Section 8 (Control)

Statistical Process Control (SPC)
❖ SPC helps to monitor and control a

process.
❖ Monitoring and controlling the process
ensures that it operates at its full
potential.
❖ At its full potential, the process can
make as much conforming product as
possible with a minimum waste
❖ Products conforming to specification are
acceptable products
❖ Two phases of SPC
❖ Understanding the process variation
❖ Monitoring and Controlling
❖ Finding the trend

❖ Too early
❖ Too late
❖ Key factor is the cause of variation:

Common Cause or Special Cause
❖ Common Cause or Special Cause
❖ Help us in understanding when and when
not to take action.
COMMON CAUSES SPECIAL CAUSES
Many Causes Few Causes

Each Having minimum Impact Each Having Significant Impact
Un-economical to eliminate Economically viable to eliminate
Also Called: Also Called:

Random, Chance, Signal, Systematic,
Non-assignable Assignable
Selection of Variables
❖ What are you interested in?
❖ Is this an important characteristic leading
value to client?
❖ Is client specifically asking to control a
particular variable?
❖ Is this the most difficult to maintain?
❖ Univariate Control Charts
❖ Individual chart for key characteristics
❖ Multivariate Control charts

❖ Monitoring multiple parameters on a single
control chart
❖ T² Hotelling method is used to generate
multivariate charts.
❖ Details of multivariate are not part of this
course
Rational Subgrouping
❖ Subgroups
❖ In control chart we select some number of
units (say 5 units) each time, summarize the
variable and plot it on the control chart.
❖ For example in X-bar, R chart, we calculate
the mean and range of these subgroup
variables.
❖ Subgroup is the snapshot of the process
at that time.
❖ Measurements within a subgroup must
be taken close together in time but still
be independent of each other.
❖ Two types of variation:
❖ Within subgroup: the variation within
subgroups is because of common cause
variation.
❖ Between subgroup: the variation
between subgroups is caused by special
causes.
❖ Control Limits (UCL, LCL) are calculated
based on variation “within” subgroups.
❖ Subgroup should be from single stable
source. Too much variation in subgroup
will lead to too wide control limits.
❖ Subgroups should be time based and
not randomly selected from already
produced items. This is a time snapshot
of the process.
❖ Subgroup size:
❖ Subgroup size of 5 is more common
❖ Small subgroup size > meaningful
process shifts may go undetected.
❖ Too large subgroup size > insignificant
process shifts gives false alarm
Control Chart Selection
Variables / Measurements
❖ I-MR or X-MR chart (Individual, Moving Range)
❖ X bar - R chart (Average – Range)
❖ X bar - s chart (Average – Standard deviation)
Attributes / Counts
❖ np Chart (Number of defectives)
❖ p Chart (Proportion defectives)
❖ c Chart (Number of defects)
❖ u Chart (Number of defects per unit)
Data Type
Attribute - Counts Variable - Measurements
# Pieces # Occurrences
# Defectives # Defects
Constant Variable Constant Variable n>9 n =2 to 9 n=1
np chart p chart c chart u chart Xbar - s Xbar - R I-MR/X-MR
n is subgroup size
Variable Measurements
Variable - Measurements
n>9 n =2 to 9 n=1
Xbar - s Xbar - R I-MR/X-MR

I-MR or X-MR Chart
Individual Control Limits Moving Range Control Limits
Practical Proof of d2 Value
Individual Control Limits Moving Range Control Limits
Attributes / Counts
Xbar – R Chart
Xbar Control Limits Range Control Limits
Calculating A2 Value
• A2 = 3 /d2 sqrt (n) Xbar Control Limits
Xbar – s Chart
Xbar Control Limits Range Control Limits
Data Type
n is subgroup size
Attributes / Counts
Data Type
n is subgroup size
np and p Chart
Variable Attribute
Total Defectives and Percent Defective
❖ Binomial Distribution
❖ Subgroup size is normally big compared to
variable charts
# Pieces
# Defectives
Constant Variable
np chart p chart
np Chart
Equal Subgroup size Control Limits
❖ Control limits are straight lines
12 10.931
10
NP - Defectives
8
6 4.680
4
2
0.000
0
p Chart
Unequal Subgroup size Control Limits
❖ Control limits change with the number of items
in the subgroup (subgroup size)
❖ Larger Subgroup – narrow control limits
❖ Smaller Subgroup – wider control limits
0.100
P - Unplanned Return
0.080
0.053
0.060
0.040
0.021
0.020
0.000
0.000
Attribute Measurements
Attribute - Counts
Constant Variable Constant Variable
np chart p chart c chart u chart

c and u Chart
Total Defects / Defects per Unit
❖ Poisson Distribution
❖ Subgroup size is normally big compared to
variable charts
# Occurrences
# Defects
Constant Variable
c chart u chart
c Chart
Equal Subgroup size Control Limits
Average Defects
20.192
20
C - Defects
15
10.480
10
5
0.768
0
u Chart
Defects per Unit Control Limits
Unequal Subgroup size

