
only
28 parts per
28 per million.
million. The majority
majority of
of available
available tables list
list density
density in in gg/ml (old) since
/ml (old) since the volume
volume difference
difference is only significant in measurements
significant in measurementsof ofhigh
accuracy.

sea water conditions of

of 00°C
°C temperature
temperature and
and 35 ° /oo on salinity:
35°/oo salinity: elude excessive resolution degradation
dude excessive degradation owing owing to an an out-of-focus
out-of-focus
condition.
condition. ForFor example,
example, assume
assume an an underwater
underwater camera camera isis in
P = 0.104Z. (19) focus
focus at aa given
given seasea water
water depth.
depth. If thethe camera
camera is lowered
lowered to to a
greater
greater depth, the focalfocal surface
surface will
will translate
translate from
from thethe film
film sur-
determining the
The errors in determining the water
waterpressures
pressuresbybyEq.
Eq.(19)
(19)corn
com-- face owing
face owing to to the
the increase
increase in in the
the refractive
refractive indexindex of the sea sea
pared to the
pared the water
water pressures
pressures listed
listed in
in Table
Table 22 are
are presented
presented in
in water.
water. It isis necessary,
necessary, therefore,
therefore, to to determine
determine the thepermissible
permissible
TableS.
Table 3. magnitude
magnitude of the focal focal surface
surface translation
translation from from thethe film
film surface
surface
to conform
conform withwith aa limiting
limiting resolution
resolution thatthat isis specified
specified for the
Table 3.
Table 3. Water
Water Pressure by Eq.
Pressure by Eq. (19)
(19) and
and from
from Table 2 out of focus condition.
The
The front vertex
vertex of of aalens
lenssystem
system isis thethe intersection
intersection of the
Pressure, kg
kg/cm2
/cm2 Difference optical axis
optical axis and
and the front
front lens
lens surface.
surface. TheThe rear
rear vertex
vertex is is the
Depth intersection
intersection of of the optical
optical axisaxis and
and thethe rear
rearlens
lenssurface.
surface. The
The
meters Eq. 19
19 Table 2 19-Table2
Eq. 19 -Table 2 back focal
back focal distance
distance is thethe distance
distance from
from the the rear
rear vertex
vertex to the the
focal surface.
1,000 104.0 103.0 1.0 The determine the
The equation to determine the change
change in in the
the back
back focal
focal dis-
dis-
tance an underwater
tance of an underwater lens lens system
system owingowing to aa change
change in in the
the
2,000 208.0 206.4 1.6
water refractive index and the nodal nodal object
object distance
distance isis
3,000 312.0 310.5 1.5

4,000 416.0 414.9 1.1 Ab

Ob == (f(f')2 (n2 )
")2 (n2)
1
D2
D21-f
n2
5,000 520.0 519.9 0.1 +v2 - f"
nl nl --n2
n2
6,000 624.0 625.3 -1.3
-1.3 Dl - vl r1

7,000 728.0 731.0 -3.0

-3.0 (20)

where
Based on
Based on Eq. (19), aa pressure
pressure error of -3.03.0kg /cm22 produces
kg/cm
an error
an error of only
only -0.00004
0.00004 in in the
the refractive
refractive index
index of the
the sea
sea Ab
Ob == change
change in
in back
back focal distance of lens system
water.
water. In summary,
summary, substitute
substitute 0.104Z
0.104Z for PP inin Eq.
Eq. (16)
(16) to
to deter-
refractive index of aa column of sea water at a tempera-
mine the refractive f'
f " = second focal length at
at n2
n2
ture of
ture of 00°C salinity of
°C and a salinity of 35
35°/00.
°/00.
Of practical interest toto the
the fields
fields of
of underwater
underwater photography
photography n2 == desired
n2 desired water
water refractive
refractive index
and photogrammetry is
and photogrammetry is to estimate
estimate the
the refractive
refractive index of sea
sea
water
water for
for a given depth that is
given depth is within
within tolerable
tolerable limits
limits to pre-
pre- ni == actual
n1 actual water
water refractive
refractive index
index

132 / March -April 1977

March-April 1977 // Vol.
Vol. 16
16 No. 2 / OPTICAL
No. 2 OPTICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

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 METRICAL
METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
FUNDAMENTALSOF
OFUNDERWATER
UNDERWATERLENS
LENSSYSTEM
SYSTEM

