Microbial Origin of Australian Coalbed Methane1
John W. Smith2 and Robert J. Pallasser2
ABSTRACT
Bituminous coal seam gases from the Permian
Sydney and Bowen basins, Australia, are character-
ized by (1) methane/ethane ratios greater than or
equal to 1000, (2) δ13C and δD values for methane of
–60 ±10‰ PDB and –217 ±17‰ SMOW, respective-
ly, (3) carbon dioxide contents of less than 5%, and
(4) δ13C(CO2–CH4 ) values of 55 ±10‰ PDB. These
data suggest that microbial reduction of CO2 rather
than traditional thermogenic reactions is mainly
responsible for gas composition. Invasions by CO2 of
deep-seated external origins are readily recognized
by their isotopic compositions (–7 ±2‰ PDB).
INTRODUCTION
Draining methane from coal seams prior to min-
ing not only provides a useful energy source,
reduces the hazard of explosion, and reduces the
volumes of air required for mine ventilation, but
also speeds the rate of safe advance of the working
face. In addition, failing to control the release of
methane to the atmosphere during mining con-
tributes to global warming. Against this back-
ground, the release of gas from coal in relation to
its mode of generation has not been addressed.
Isotopic and chemical composition of gases
released during the mining of bituminous coals (Ro
0.8–1.2%) from the Permian Sydney and Bowen
basins (Figure 1) at depths to 550 m have been
measured with the objective of determining gas
sources and the mechanism for gas generation.
PREVIOUS OBSERVATIONS
Australian bituminous coal seam gases collected
directly at the coal face (Smith et al., 1982) appear
©Copyright 1996. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
1 Manuscript received August 28, 1995; revised manuscript received
November 3, 1995; final acceptance January 30, 1996.
2 CSIRO Divisions of Petroleum Resources and of Coal and Energy
Technology, P.O. Box 136, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia.
AAPG Bulletin, V. 80, No. 6 (June 1996), P. 891–897.
to differ considerably in isotopic composition from
the bulk of the published data for seam gases from
other regions (Colombo et al., 1966; Friedrich and
Jungten, 1971; Stahl, 1976; Rice et al., 1989).
Typical Australian coal seam gas analyses are shown
in Table 1.
The “dryness” of these gases has been attributed
to the retention of the higher n-alkanes within the
pore structure of the coal until the gas is cracked
further to methane (Rigby and Smith, 1982); the
δ13C values of CO2 and CH4 have been related to
isotopic equilibration between these gases (Smith
et al., 1982). In the light of more recent fundamen-
tal data (Jenden and Kaplan, 1986, 1989; Whiticar
et al., 1986; Woltemate et al., 1986) and the pro-
posal of a bacterial role in coalbed methane genera-
tion (Scott and Kaiser, 1991; Rice, 1993; Rice and
Kotarba, 1993; Scott, 1993), we consider here a
similar mechanism for gas generation in Australian
coals.
Some Australian mines have been invaded by car-
bon dioxide (δ13C –7 ±2‰ PDB) of a deep-seated
origin. In such mines, methane is sometimes com-
pletely displaced by this CO2 (Gould et al., 1981).
Across the south Sydney basin, changes in the iso-
topic composition of the coal seam CO 2 with
increasing content of CO 2, as shown in Figure 2,
are consistent with seam invasion by CO2 of con-
stant isotopic composition from an external
source. Outbursting is commonly associated with
high CO2 contents in seam gas. Accordingly, work-
ers are interested in developing isotopic methods
for monitoring the origins of CO2.
Where such CO2 invasion has taken place, the
absence of change in δ13C CH4 values (as shown in
Figure 3) (Smith and Gould, 1980) demonstrates that
neither reduction of CO2 to CH4 nor isotopic equili-
bration between CO2 and CH4 has occurred; that is,
the introduced CO2 behaves as an inert diluent.
Earlier findings by Colombo et al. (1966),
Friedrich and Jungten (1971), and Smith et al.
(1985a) indicated that significant chemical and
isotopic fractionation may accompany desorption
of gas from coal samples in the laborator y. In
more recent experiments (Gould et al., 1987), we
were unable to reproduce our previously reported
891
892 Microbial Origin of Methane
Figure 1—Map showing the locations of Sydney and
Bowen basins, Australia.
Table 1. Analyses of Coal Seam Gases
CH4 CO2 C2H6 δ13C(CO2–CH4)
Air free (%) >95 <5 <0.1 –
δ13C (‰) –60 ±10 +5 ±5 – 55 ±10
(PDB)
fractionations during gas collection from such
samples. Instead, we demonstrated that 13C frac-
tionations are not significant during methane col-
lection from virgin coal or pillar samples. Where
the gas is desorbed from lump coal samples held
in drums, 13 C fractionations approaching 5‰
were seen to occur only after 50 days, when 95%
of the total gas desorbed had been collected. In
practical terms this desorption effect is character-
ized by the late release of traces of 13 C-enriched
methane rather than by an early f low of 1 3 C-
depleted gas relative to the bulk of the methane.
On this evidence, the direct collection of gases
from bores into the coal working face is the
method that provides the most reliable data.
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Sample Collection
Gas and coal samples were either collected under-
ground by CSIRO personnel or were supplied by
coal mining companies as part of a survey of seam
gas composition in relation to outbursting behavior
(Smith et al., 1984). A total of 307 samples of gas and
45 samples of associated coal were collected from
13 collieries and 17 explorator y boreholes in
Figure 2—Variation of δ13C CO2 with CO2 content, south
Sydney basin gases (after Gould et al., 1981).
Permian coal seams in the Sydney and Bowen
basins. Because attention was focused strongly on
gas quality in outbursting situations, coal samples
from gas sampling points were not usually supplied
and were not deliberately sought; therefore, pre-
cise information on the quality of the coal (e.g., vit-
rinite reflectance, petrographic composition) at
these sampling points is lacking, although regional
data are generally available (Joint Coal Board and
Queensland Coal Board, 1987).
Chemical and Isotopic Analyses
The chemical compositions of all gases were
determined on a Hewlett Packard 5830A gas chro-
matograph or on an SRI 8610 natural gas analyzer.
In isotopic studies, methane, ethane, and carbon
dioxide were originally separated by cryogenic dis-
tillation at –196°C (Sakai et al., 1976) prior to com-
bustion on copper oxide at 850°C. Product CO2
and water produced by the combustion of each
component were separated by cryogenic distilla-
tion before collection. Recently, this method has
been updated according to that of Jenden and
Kaplan (1989). After acid washing to remove car-
bonate, coals were combusted in oxygen at 1000°C
(Kaplan et al., 1970). Product CO2 and water were
collected. All collected water samples were
reduced to hydrogen over depleted uranium (238U)
metal at 800°C for subsequent D/H ratio analysis.
Mass Spectrometry
The prepared samples of CO2 and H2 were ana-
lyzed on a Vacuum Generator 602D isotopic ratio
 Smith and Pallasser 893