❖ Control limits change with the number of items
in the subgroup (subgroup size)
❖ Larger Subgroup – narrow control limits
❖ Smaller Subgroup – wider control limits 0.206
0.200
0.150
U - Defects
0.105
0.100
0.050
0.004
0.000
Control Chart Analysis
What is the problem with this process?
110.00
109.00
107.45
108.00
107.00
106.00
X-Bar: Shot 1 - Shot 3
105.00
104.00
103.00
102.00 100.91
101.00
100.00
99.00
98.00
97.00
96.00
95.00 94.36
94.00
Control Chart Rules
❖ Nelson Rules
Rule Pattern Probable Cause
1 1 point more than 3 Stdev from CL New person, wrong setup
2 7 points in a row on same side of CL Setup change, process change
3 7 points in a row all increasing or all decreasing Trend, Tool wear
4 14 points in a row alternating up and down Over control, tempering
5 2 out of 3 points more than 2 Stdev from CL (same side) New person, wrong setup
6 4 out of 5 points more than 1 Stdev from CL (same side) Small shift similar to Rule 1, 5
7 14 points in a row within 1 Stdev from CL (either side) Process change
8 8 points in a row more than 1 Stdev from CL (either side) Process change
Rule Pattern
Rule 1 1
2
1 point more than 3 Stdev from CL
7 points in a row on same side of CL
3 7 points in a row all increasing or all decreasing
4 14 points in a row alternating up and down
5 2 out of 3 points more than 2 Stdev from CL (same side)
7 14 points in a row within 1 Stdev from CL (either side)
8 8 points in a row more than 1 Stdev from CL (either side)
110.00
1
109.00
107.45
108.00
A
107.00
5
106.00
5
105.00
104.00
103.00
B
102.00
101.00 C 100.91
C
2
100.00
99.00 6 2
B
98.00
97.00
96.00
95.00 A 3
94.36
94.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 2 1
2
110.00
1
109.00
107.45
108.00
107.00
5
106.00
5
105.00
104.00
103.00
102.00 100.91
101.00
2
100.00
99.00 6 2
98.00
97.00
96.00 3
94.36
95.00
94.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 3 1
2
110.00
1
109.00
107.45
108.00
107.00
5
106.00
5
105.00
104.00
103.00
102.00 100.91
101.00
2
100.00
99.00 6 2
98.00
97.00
96.00 3
94.36
95.00
94.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 4 1
2
108.00 107.32
107.00
106.00 4
4 5
105.00
104.00
4
103.00
102.00 100.65
101.00
100.00
99.00
98.00
97.00
96.00
95.00 93.98
94.00
93.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 5 1
2
110.00
1
109.00
107.45
108.00
107.00
5
106.00
5
105.00
104.00
103.00
102.00 100.91
101.00
2
100.00
99.00 6 2
98.00
97.00
96.00 3
94.36
95.00
94.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 6 1
2
110.00
1
109.00
107.45
108.00
107.00
5
106.00
5
105.00
104.00
103.00
102.00 100.91
101.00
2
100.00
99.00 6 2
98.00
97.00
96.00 3
94.36
95.00
94.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 7 1
2
8 8 points in a row more than 1106.80
Stdev from CL (either side)
107.00
106.00
5 5
105.00
104.00
103.00
102.00 7
100.45
101.00
7
100.00
99.00
98.00
97.00
96.00
95.00 94.11
94.00
93.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 8 1
2
107.44
108.00
107.00
106.00
105.00 8
104.00
103.00
101.71
102.00
101.00
100.00
99.00
98.00
97.00 95.98
96.00
95.00
Rule Pattern
Rule 1,2,7,8
1 1 point more than 3 Stdev from CL
2 7 points in a row on same side of CL
❖ Probability of Rule 1 4 14 points in a row alternating up and down
❖ (1-0.9973) = 0.0027
❖ Probability of Rule 2 7 14 points in a row within 1 Stdev from CL (either side)
❖ (0.5)7 = 0.0078 8 8 points in a row more than 1 Stdev from CL (either side)
❖ Probability of Rule 7
❖ (0.68)14 = 0.0045
❖ Probability of Rule 8
❖ (1-0.68)8 = 0.0001
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
❖ OEE shows the efficiency of your
production system
❖ Overall equipment effectiveness
(OEE) = Availability x Performance x Quality
❖ Main objective of TPM is increase the

OEE
❖ Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) =
Availability x Performance x Quality
❖ How do we increase the Overall

Equipment Effectiveness
❖ No Breakdowns
❖ No Small Stops or Slow Running
❖ No Defects
The Six Big Losses
❖ Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) =
Availability x Performance x Quality
Availability Unplanned stops / Equipment failure