D2
D2 == desired
desired nodal
nodal object
object distance Substituting
Substituting 0.004
0.004 for An
An in
in Eq.
Eq. (22),
(22),
DI
D1 == actual
actual nodal
nodal object distance Ab
Ab == (12.3)
(12.3) (0.004)
YI
vl == distance
distance from
from front
front vertex
vertex to
to first
first nodal
nodal point
point of Ab
Ab == 0.05
0.05 mm.
lens
lens system
system for a water refractive index of n1.
nj. The approximate
The approximate equation
equation to determine
determine the change
change in sea
sea
water
water depth owing to aa change
depth owing change in the
the refractive
refractive index
index of
of sea
sea
v2 distance from
v2 = distance from front vertex to first
first nodal
nodal point of water at
at approximately
approximately00°C temperatureandand3535°/oo
°C temperature salinity is
° /oo salinity is
lens system
system for a water refractive index of n2.
n2 . presented as follows:
r1 = radius
TI radius of
of first lens
lens surface
surface in
in contact
contact with
with the
the AZ = 6.6
6.6x 10s An
x 105 (25)
water.
where
Equation (21)
Equation (21) isis based
based on the
the work
work conducted
conducted by
by Washer
Washer
and
and Gardner9
Gardner9 at at the National Bureau
Bureau of Standards
Standards on depth of AZ
AZ == change
change in
in sea
sea water
water depth
depth in meters.
focus of lenses.
When
= CN
R=Ob
R (21) An
An == 0.004,
Ab
then
where
AZ == 2,640 m.
AZ
R
R ==lens
lens resolution
resolution in
in cycles
cycles per mm
In summary
summary a change
change of ±2,640
±2,640 meters
meters in the
the depth
depth of
of sea
sea
CC ==constant
constant of
of1.25
1.25 for
for high
high contrast
contrast target (100:1) water
water atat approximately
approximately 00°C°C temperature
temperatureand and3535°/oo
° /oo salinity
salinity
and
and 0.625
0.625 for low
low contrast
contrast target
target (1.6:1)
(1.6:1) causes
causes aa change
change of ±0.004
±0.004 in the the refractive
refractive index
index of the
the sea
sea
water which, in turn,
water which, turn, causes
causes aa change
change of ±0.05mm
±0.05mm in the the back
back
N
N ==lens
lensf-f-number
number focal distance
focal distance that limits
limits the
the resolution
resolution of
ofthe
theC201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN
Lens working
Lens working atat f/4 to
toapproximately
approximately 50 50 cycles
cycles per
per mm
mm for a
Ab
Ab == change
change in
in back
back focal
focal distance
distance of
of lens
lens in mm.
mm. low
low contrast
contrast target
target (1.6:1). Film
Film resolution in addition to water,
lighting, shutter,
lighting, shutter, and
and vibration
vibration conditions
conditions further
further reduce
reduce the
For the
the C201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN Lens,
Lens, the change
change inin back
back focal
focal dis-
dis- system resolution
system resolution ofof the
the operational
operational camera
camera appreciably.
appreciably.
tance
tance in millimeters,
millimeters, for all practical
for all practical purposes,
purposes, is is equal
equal to
12.3 times
12.3 times the change in
the change in the water
water refractive
refractive index
index for
for fixed
fixed
nodal object
nodal object distances
distances from
from 22 meters
meters to
to infinity
infinity and
and through a Standardized C201 ELCAN ELCAN Lens Data
water refractive
water refractive range
range from
from 1.330
1.330 to
to 1.360.
1.360.This
This approximate
approximate C201 ELCAN
The C201 ELCAN Water Water Contact
Contact LensLenswaswas designed
designed and and manu-
simple linear
but simple linear relationship
relationship can be substituted
substituted for
for the
the precise
precise factured in the earlyearly 1960s
1960sby byE.E.Leitz
LeitzCanada
Canada Limited
Limited withwith an an
more involved
but more involved Eq. with no
Eq. (20) with no significant
significant error
error for
for the
the in-
in- image space
image space of air and and an anobject
objectspace
spaceofofwater
waterasasan anintegral
integral
application. Therefore, the
tended application. the following
following approximate
approximate equa-equa- component
component of the underwater
underwater opticaloptical system.
system. The The C201
C201 Lens
Lens
tion is presented for the
the C201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN Lens: covers an
covers f-number
an f- numberrangerange from
from f/4
f/4 to f/22
f/22 and
andan anangular
angularfield
field
90° on
of 90° on70mm
70mmfilm filmwithwitha 2'/a
a 2V4x x21/4-inch
2^-inch format.
format. The The C201
C201
Ob = 12.30n
Ab 12.3 An (22) Lens has
Lens has served
served as as a veteran workhorse
workhorse in in the
the underwater
underwater en- en-
vironment
vironment for for more
more than aa decadedecade by by aadiverse
diverse array
array of end end
where users.
Tables
Tables 4, 5, 5, and
and 66listlistC201
C201LensLensparameters,
parameters,nodal nodalimage
image
An == change
change in
in water
water refractive index. distances, and back
distances, back focal
focal distances
distances forforwater
waterrefractive
refractive indexes
indexes
from 1.330
from 1.330 to 1.360.
1.360. The
The data
data presented
presented in in Tables
Tables 4, 4, 5, and
and 6
Substituting Eq. (22)
Substituting Eq. (22) in
in Eq. (21)
(21) for
for aalow
lowcontrast
contrast target
target shall be considered as
shall as standardized
standardized lens lens data.
data.Naturally,
Naturally, aa C201
C201
f-number
and f- number of 4. Lens was
Lens was never
never manufactured with with precisely
precisely thethe same
same param-
param-
closely approximated
eters but closely approximated the the standardized
standardized lens lens data. The
(0.625) (4) standardized C201
standardized C201 Lens data tabulated
tabulated in in Tables
Tables 4, 5, 5, and 6 are
R- presented for the the following
following purposes:
purposes:
K~ 12.3 An
12.3 On
(23) 1. Determine the
1. Determine the changes
changes in in the
the dimensions
dimensions of the the lens
lens
1 1 parameters, nodal
parameters, nodal image
image distances,
distances, andand back
back focal
focal dis-
dis-
R= tances with aa change
tances change in in the
the water
waterreflective
reflective indexes.
indexes. TheThe
5An
dimensional change
dimensional change may be be determined
determined by byaagross
grossvisual
visual
or inspection
inspection or by elementary
elementary computations to conclude conclude if
the magnitude
magnitude of the the dimensional
dimensional change
change is tolerable
tolerable to to
An
An == 5R
5R .' (24) conform with the the lens
lens system
system specifications.
specifications.
2.
2. Confirm
Confirm the validity
validity of of computer
computer programs
programs of of related
related
equations
equations with dispatch by utilizing the tabulated data as
with dispatch as
Assume that
Assume that a limiting
limiting resolution
resolution of 50
50 cycles
Cycles per mm
mm is per- the numerical example.
missible for
missible for the change
change in back
back focal
focal distance.
distance. Substituting
Substituting aa The
The standardized
standardized C201 C201 LensLens data of Tables
Tables 4, 4, 5,5, and
and 66 does
does
value of SO
value 50 for
for RR in
in Eq.
Eq. (24), not include
not include the waterwater pressure
pressure effects
effects of change
change in the the radii,
radii,
thickness,
thickness, translation,
translation, and and refractive index of the
refractive index the concentric
concentric
11 meniscus
meniscus lenslens which
which isis commonly
commonly referred
referred to as as the
the dome
dome win-
win-
On -
An dow lens
lens or dome lens.
(5) (50)
Tables
Tables 4, 5, and
4, 5, and 66 were
were prepared
prepared expediently
expediently by use use of the
the
On == 0.004 ..
An programmable
programmable hand calculator calculatorSR SR-52 andPC
-52 and PC-100
-100 printer with with

March -April 1977

March-April 1977// Vol.
Vol. 16 No. 22 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
16 No. ENGINEERING / 133

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 GOMER T. McNEIL
GOMERT.