values include the error contributions from sample

preparation and mass spectrometric analysis.

Pyrolysis Experiments

Reactors (10 mL) were filled with acid-washed

Permian coal (6 g) crushed to pass a sieve with
1-mm aperture. After the reactors were closed,
they were heated at 250, 350, or 400°C for three
days. After the reactors cooled, we measured gas
pressures and gas volumes and analyzed the gases
both chemically and isotopically.

RESULTS

The number of seam gas and coal samples ana-

Figure 3—Variation of δ13C CO2 and δ13C CH4 with CO2
content, West Cliff colliery gases (after Smith and Gould,
1980).
mass spectrometer. The data are reported in the
usual delta per mil notation (δ‰) as the difference
in parts per thousand between the isotope ratio, R,
of the sample and that of the Peedee Belemnite
standard (PDB) for carbon and standard mean
ocean water (SMOW) for hydrogen.
lyzed, the ranges of values recorded, and, where
appropriate, average values are listed in Table 2. In
most of the 307 gases analyzed, higher n-alkane
contents were negligible; however, in 35 of the
samples this content equalled or exceeded 0.1% by
volume, and in 21 of those 35 samples higher
alkane contents exceeded 0.3%, with a maximum
of 10.1%.
δ13C CO2 and δ13C CH4 values for all gases are
shown in Figure 4. Where measured, δ13C and δD
values for both gases and coals are shown in Figure
5. The chemical and isotopic analyses of the gases
resulting from the pyrolysis of the coal sample are
listed in Table 3.