Availability Planned stops / Setup and adjustments
Performance Small stops
Performance Slow running
Quality Production rejects
Quality Startup rejects
Operator
Operator
TPM
I Use
Maintenance
Maintenance
We Maintain
I Maintain
Autonomous maintenance Early Equipment Management

Knowledge and understanding of
Operators responsible for
manufacturing equipment gained
routine maintenance, such as
through TPM towards improving
cleaning, lubricating, and
the design of new equipment.
inspection.
Planned Maintenance Quality maintenance

Scheduled maintenance based on Catch defects early by error
predicted and/or measured detection and prevention
failure rates. designed in the production
Focused Improvement
5S processes.
Safety Health Environment

Small groups of employees work Maintain a safe and healthy
together to achieve regular, working environment.
incremental improvements
Training and Education TPM in Office Functions

Fill in knowledge gaps necessary Extend TPM beyond shop floor
to achieve TPM goals. Applies to to administrative functions.
operators, maintenance
personnel and managers.
Visual Controls
❖ Visual Controls are used to convey the
information.
❖ Helps management and employees to
see the factory floor status at a glance.
❖ Examples: graphs, charts, signs, gauges,
digital displays, colors, shapes, numbers,
letters, arrows, lines
Visual Controls - Types
❖ Identification – what is it?
❖ Informational – What is the current
status?
❖ Instructional – How the task to be
performed?
❖ Planning – What is the plan?
Visual Controls - Andon
❖ A “Visual Control” device that indicates
the “Status” of a machine, line, or
process.
❖ ANDONS typical color-codes:
❖ Green (Normal Operations)
❖ Yellow (It is time for a changeover or
planned maintenance)
❖ Red (A problem has occurred, the machine
or line is down)
Visual Controls - Andon
❖ Jidoka (automation with a human
touch)is the ability to stop the work if
there is any problem. This prevents
defects at the earliest, and correcting
the problem.
❖ ANDONS is the device to indicate that
there is a problem.
Control Plan
❖ Control Plan helps in maintaining the
process characteristics.
❖ Process owner needs to be involved in
the making of Control Plan.
❖ Control Plan should be reviewed and
revised time to time, based on lessons
learned.
Controls Plan Example
Sustaining Improvement
❖ Lessons learned
❖ Documentation
❖ Training for process owners and staff
❖ Ongoing evaluation
Lessons Learned
❖ Once all 5 phases of DMAIC are
complete, you would want to review the
project:
❖ What went right?
❖ What went wrong?
❖ What could be done to improve future
projects?
Lessons Learned
❖ Areas to be evaluated could include:
❖ Project selection
❖ Did project meet its objective?
❖ Was the management engaged?
❖ Team composition
❖ Is there a need to have more training?
❖ Reporting
❖ Implementation
Documentation Structure
Quality Manual
Procedures
Standard Operating Procedures
Work Instructions
Records
Documentation
❖ As a part of Control Phase, document
and standardize the new process
❖ This might require revising the existing
procedures, SOPs, WIs.
❖ Revised documentation goes through
the review and approval process.
❖ Employees are to be trained in the new
process if required.
Training
❖ Training as a part of Control Phase
❖ When the new processes are to be
implemented as a part of Six sigma project.
Employees need to be trained.
❖ Training also helps in buy-in by employees
who are affected by new processes.
Training
❖ Benefits
❖ Team understands the new process
❖ Consistent work process
❖ Buy-in by stakeholders is necessary for the
successful implementation of the new
process
Ongoing Evaluation
❖ Control Charts
❖ Control Plans
❖ Performance Indicators

Section 8 (Control)

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Section 8 (Control)

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Statistical Process Control (SPC)

❖ SPC helps to monitor and control a

❖ Finding the trend

❖ Key factor is the cause of variation:

Many Causes Few Causes

Un-economical to eliminate Economically viable to eliminate

Also Called: Also Called:

❖ Multivariate Control charts

Attribute - Counts Variable - Measurements

Constant Variable Constant Variable n>9 n =2 to 9 n=1

np chart p chart c chart u chart Xbar - s Xbar - R I-MR/X-MR

Xbar - s Xbar - R I-MR/X-MR

Attribute - Counts Variable - Measurements

Constant Variable Constant Variable n>9 n =2 to 9 n=1

np chart p chart c chart u chart Xbar - s Xbar - R I-MR/X-MR

Attribute - Counts Variable - Measurements

Constant Variable Constant Variable n>9 n =2 to 9 n=1

np chart p chart c chart u chart Xbar - s Xbar - R I-MR/X-MR

Constant Variable Constant Variable

np chart p chart c chart u chart

Unequal Subgroup size

❖ Main objective of TPM is increase the

❖ How do we increase the Overall

Availability Unplanned stops / Equipment failure

Autonomous maintenance Early Equipment Management

Planned Maintenance Quality maintenance

Safety Health Environment

Training and Education TPM in Office Functions

Standard Operating Procedures

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