12-digit precision; however, the C201 Lens data is presented in , A l fí

fí *2
Tables
Tables 4,
4, 5,
5, and
and 6 to four
four decimal
decimal places.
places. f (30)
f i ++
fí fa' - ss
f2
The
The equations used for the
equations used the preparation
preparation of
of Tables
Tables 4, 5,, and
4, 5, and
6 are: f=nf'
i? = nf ' (31)
11 n"-
n' nn n-1
n' 1 . n'-n
n' n n'- 11
n' t f
of

fí r1 r2
~
rj
rl r2
r2 n
n"
.
Ai Ps = AiP2
A
A!PS n
AI P2 +
÷ A Tl I JX
(32)
2
(26)
A!NS A1Ps+f'-f
AINs == A,P5+f'-f (33)
fl =
fi = nfí
nff (27)
sf
(2?) A,P6
Ai P6 == Al P4 --£
A1P4 (34)
A1P1 =
AI?I = A1 P2 =
Ai?2 TI+ f i
= r1+ -
- fi (28) 1 l fl
fi
Let Ai 1\16 = A1A6+f"-f (35)

= A1P3 - Al P1 (29)
(29) A!F6
Al A1N6 +f
F6 ==AiN6 +f (36)

Table
Table 4. Water Refractive
4. Water Refractive Index
Indexversus
versus Lens
Lens Parameters
Parameters in
in Millimeters

Standardized C201 ELCAN

ELCAN Water
Water Contact
Contact Lens

A lp l ==
A1P1
f'
n f fl
f1 fi
fi A 1P2
A1P2 A 1 N5
A1N5 A 1P5
A1P5 A 1 N6
A1N6 A 1P6
A1P6 A1 F4
A1F4

1.330 40.3954 30.3725 -173.4248 -130.3946 30.4398 78.1676 88.1905 101.4259 111.4488 141.8213
1.331 40.4060 30.3577 -173.1939 -130.1231 30.3993 78.1653 88.2137 101.4278 111.4762 141.8339
1.332 40.4166 30.3428 -172.9639 -129.8528 30.3589 78.1630 88.2368 101.4298 111.5036 141.8464
1.333 40.4272 30.3280 -172.7348 -129.5835 30.3187 78.1607 88.2600 101.4317 111.5309 141.8589
1.334 40.4378 30.3132 -172.5068 -129.3154 30.2787 78.1584 88.2830 101.4336 111.5582 141.8714
1.335 40.4484 30.2984 -172.2796 -129.0484 30.2388 78.1562 88.3061 101.4356 111.5855 141.8839
1.336 40.4589 30.2836 -172.0534 -128.7825 30.1991 78.1539 88.3292 101.4375 111.6128 141.8964
1.337 40.4695 30.2689 -171.8281 -128.5177 30.1595 78.1516 88.3522 101.4394 111.6400 141.9089
1.338 40.4800 30.2541 -171.6038 -128.2540 30.1202 78.1493 88.3752 101.4414 111.6672 141.9214
1.339 40.4905 30.2394 -171.3804 -127.9913 30.0809 78.1470 88.3928 101.4433 111.6944 141.9338
1.340 40.5010 30.2247 -171.1578 -127.7297 30.0419 78.1447 88.4211 101.4452 111.7216 141.9463
1.341 40.5116 30.2100 -170.9362 -127.4692 30.0030 78.1425 88.4441 101.4471 111.7487 141.9587
1.342 40.5220 30.1953 -170.7155 -127.2098 29.9643 78.1402 88.4670 101.4491 111.7758 141.9711
1.343 40.5325 30.1806 -170.4957 -126.9514 29.9257 78.1379 88.4899 101.4510 111.8029 141.9835
1.344 40.5430 30.1659 -170.2768 -126.6941 29.8872 78.1357 88.5127 101.4529 111.8300 141.9959
1.345 40.5535 30.1513 -170.0588 -126.4377 29.8490 78.1334 88.5356 101.4548 111.8570 142.0083
1.346 40.5639 30.1366 -169.8416 -126.1825 29.8109 78.1311 88.5584 101.4567 111.8840 142.0206
1.347 40.5744 30.1220 -169.6253 -125.9282 29.7729 78.1289 88.5812 101.4586 111.9110 142.0330
1.348 40.5848 30.1074 -169.4099 -125.6750 29.7351 78.1266 88.6040 101.4605 111.9379 142.0453
1.349 40.5952 30.0928 -169.1954 -125.4228 29.6974 78.1244 88.6268 101.4624 111.9648 142.0577
1.350 40.6056 30.0783 -168.9817 -125.1716 29.6599 78.1221 88.6495 101.4643 111.9917 142.0700
1.351 40.6161 30.0637 -168.7689 -124.9214 29.6226 78.1199 88.6722 101.4662 112.0186 142.0823
1.352 40.6264 30.0491 -168.5569 -124.6723 29.5854 78.1176 88.6949 101.4682 112.0455 142.0946
1.353 40.6368 30.0346 -168.3458 -124.4241 29.5483 78.1154 88.7176 101.4701 112.0723 142.1069
1.354 40.6472 30.0201 -168.1355 -124.1769 29.5114 78.1131 88.7402 101.4719 112.0991 142.1192
1.355 40.6576 30.0056 -167.9260 -123.9306 29.4746 78.1109 88.7628 101.4738 112.1258 142.1314
1.356 40.6679 29.9911 -167.7174 -123.6854 29.4380 78.1086 88.7855 101.4757 112.1526 142.1437
1.357 40.6783 29.9766 -167.5095 -123.4411 29.4015 78.1064 88.8080 101.4776 112.1793 142.1559
1.358 40.6886 29.9622 -167.3026 -123.1978 29.3652 78.1041 88.8306 101.4795 112.2060 142.1681
1.359 40.6989 29.9477 -167.0964 -122.9554 29.3290 78.1019 88.8531 101.4814 112.2326 142.1803
1.360 40.7092 29.9333 -166.8910 -122.7140 29.2930 78.0997 88.8757 101.4833 112.2593 142.1925

Constant Lens
Lens Parameters:
A 1 A2 == 24.94mm
A1A2 AjN^ == AjPo
A1N3 A1P3 == 78.69mm rl == A1N1
A 1N 1 = A1N2
A l N2 =
= 73.47mm
A 1 A3 == 54.94mm
A1A3 A1
A1N4N4 == A 1P4 == 100,
A1P4 ,21mm
100.21mm r2 = 48.53mm
A1
A1A4A4 == 118.29mm f'2= f2 == 33.75mm
f2= f2 33.75mm n'=
n'-= 1.5187

134 / March -April1977

March-April 1977 // Vol.
Vol. 16
16 No.
No. 2 / OPTICAL
OPTICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