 Rsample  DISCUSSION
δ‰ − 1 × 1000
 Rstandard 
The large isotopic fractionation between CO2
and CH4, δ13C(CO2–CH4 ), commonly a feature of
where R = 13 C/ 12 C for carbon and R = D/H for Australian coal seam gases, is clearly illustrated in
hydrogen. Figure 4 (Jenden and Kaplan, 1986). Included in
The precision for these measurements is <0.2‰ this figure are lines representing calculated isotopic
for 13C/12C ratios and 1.0‰ for D/H ratios. These fractionations of 1.080, 1.060, 1.040, and 1.020

Table 2. Chemical and Isotopic Composition of Coals and Coal Seam Gases

Air–Free Basis (%) δ13C (‰) (PDB) δD (‰) (SMOW)

CO2 Range 0.0 to 99.7 –15.5 to +16.7 –
No. of Samples 307 305 –
CH4 Range 0.3 to 100.0 –18.0 to –78.9 –152 to –255
No. of Samples 307 307 88
Mean – – –217 ±17
Coal Range –21.6 to –26.6 –93 to –162
No. of Samples – 45 44
Mean –22.9 ±1.0 –132 ±14
894 Microbial Origin of Methane
corresponding to δ13C(CO2–CH4) values of 80, 60,
40, and 20‰ PDB, respectively. Lower values of
δ13C(CO2–CH4) also correspond to decreasing δ13C
CO2 values and increasing CO2 contents, presum-
ably due to gas dilution with deeply sourced, rela-
tively light CO2 having a δ13C value of –7 ±2‰ PDB
(Gould et al., 1981). Note on Figure 4 the cluster-
ing of the wetter gases together with those of high-
er CO 2 contents in the region of lower isotopic
fractionation. Intersection by bores of gas-bearing
pockets in the Bulgo sandstone above the Bulli
seam is held to be a source of the gases with the
high ethane contents (A. J. Hargraves, 1990, per-
sonal communication). Rice et al. (1989) similarly
noted that sandstones overlying and underlying the
Fruitland Formation were the sources of wetter,
13 C-enriched gases; otherwise, the Blake Seam of
the Collinsville Coal Measures is the main source of
such gases (Smith et al., 1985b).
Figure 4—Carbon isotope
composition of CO2 and CH4 in
coal seam and microbial gases
(after Jenden and Kaplan, 1986).
The coals collected and analyzed in this work, as
shown in Table 2 and Figure 5, have a δ13C value of
–22.9 ±1.0‰ PDB. This value is in good general
agreement with the published data on Australian
coals: –24.4 ±1.4‰ PDB (Smith et al., 1982). We
found no evidence of major carbon isotopic vari-
ability within or between coals and thus large iso-
topic fractionations between gaseous maturation
products, δ13C(CO2–CH4), and between these com-
ponents and the parent coal are not to be expect-
ed. This relative isotopic constancy is demonstrat-
ed by the analyses of the products from the
pyrolysis of the coal (Table 3). From the data in
Table 3 it is evident that the δ13C CO2 value approx-
imates that of these coals. In addition, the larger
depletion of some –15‰ PDB in δ13C CH4 values,
relative to the coal, is explained by the greater ease
of breakage of 12C–12C bonds relative to 13C–12C
bonds, and the generation of product methane
 Smith and Pallasser 895

Table 3. Yield and Composition of Coal Pyrolysis

Products*

Reaction
Temperature (3 days) 250°C 350°C 400°C
Gas generated (mL/g) 5.0 12.0 30.0
Air + N2 content (%) 10.5 5.8 1.6
CH4 (%, air free) 1.7 19.5 45.6
C2H6 (%, air free) 0.7 5.5 5.1
C3H8 (%, air free) 0.3 1.0 1.3
i-C4H10 (%, air free) – 0.1 0.3
n-C4H10 (%, air free) – 0.1 0.6
n-C5H12 (%, air free) – – 0.3
CO2 (%, air free) 97.3 73.8 45.5
δ13C CH4 (‰, PDB) –34.4 –38.8 –37.0
δ13C CO2 (‰, PDB) –19.3 –21.9 –21.6
δ13C(CO2–CH4) +15.1 +16.9 +15.4
(‰, PDB)
*δ13C coal = –23.5‰ (PDB).