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 METRICAL
METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
FUNDAMENTALSOF
OFUNDERWATER
UNDERWATERLENS
LENSSYSTEM
SYSTEM

where r rj i ji N3 == first
N3 firstnodal
nodalpoint
pointof
ofair
air lens
lens
A1 = front vertex of
Ai of dome
dome lens
lens and
and lens
lens system
system
N4 == second
secondnodal
nodal point
point of
of air
air lens
A2 == rear
A2 rear vertex
vertex of dome lens
of dome lens N< lens

A3 == front
A3 frontvertex
vertexof
ofair
air lens
lens N5
N * == first
firstnodal
nodalpoint
P°intofoflens
lens system
system
N6 == second
N6 secondnodal
nodal point
point of
of lens
lens system
system
A4 == rear
A4 rearvertex
vertexofofair
airlens
lens and
and lens
lens system
system
F6
F$ ==second
secondfocal
focalpoint
pointofoflens
lenssystem
system
PI
P1 principal point of dome lens
= first principal
f!
fi = first
firstfocal
focal length
length of
of dome
dome lens
P2
?2 second principal
= second principal point of dome lens
ff;! == second
second focal
focal length
length of
of dome
dome lens
?3
P3 first principal
= first principal point
point of
of air
air lens
lens fj
f2 f2'=first
= f2= firstfocal
focallength
lengthofofair
airlens
lensassembly
assembly
?4
P4 == second
second principal point of
of air
air lens ff2, = ff2^ =
= second
second focal
focal length
length of ^lens
ofair lengassembly
assembly
PS
P5 =
= first principal point of
of lens
lens system
system ff == first
ftatfocal
focal length
length of
Qf lens
leng system
system

P6 second principal point of

= second of lens
lens system
system f
f, == second
second focal
focal length
length of
of lens
lens system
system
N1 == first
N! firstnodal
nodalpoint
pointof
ofdome
dome lens
lens n = refractive
refractive index
index of
of water
water
N2 == second
N2 secondnodal
nodal point
point of
of dome
dome lens nn "' = refractive
refractive index
index of
ofdome
dome lens.
lens.

Water Refractive
Table 5. Water Refractive Index
Indexversus
versus Nodal Image
Image Distance
Distance in
in Millimeters
Millimeters

Standardized C201 ELCAN

ELCAN Water
Water Contact
Contact Lens
Lens

d when d when d when d when d when d when d when d when d when d when dd== ff when
when
n D=lm
D =1m D
D ==2m
2m D==3m
D 3m D
D == 4m D== 5m D
D ==6m
6m D
D ==8m
8m D= 10m
D =10m D =15m
D= 15m D ==20m
20m D
D ==a~

1.330 41.6608 41.0183 40.8086 40.7045 40.6423 40.6010 40.5494 40.5185 40.4774 40.4569 40.3954
1.331 41.6711 41.0288 40.8191 40.7150 40.6529 40.6115 40.5599 40.5291 40.4880 40.4675 40.4060
1.332 41.6814 41.0393 40.8296 40.7256 40.6634 40.6221 40.5705 40.5396 40.4986 49.4780 40.4166
1.333 41.6916 41.0497 40.8401 40.7361 40.6739 40.6326 40.5811 40.5502 40.5091 40.4886 40.4272
1.334 41.7019 41.0601 40.8506 40.7466 40.6845 40.6431 40.5916 40.5608 40.5197 40.4992 40.4378
1.335 41.7122 41.0706 40.8610 40.7571 40.6949 40.6537 40.6021 40.5713 40.5302 40.5097 40.4484
1.336 41.7224 41.0810 40.8715 40.7676 40.7055 40.6642 40.6127 40.5818 40.5408 40.5203 40.4589
1.337 41.7327 41.0914 40.8820 40.7780 40.7160 40.6747 40.6232 40.5923 40.5513 40.5308 40.4695
1.338 41.7429 41.1018 40.8924 40.7885 40.7264 40.6851 40.6337 40.6028 40.5618 40.5413 40.4800
1.339 41.7531 41.1121 40.9028 40.7990 40.7369 40.6956 40.6442 40.6133 40.5723 40.5518 40.4905
.340
1.340 41.7633 41.1225 40.9132 40.8094 40.7474 40.7061 40.6546 40.6238 40.5828 40.5623 40.5010
.341
1.341 41.7735 41.1329 40.9237 40.8198 40.7578 40.7166 40.6651 40.6343
40.6 343 40.5933 40.5728 40.5116
.342
1.342 41.7837 41.1432 40.9341 40.8303 40.7683 40.7270 40.6756 40.6448 40.6038 40.5833 40.5220
.343
1.343 41.7939 41.1536 40.9444 40.8407 40.7787 40.7374 40.6860 40.6552 40.6143 40.5938 40.5325
.344
1.344 41.8041 41.1639 40.9548 40.8511 40.7891 40.7479 40.6965 40.6657
40.665 7 40.6247 40.6043 40.5430
.345
1.345 41.8142 41.1742 40.9652 40.8615 40.7995 40.7583 40.7069 40.6761 40.6352
40.6 35 2 40.6147 40.5535
.346
1.346 41.8244 41.1845 40.9756 40.8719 40.8099 40.7687 40.7173 40.6865 40.6456 40.6251 40.5639
.347
1.347 41.8345 41.1948 40.9859 40.8822 40.8203 40.7791 40.7277 40.6969 40.6560 40.6356 40.5744
.348
1.348 41.8446 41.2051 40.9962 40.8926 40.8307 40.7895 40.7381 40.7074 40.6664 40.6460 40.5848
.349
1.349 41.8548 41.2154 41.0066 40.9030 40.8410 40.7999 40.7485 40.7178 40.6768 40.6564 40.5952
1.350 41.8649 41.2256 41.0169 40.9133 40.8514 40.8102 40.7589 40.7282 40.6872 40.6668 40.6056
1.351 41.8750 41.2359 41.0272 40.9236 40.8617 40.8206 40.7693 40.7385 40.6976 40.6772 40.6161
1.352 41.8851 41.2462 41.0375 40.9340 40.8721 40.8309 40.7796 40.7489 40.7080 40.6876 40.6264
1.353 41.8951 41.2564 41.0478 40.9443 40.8824 40.8413 40.7900 40.7592 40.7184 40.6979 40.6368
1.354 41.9052 41.2666 41.0581 40.9546 40.8927 40.8516 40.8003 40.7696 40.7287 40.7083 40.6472
1.355 41.9153 41.2768 41.0683 40.9649 40.9030 40.8619 40.8106 40.7799 40.7391 40.7187 40.6576
1.356 41.9253 41.2870 41.0786 40.9751 40.9133 40.8722 40.8210 40.7903 40.7494 40.7290 40.6679
1.357 41.9353 41.2972 41.0888 40.9854 40.9236 40.8825 40.8313 40.8006 40.7597 40.7393 40.6783
1.358 41.9454 41.3074 41.0991 40.9957 40.9339 40.8928 40.8416 40.8109 40.7700 40.7496 40.6886
1.359 41.9553 41.3176 41.1093 41.0059 40.9442 40.9031 40.8519 40.8212 40.7803 40.7600 40.6989
1.360 41.9654 41.3278 41.1195 41.0162 40.9544 40.9134 40.8621 40.8315 40.7906 40.7703 40.7092

March -April 1977

March-April 1977// Vol.
Vol. 16 No. 22 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
16 No. ENGINEERING / 135

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 GOMER T.
GOMER T. McNEIL

The layout of
The of the
the optical
optical axis
axis symbols
symbols of the
the C201
C201 Lens
Lens is
is to the
the acquisition
acquisition of ofthe
theunderwater
underwaterphotography
photography are are similar
similar
presented in Figure 4. in principle
principle to those
those that
thatare
arewell
wellestablished
established ininaerial
aerialphoto
photo--
grammetry. In the interest
grammetry. interest of
ofclarity,
clarity,the
thegraphical
graphical presentation
presentation
The
The fundamental
fundamental metrical
metrical advantage
advantage ofof establishing
establishing equal
equal of the
the numerous
numerous cardinal
cardinal points in in Figure
Figure 55 were
were distributed
distributed
angles for an object
angles for object space
space ofof water
water and
and an
animage
image space
space of
of air
air along
along the optical
optical axis
axis without
without regard
regard toto their
theirrelative
relative position.
position.
is illustrated
illustrated in Figure'
Figure 55 by locating N5N 5 as the
the origin
origin for
for nodal
nodal example,N5
For example, N 5 P5
P5 is equal toto N6
N6 P6 given conditions but
P6 for all given but
distances and
object distances and N6
N6 asas the
theorigin
originfor
fornodal
nodalimage
imagedistances.
distances. is not so
is so represented
represented in in Figure
Figure 55 for
for the
thepurpose
purpose ofofreadable
readable
Therefore, the
Therefore, the photogrammetric
photogrammetric processes
processes utilized
utilized subsequent
subsequent ease.

DOME
WINDOW
AIR LENS
AIR LENS ASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY
l.C.it.V LM/ SURFACE FOR
FOCAL SURFACE FOR
(-Aï-it/`WATER
UU-A^ WATER\JU
w ATIMFIUITY
OBJECT AT /NFf#J /TY
LAA. AIR
AIR

WC/ ctic.c.c-c
ztiv cc.ci

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Layout
Layout of
of Optical
Optical Axis
AxisSymbols
Symbols of
of C201
C201 ELCAN
ELCAN Lens.
Lens.

DOME
WINDOW
lit,t.f, L.L.L.A.A...f..1 LA_
WATER L_A_ A/R LENS ASSEMBLY
AIP ~
AIR AIR

N6 F
29
m

////////////////////////////////////,///// /
ic-(i n u,
d
Figure 5. Equal
EqualAngles
Angles in
inan
an Object
ObjectSpace
Space of
of Water
Water and
and an Image Spaceof
Image Space of Air.
Air.

136 / March-April
March-April 1977
1977 // Vol. 16
16 No.
No. 2 / OPTICAL
OPTICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

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 METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
FUNDAMENTALSOF
OF UNDERWATER
UNDERWATER LENS
LENS SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Table 6. water
Table 6. WaterRefractive
Refractive Index
Indexversus
versus Back Focal Distance
Back Focal Distance inin Millimeters
Millimeters

Lens
C201 ELCAN Water Contact Lens
Standardized C201

b when b when b when b when b when b when b when b when b when bwhen
b when bwhen
b when
n D=lm
D =1m D ==2m
D 2m D=3m
D =3m D ==4m
D 4m D 5m
D ==5m 6m
D ==6m
D D 8m
D==8m D
D==10m
10m D=15m
D =15m D=20m
D =20m D.
D=~