From the analysis of gases from marine sedi-

Figure 5—Carbon and hydrogen isotope compositions
of coals and methane from Sydney and Bowen basins.
depleted in 13C relative to both the accompanying
higher n-alkanes (Silverman, 1967; James, 1983)
and the parent coal; therefore, δ13C(CO2–CH4) val-
ues are likely to be minimized in pyrolysis prod-
ucts, as confirmed by the δ13C values of 16 ±1‰
shown in Table 3 and Figure 4. Another feature of
these pyrolysis products is the high concentrations
of gaseous higher n-alkanes associated with the
methane. As shown in Figure 4, the small number
of coal seam gases that tend to be wet have δ13C
CH4 values more positive than –50‰ PDB, negative
δ13C CO2 values, and δ13C(CO2–CH4) values of less
than or equal to 1.040. Thus, by analogy with the
pyrolysis experiment gases that exhibit these same
properties, we can assume that such seam gases
result partly from thermal processes. On this basis,
the great bulk of the collected gases [i.e., those
with δ 13 C(CO 2 –CH 4 ) fractionations exceeding
1.040] apparently are of a different origin.
Also shown in Figure 4 are data ranges for gases
derived by the microbial reduction of CO2 (accord-
ing to equation 1) or by acetate fermentation
(according to equation 2).
CO2 + 4H 2 → CH 4 + 2H 2O (1)
ments, Jenden and Kaplan (1986), as shown in
Figure 4, ascribed δ13C(CO2–CH4) values of 70 ±10
and 50 ±10‰ to gases generated by CO2 reduction
and acetate fermentation, respectively. Other out-
lined areas define the composition of gases investi-
gated by Whiticar et al. (1986) from both marine
and freshwater sediments and the microbial path-
ways used to generate these gases. The similarity in
carbon isotope composition of the dry coal seam
gases and these microbially derived products is
well established by this comparison.
The data on the D contents of the coals and
methane samples are given in Table 2 and Figure 5.
Calculated average δDcoal and δD CH4 values have
been shown to reflect that of the formation water
(Schoell, 1980; Whiticar et al., 1986; Woltemate et
al., 1986). In CO2 reduction (equation 1), all of the
hydrogen in the methane is derived from the forma-
tion water according to the following.
δDCH 4 = δD water − 180 ‰ SMOW (3)
Where methane is a product of acetate fermenta-
tion (equation 2), only one hydrogen in the
methane is obtained from the formation water, as
in the following equation.
δDCH 4 = 0.143 δD water − 384 ‰ SMOW (4)
Paleolatitude studies of coal depositional envi-
ronments (Smith et al., 1983, 1985a) indicate the
following.

CH 3COOH → CH 4 + CO2 (2) δD coal = δD water − 85 ‰ SMOW (5)