1.330 24.7966 24.1542 23.9444 23.8404 23.7782 23.7368 23.6853 23.6544 23.6133 23.5927 23.5313
1.331 24.8089 24.1666 23.9569 23.8529 23.7907 23.7493 23.6978 23.6669 23.6258 23.6053 23.5439
1.332 24.8211 24.1790 23.9694 23.8653 23.8032 23.7618 23.7103 23.6794 23.6383 23.6178 23.5564
1.333 24.8333 24.1914 23.9818 23.8778 23.8156 23.7743 23.7228 23.6919 23.6508 23.6303 23.5689
1.334 24.8456 24.2038 23.9942 23.8902 23.8281 23.7868 23.7352 23.7044 23.6633 23.6428 23.5814
1.335 24.8577 24.2161 24.0066 23.9027 23.8405 23.7992 23.7477 23.7169 23.6758 23.6553 23.5939
1.336 24.8699 24.2285 24.0190 23.9151 23.8530 23.8117 23.7602 23.7293 23.6883 23.6678 23.6064
1.337 24.8821 24.2408 24.0314 23.9275 23.8654 23.8241 23.7726 23.7418 23.7007 23.6802 23.6189
1.338 24.8943 24.2531 24.0438 23.9399 23.8778 23.8365 23.7850 23.7542 23.7132 23.6927 23.6314
1.339 24.9064 24.2654 24.0561 23.9522 23.8902 23.8489 23.7974 23.7666 23.7256 23.7051 23.6438
1.340 24.9185 24.2777 24.0685 23.9646 23.9026 23.8613 23.8099 23.7790 23.7380 23.7176 23.6563
1.341 24.9307 24.2900 24.0808 23.9770 23.9149 23.8737 23.8222 23.7914 23.7504 23.7300 23.6687
1.342 24.9428 24.3023 24.0931 23.9893 23.9273 23.8861 23.8346 23.8038 23.7628 23.7424 23.6811
1.343 24.9549 24.3145 24.1054 24.0017 23.9396 23.8984 23.8470 23.8162 23.7752 23.7548 23.6935
1.344 24.9670 24.3268 24.1177 24.0140 23.9520 23.9108 23.8594 23.8286 23.7876 23.7671 23.7059
1.345 24.9790 24.3390 24.1300 24.0263 23.9643 23.9231 23.8717 23.8409 23.8000 23.7795 23.7183
1.346 24.9911 24.3512 24.1423 24.0386 23.9766 23.9354 23.8840 23.8533 23.8123 23.7919 23.7306
1.347 25.0031 24.3634 24.1545 24.0509 23.9889 23.9477 23.8963 23.8656 23.8246 23.8042 23.7430
1.348 25.0152 24.3756 24.1668 24.0631 24.0012 23.9600 23.9087 23.8779 23.8370 23.8165 23.7553
1.349 25.0272 24.3878 24.1790 24.0754 24.0135 23.9723 23.9210 23.8902 23.8493 23.8288 23.7677
1.350 25.0392 24.4000 24.1912 24.0876 24.0257 23.9846 23.9332 23.9025 23.8616 23.8412 23.7800
1.351 25.0512 24.4122 24.2034 24.0999 24.0380 23.9968 23.9455 23.9148 23.8739 23.8534 23.7923
1.352 25.0632 24.4243 24.2156 24.1121 24.0502 24.0091 23.9578 23.9270 23.8861 23.8657 23.8046
1.353 25.0752 24.4364 24.2278 24.1243 24.0625 24.0213 23.9700 23.9393 23.8984 23.8780 23.8169
1.354 25.0872 24.4486 24.2400 24.1365 24.0747 24.0335 23.9823 23.9515 23.9107 23.8903 23.8292
1.355 25.0991 24.4607 24.2522 24.1487 24.0869 24.0458 23.9945 23.9638 23.9229 23.9025 23.8414
1.356 25.1110 24.4728 24.2643 24.1609 24.0991 24.0580 24.0067 23.9760 23.9351 23.9147 23.8537
1.357 25.1230 24.4849 24.2765 24.1730 24.1113 24.0702 24.0189 23.9882 23.9474 23.9270 23.8659
1.358 25.1349 24.4970 24.2886 24.1852 24.1234 24.0823 24.0311 24.0004 23.9596 23.9392 23.8781
1.359 25.1468 24.5090 24.3007 24.1973 24.1356 24.0945 24.0433 24.0126 23.9718 23.9514 23.8903
1.360 25.1587 24.5211 24.3128 24.2095 24.1477 24.1066 24.0554 24.0248 23.9839 23.9636 23.9025

The
The numerical examplesthat
numerical examples that follow
follow areare presented
presented toto illus- n=
n = 1.353
trate utilityofofTables
trate the practical utility Tables 4,
4, 5,5,and
and 66 for
forthe
theexpedient
expedient
determination ofofthe magnitudeofoflens
themagnitude lensparameters, image
nodal image
parameters, nodal dd = 40.7
40.7184mm
184mm
distances, back focal
andback
distances,and distances relative
focal distances relative to aa change
change in the
water refractive index.
water refractive f == 40.6368mm.
40.6368mm.
Determine the nodal image
Determine distance when
image distance when
Substituting in Eq. (14),
n == 1.353
1.353
D= (40.7184) (40.6368)
D == 15m
15m or
or 15,000mm
15,000mm D
1.353 (40.7184 -40.6368)
1.353(40.7184 - 40.6368)
f = 40.6368mm.
or15m
14,987mm or
D = 14,987mm versus
15mversus
Substituting in Eq. (13),
D = 15,000mm
15,000mm or 15m
15m from
from Table
Table 5.
5.
(1.353) (15,000) (40.6368)
d
(15,000) -40.6368
(1.353) (15,000)-40.6368 Determine the first focal
Determine the focal length
length when
when

d
d== 40.718mm
40.718mmversus
versus n == 1.353
1.353

d == 40.7184mm
40.7184mm from
from Table
Table 5.
5. D= 15m or 15,000mm
D = 15m

Determine the
Determine the nodal object distance
distance when dd == 40.7184mm

March -April 1977

March-April 1977 // Vol. No. 22 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
16 No.
Vol. 16 ENGINEERING / 137

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 GOMER T. McNEIL
GOMERT.

Substituting in Eq. (15), refractive

refractive index
index of air is not significant. For example, the differ-
ence
ence in the refractive
refractive index
index of ofdeep
deep sea
sea water
water and
and pure water at
(1.353) (15,000) (40.7184) sea
sea level
level may
may bebe in the order
order of of 0.03
0.03 while
while the difference
difference in the
f refractive
refractive index air at
index of air at sea
sea level
level and
and aa vacuum
vacuum is only only 0.0003.
0.0003.
(1.353) (15,000)+
(15,000) + 40.7184)
Based
Based on on these
these values,
values, the
the difference
difference in in the
the refractive index of
refractive index of
40.637mm versus
f = 40.637mm versus deep sea water and pure water
deep water atat sea
sea level
level is 100
100 times
times greater
than the
the difference
difference inin the
therefractive
refractiveindex
indexof ofair
airatatsea
sea level
level and
ff== 40.6368mm
40.6368mm from
from Table
Table 5. a vacuum.
Tables 4,
Tables 4, 5, and
and 66 are
are presented
presented forforquick
quickresponse
response analyses
analyses
Determine
Determine the change in the back focal distance when other functions
of other functionsandandinter
inter-relationships.
- relationships.
f
f" == 30.1806mm
30.1806mm The Guest Editor,
The Editor, Dr.
Dr. Lawrence
Lawrence E. E. Mertens,
Mertens, requested
requested if aa
difference in the change
difference in change inin the
theback
backfocal
focaldistance
distanceoccurred
occurred
n2 =
= 1.343
1.343 when
when the dome
dome window
window of the the C201
C201 Lens
Lens isis replaced
replaced with
with aa
flat window
thick flat window with r1 TI and r2 equalequal to infinity.
infinity. Since
Since the flat
n!
nl =
= 1.353
1.353 window
window isis the firstfirst lens
lens element
element with with aafirst
firstandandsecond
second focal
focal
length of infinity
length infinity or zerozero optical
optical power,
power, the the first
first and
and second
second
D2 =
= 3m
3m ==3,000mm
3,000mm focal length of of the
theair
airlens
lens isis increased
increased to equal
equal the second
second focal
length of the
length the C201
C201 Lens Lens atata agiven
givenwater
waterrefractive
refractive index
index andand
D!
D1 = 15m
15m == 15,000mm
15,000mm the positions of the the first
first and
and second
second nodal
nodal andand principal
principal points
the air
of the air lens
lens assembly
assembly are maintained. By this process, the first
V!
vl == 78.1154mm
78.1154mm(A1
(A! N5
N5 of Table 11 for nn1t == 1.353) and second
second focal lengths
lengths of the the flat
flat window
window lens lens and
and the
theC201
C201
Lens
Lens systems
systems are are equal.
equal. TheThe change
change in the the back
back focal
focal distance
distance
v2
V2 == 78.1379mm
78.1379mm (Al 5 5ofofTable
(A! N Table11 for
for nn=
= 1.343)
1.343) for aa given
given water
water refractive
refractive index
index andand two
two different
different nodal
nodal object
object
distances
distances isis the samesame forfor thethe flat
flat window
window lens lens and
and the
the C201
C201
rx
r1 == 73.47mm.
73.47mm. Lens; therefore,
Lens; therefore, the difference
difference in in the
the change
change in in the
the back
back focal
focal
distances is
distances is zero. However,
However, when when the the water
waterrefractive
refractive index
index isis
different
different for oneone nodal
nodal object
object distance than the other, the
distance than the dif-
dif-
Substituting in Eq. (20), ference
ference inin the
the change
change in the the back
back focal
focal distances
distances of the the two
two
lenses
lenses isis not equal
equal totozero.
zero.With With aa change
change in the water water refractive
1 second focal
index, the second focal length
length of of the
the flat
flatwindow
window lens lens system
system re-re-
Ab = (30.1806)2
Ob (30.1806)2 (1.343) 1
3,000 -30.1806
L 3,000 - 30.1806
- mains constant while the second
mains second focalfocal length
length of of the
the C201
C201 Lens
Lens
varies.
system varies.

1.353
1.343
1.353 - 1.343
1.353- 1.343
++ 78.1379
78.1379 -- 30.1806
30.1806 ) The
The determination
determination of aa change
Conclusions
change in in the
theC201
C201 LensLens parameters
parameters
15,000-78.1154
15,000 - 78.1154 + 73.47 owing to aa change
owing change in
in the
thewater
waterrefractive
refractiveindex
indexisisreadily
readilyavail-
avail-
able
able from
from Tables
Tables 4,
4, 5, and 6.6. The
The magnitude
magnitude of of the
the change
change for
the given
given operational
operational conditions
co/nditions maymay oror may
may notnot be
be tolerable
tolerable
Ab == 0.2070mm.
Ob depending
depending upon the the performance
performancespecificiations.
specificiations. The
The significant
significant
point,
point, however,
however, isis that there
there isis aatranslation
translation of ofthe
thecardinal
cardinal
Versus, points ofof the
the underwater
underwaterlenslenssystem
system with
with aa change
change in the water
refractive
refractive index.
index. This condition isis emphasized
emphasized since
since in the field
Ab
Ab = b2
b2 --bi
b1 of aerial
of aerial photography
photography the translation
translation of thethe cardinal
cardinal points
points of
air lens
the air lens is nominally
nominally zero
zero for the the maximum
maximum range of flying flying
b2 == 24.1054mm
24.1054mm from
from Table
Table 66 (n2
(n2 = 1.343 and heights.
D2
D2 = 3m)

bi
b1 = 23.8984mm
23.8984mm from
from Table (nj == 1.353
Table 66 (ni 1.353 and
and
D1 =
D1 =15m)
15m) Recommendations
While serving
While serving as
as aa photogrammetric engineer
engineer under thethe person
person--
Ob
Ab == 24.1054 - 23.8984
24.1054-23.8984 able
able leadership
leadership of Arthur
Arthur C.
C. Lundahl
Lundahl withwith the
theU.S.
U.S. Navy
Navy during
1948-51,
1948 -51, aa responsive
responsive technical liaison developed with Brigadier
Ob
Ab == 0.2070mm.
0.2070mm. General
General George
George W. W.Goddard,
Goddard, Ret.,
Ret., and
and H.
H. Amrom
Amrom Katz
Katz of
of the
the
U.
U. S.
S. Air
Air Force.
Force. Of the many
many aerial
aerial photography
photography concepts, ob-
concepts, ob-
It is
is ofof interest
interest toto point
point out that
that the
the position
position of thethe first
first
jectives, and
jectives, and procedures
procedures that
that were initiated at
were initiated at that
that time,
time, the
following
following three
three rules
rules evolved
evolved that were
were presented
presented later byby Katz
Katz
nodal
nodal point of the the lens
lens system,
system, N5,
N 5 , and
and the
thesecond
second nodal
nodal point
point in the SPIE
SPIE Newsletter
Newsletter dated
datedOctober
October-November
- November 1961:
1961:
of the lens
of lens system,
system, N6,N6 , translate
translate along
along the optical
optical axis with
with a
change in
change in the water refractive index. For example,
refractive index. example, if thethe water
water 1.
1. Goddard's Law: "There
"There isis no
no substitute
substitute for
for focal
focal length."
refractive index
refractive index changes
changesfrom from 1.330
1.330 to to 1.360,
1.360, N5N 5 translates
translates 2. Katz's
2. Katz's Law:
Law: "There
"There is no
no substitute
substitute for
for shutter
shutter speed."
speed."
78.1676 -- 78.0997
78.1676 78.0997 or or 0.0679mm
0.0679mm toward
toward the front of of the
the lens
lens 3. "Make
"Make it as
as big as
as you
you can."
and
and N6
N6 translates
translates 101.4833
101.4833 --101.4259mm
101.4259mm or or 0.0574mm
0.0574mm to- to-
ward the rear of the
ward the lens.
lens. The
The increase
increase in the separation
separation of of the
the rules are
The three rules are as
as valid
valid for
for underwater
underwater photography
photography asas they
nodal
nodal points
points isis 0.0679
0.0679 ++ 0.0574
0.0574 or or0.1253mm.
0.1253mm. The The photo
photo-- are for aerial
are aerial photography.
photography. It is is recommended that the three
recommended that three
grammetrist associated
grammetrist associated withwith air
air photography
photography is not not involved
involved rules
rules be utilized
utilized in
in the
the constructive
constructive exploitation
exploitation of the
the under-
under-
with translation of the
with the translation the nodal
nodal points
points since
since the
the change
change in the water photography system.
system.