896 Microbial Origin of Methane
Table 4. Interseam Variation in Gas Composition in the
South Sydney Basin*
CO2 δ13C CO2
Coal Seam (%, Air Free) (‰, PDB)
Bulli 22.7 –4.8
Balgownie 13.1 –1.8
Wongawilli 4.2 +2.9
Tongarra 1.8 +11.1
*After Smith et al. (1985b). Vertical separation between Bulli and
Tongarra seam is 80 m.
Then, by substituting –132‰ SMOW for δD coal
(Figure 5) in equation 5, the δD of the formation
water is –47‰ SMOW. Substituting this value in
equations 3 and 4 gives δD CH4 values of –227 and
–391‰, respectively. A comparison of these calcu-
lated values with the measured δD CH 4 value of
–217 ±17‰ from Table 2 and Figure 5 strongly
indicates CO2 reduction to be a major factor in the
generation of coal seam methane. The relative pro-
portion of methane generated by the two micro-
bial pathways may be determined by using equa-
tion 6, in which f is the fraction of the methane
derived from acetate dissimilation (Jenden and
Kaplan, 1986).
(
f = δD H 2O − δD CH 4 − 160 ) (0.857 δD H 2O
By substituting the appropriate values, f is calcu-
lated as 0.09, thus confirming the major role of CO2
reduction in methane generation.
The δD value of rainfall in the Sydney region is
–39‰ SMOW. If there is considerable penetration
of this meteoric water into the coal beds, the iso-
topic composition of this water does not differ suf-
ficiently from the calculated paleovalue for water
(–47‰ SMOW) to allow us to estimate the timing
of gas generation.
A mixed origin for some Australian coal seam
methane has previously been suggested by Smith et
al. (1985b) on the basis of the larger-than-theoreti-
cal difference recorded in δ13C (C2H6–CH4)‰ val-
ues (James, 1983). The evidence presented here for
an alternative microbial pathway for the generation
of methane provides an excellent explanation for
these earlier findings.
Within parts of the Sydney basin, the concentra-
tions and isotopic compositions of CH4 and CO2 in
gases recovered from bores vary regularly and con-
siderably with depth as a sequence of coal seams
are intersected (Smith et al., 1985b). As shown in
Table 4, the highest concentrations of CO 2 are
encountered in the shallowest seam. The δ13C CO2
value of –4.8‰ PDB excludes atmospheric oxida-
tion of coal as the source of this gas. Furthermore,
δ13 CH4 the vertical migration of CO2 from depth through
(‰, PDB)
the series of coal seams seems scarcely likely to
–62.0 account for the distributions seen. An explanation
–58.8 that generally satisfies the isotopic and composi-
tional data is that the present Bulli Seam gas repre-
–48.9 sents, or at least resembles, gas that pervaded the
–45.6 entire sequence in the past. At greater depth than
the Bulli Seam, conditions were progressively
established under which reduction of the great
bulk of the CO 2 occurred. This, as a result of the
kinetic effect, resulted in a small residue of strongly
13C-enriched CO and the generation of sufficient
2
CH4 of δ13C value approximating –5‰ to increase
the bulk δ13C CH4 value to that now encountered
in the Tongara Seam gas.
The precise stages of coal maturity at which
microbial reduction of CO2 might occur have yet to
be determined; however, if and when the reaction
occurs, what is its chemical role in the coal matura-
tion process? More importantly, from an economic
viewpoint, does the mechanism of methane genera-
tion affect its modes of emplacement and retention
within and release from coal beds?
CONCLUSIONS
Isotopic evidence suggests that in the Sydney
)
+ 233 (6) and Bowen basins, microbial reduction of carbon
dioxide to methane plays a major role in determin-
ing coal seam gas composition.
Primary products from the thermal decomposi-
tion of coal probably are present as a minor compo-
nent in all seam gases sampled. Such thermogenic
gases are readily distinguished by their chemical
and isotopic compositions.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
John W. Smith
John W. Smith attended the
University of London and was
elected an Associate of the Royal
Society of Chemistry in 1948. He
joined the CSIRO in 1951 and
retired in 1990 as a senior principal
research scientist after a long and
distinguished career in the use,
geochemistry, and genesis of fossil
fuels. Notably, he was co-principal
lunar investigator with NASA and
then pioneered stable isotope measurement in Australia.
John received his D.Sc. degree from Macquarie
University (1982) where he is currently Honorary
Professorial Fellow.
Smith and Pallasser 897
Methane Symposium Proceedings, v. 1, p. 207–216.
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hydrology and Fruitland gas composition, San Juan basin,
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Silverman, S. R., 1967, Carbon isotope evidence for the role of
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ratios of coals and the latitude of their deposition: Nature,
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D. Rigby, 1984, Outburst and gas drainage investigations:
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Australia, Report EG/84/321, 193 p.
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1985a, An isotopic study of hydrocarbon generation processes:
Organic Geochemistry, v. 8, p. 341–347.
Smith, J. W., K. W. Gould, G. N. Hart, and D. Rigby, 1985b,
Isotopic studies of Australian natural and coal seam gases:
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formation in marine and freshwater environments—CO2 reduc-
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Robert J. Pallasser
Robert J. Pallasser is a graduate
of the New South Wales Institute of
Technology and is currently project
scientist at CSIRO Petroleum. Since
joining in 1989 he has focused his
research on the isotopic characteri-
zation of hydrocarbon gases. He has
also conducted significant investiga-
tions into hydrocarbon gas detec-
tion, both in soils and artesian
waters, to locate leaky reservoirs.
Robert held previous positions with private companies
and was engaged in such areas as platinum exploration in
New South Wales, dam site investigations in Papua New
Guinea, and hydrocarbon exploration and production in
the Cooper basin.