138 / March -April 1977

March-April 1977 // Vol.
Vol. 16 No.
No. 2 / OPTICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

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 METRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
FUNDAMENTALS OF
OF UNDERWATER
UNDERWATER LENS
LENS SYSTEM
SYSTEM

It isis also
also recommended
recommended thatthat graphs
graphs and
and tables
tables be
be presented
presented References
to demonstrate
demonstrate the variations
variations of the lens
lens parameters
parameters that result 1. McNeil,
McNeil, G. Optical Fundamentals
G. T., Optical Fundamentals of ofUnderwater
Underwater Photography,
Photography,
by increasing
by increasing the the dome
dome radii
radii of
of the
the C201
C201 Lens
Lens throughout
throughout the
the Edwards Brothers, 1972.
range
range to to aa thick flat window with infinite radii.
radii. 2. McNeil,
McNeil, G. G. T., Underwater Photography:
T., Underwater Photography: Some SomePhotogrammetric
Photogrammetric
Considerations, Photogrammetric
Considerations, Photogrammetric Engineering,
Engineering, November
November 1969 1969 and
and
Proceedings of
Proceedings Society ofofPhoto
of the Society Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engi-
-Optical Instrumentation Engi-
Acknowledgments Vol. 24,
neers, Vol. 24, Underwater
UnderwaterPhoto Photo-Optical InstrumentationApplica-
-Optical Instrumentation Applica-
tions, March 1971.
Tech Memo
Tech Memo No. No. 16,
16, "Determination of Limiting
Limiting Resolution
Resolution ofof 3. Tilton, L.L. W.,
W., and
and Taylor,
Taylor, J.J. K., Refractive Index
K.,Refractive Index andandDispersion
Dispersion of
of
Underwater
Underwater Lens Lens Owing
Owing to ChangeChange inin Back
Back Focal
FocalDistance
Distance Distilled Water
Distilled Water for Visible Radiation,
for Visible Radiation, at Temperatures
Temperatures fromfrom 0° toto
60°C,
60 °C, J.J. Res.
Res. Nat'1
Nat'l Bur.
Bur. Standards, Vol. 20, 20, April
April 1938.
1938.
Caused
Caused by by Change
Change in in Water
Water Refractive
Refractive Index,"
Index," dated 31 31 March
March 4. Waxier,
Waxier, R. M., Weir,Weir, C.
C. E., and
and Schamp,
Schamp,H. H. W.,
W., Jr., Effect of
Jr., Effect ofPressure
Pressure
1976
1976 to V. V. A.A. Seifert,
Seifert, Naval
Naval Photographic
Photographic Center,
Center, from G. G. T. and Temperature Upon
and Temperature Upon the
the Optical
OpticalDispersion
Dispersion ofofBenzene,
Benzene, Carbon
Carbon
McNeil, McNeil
McNeil, McNeilEngineering,
Engineering,isisthe the reference
reference technical
technical paper Tetrachloride
Tetrachlorideand Water, J.J. Res.
and Water, Res. Nat'l
Nat'1 Bur.
Bur. Standards,
Standards, Vol.
Vol. 78A,
78A,
served as
that served as the basis
basis for
for the
the presentation ofof various
various equations. 5,Sept.-Oct.
No. 5, Sept. -Oct. 1964.
5. Austin, R. W.,W., and Halikas,
Halikas, G., The Index
G., The Index of
ofRefraction
Refraction of ofSeawater,
Seawater,
Grateful acknowledgment is extended to
Grateful acknowledgment to V.
V. A.
A. Seifert,
Seifert, Naval
Naval Institution of
Scripps Institution ofOceanography
OceanographyRef. Ref.7676-1, January 1976.
-1, January 1976.
Photographic
Photographic Center;Center;H.H. A. A. Jackson,
Jackson, P.E.;
P.E.; R.R. M.
M.Waxier,
Waxier, 6. Bjerknes,
Bjerknes, V., Dynamic Meterology
V., Dynamic Meterology and and Hydrography,
Hydrography, Carnegie
Carnegie
National
National Bureau
Bureau of of Standards;
Standards; Walter
Walter Kluck,
Kluck, Walter
Walter Mandler
Mandler Institution Washington
Institution Washington Publication 88, 88,1910.
1910.
and W.
and W. C.C. Stenton, Ernst
Ernst Leitz
Leitz Canada
Canada Limited;
Limited; and Dr. S. S. Q.
Q. 7. McKinney,
McKinney, J.J. E. E. and Lindsay,
Lindsay, R., R., Section
Section 21, Density and
21, Density and Com-
Com­
pressibility
pressibility of of Liquids,
Liquids, AMERICAN
AMERICAN INSTITUTEINSTITUTE OF OFPHYSICS
PHYSICS
Duntley,
Duntley, Scripps
Scripps Institution Oceanography, for their cooper-
Institution of Oceanography, HANDBOOK, McGraw-Hill
HANDBOOK, McGraw -HillBook BookCompany,
Company,Third
Third Edition,
Edition, 1972.
ative assistance
ative assistancepertaining
pertainingtoto aa broad array
array of ofscientific
scientific and
and 8. Vine,
Vine, A.A. C.,
C., Section OceanographicData,
Section2j.2j.Oceanographic Data,AMERICAN
AMERICAN INSTI-INSTI-
engineering
engineeringdetails
detailsassociated
associatedwithwithunderwater
underwater photography
photography that TUTE OF
TUTE OF PHYSICS
PHYSICS HANDBOOK,
HANDBOOK, McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill Book Company,Company,
have been
have been experienced
experienced over over aa period
period of time
time ranging from one
ranging from 1972.
Third Edition, 1972.
9. Washer,
Washer, F. E. and and Gardner,
Gardner,I.LC., C.,Method
Methodfor forDetermining
Determiningthe theResolv-
Resolv­
year to two
two decades.
decades. The
The author,
author,however,
however,assumes
assumes full
full respon-
respon- ing Power
ing Power of of Photographic
Photographic Lenses,
Lenses, Nat'l
Nat'1 Bur.
Bur. Standards
Standards Circular
Circular 533,
533,
sibility
sibility for
for the
the contents of this paper. May
May 1953. s

March -April 1977

March-April 1977// Vol.
Vol. 16
16 No.
No. 22 // OPTICAL ENGINEERING / 139

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