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COD5 The Social-Psychological Outcomes of Martial Arts Practise Among Youth - A Review PDF
COD5 The Social-Psychological Outcomes of Martial Arts Practise Among Youth - A Review PDF
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Review article
Received: 20 May 2010 / Accepted: 06 August 2010 / Published (online): 01 December 2010
Vertonghen and Theeboom 529
Belgium martial arts are on a list of the ten most practiced lands it was found that approximately 55% of those prac-
sports among children and adolescents (Australian Bureau ticing a martial art in a club setting, was youth (Breedveld
of Statistics, 2009; Ministère de la jeunesse des sports et et al., 2008) and in Finland the percentage of youth mem-
de la vie associative, 2005; Nederlandse Hartstichting and bership in martial arts clubs fluctuated between 64% and
NOC*NSF, 2007; Tammelin et al., 2003; Warren, 2008; 86% (Tammelin et al., 2003).
Wolt et al.,2007). Martial arts have also been ranked
among the ten most practiced sports in a club context Methods
(Bottenburg et al., 2005; Ministère de la jeunesse des
sports et de la vie associative, 2002). Considering controversial feelings regarding the effects of
The popularity of martial arts has helped contribute martial arts practise on young people, it is relevant to gain
to a growing interest in martial arts research over the more insight in the social-psychological outcomes of
years, which can be illustrated through a number of ways. martial arts involvement among youth by reviewing the
Firstly, there are indications that in recent years more existing research on this topic. Literature was collected
papers on martial arts are presented at sports scientific over a two-year period. Apart from a number of secon-
congresses. For example, Distaso and his colleagues dary sources (e.g., research reviews), literature data were
(2009) examined the number of oral and poster presenta- primarily collected through computer and manual
tions on martial arts at the annual conference of the Euro- searches of primary sources (e.g., journal articles, theses
pean College of Sport Science (ECSS) and noticed a sig- and dissertations) in the areas of sport sociology, psy-
nificant growth between 1999 and 2008. chology, pedagogy and philosophy.
Secondly, in recent years an increased number of For the computer search, online databases (e.g.,
scientific meetings with regard to martial arts have been SportDiscus, ERIC, Academic Search Elite) were combed
organized. Next to conferences on martial arts in general pairing primary keywords, such as martial arts, judo,
(e.g., “Scientific Congress on Martial Arts and Combat aikido, kick-/Thai boxing, boxing, taekwondo, karate,
Sports”; “World Congress on Combat Sports and Martial children, youth, adolescents, outcomes, effects, motiva-
Arts”, “International Scientific Conference of Experts – tion, teaching style, teaching approach, participation,
Researchers on Martial Arts and Humanists”), also scien- motives and aggression. In addition, the reference list of
tific gatherings with regard to one particular martial arts the studies obtained, were examined for additional poten-
style are being organized (e.g., “International Science of tially relevant articles not previously located. The litera-
Judo Symposium”; “International Congress on Wrestling ture search resulted in a database of 380 published as well
and Traditional Games”; “International Symposium on as unpublished papers in total, collected from 107 differ-
Science and Taekwondo”; “International Symposium of ent journals, of which 209 papers coming from 79 differ-
Traditional Karate, Budo Arts and Combat Sports”). ent journals, specifically focused on martial arts.
Thirdly, it is interesting to note that in recent years To be included in the review conducted as part of
the number of scientific publications regarding martial the present study, a study had to meet seven criteria.
arts has increased as well. For example, there are cur- Firstly, only those studies measuring social-psychological
rently a number of specific international journals report- outcomes of practicing a martial art are included. For
ing on martial arts research (e.g., “Journal of Asian Mar- example, this means that studies looking at the therapeutic
tial Arts”, “Archives of Budo”, “Journal of Chinese Mar- values of martial arts are not discussed in this review (for
tial Studies”, “IDO Movement for Culture”, “Electronic such a review, see Burke et al., 2007). Secondly, studies
Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences”, “Classical Fight- in which martial arts were incorporated as part of a larger
ing Arts”). In addition, the Journal of Sport Science and intervention program, were excluded from this review
Medicine has published a number of special editions on (e.g. Glanz, 1994; Smith et al., 1999; Twemlow et al.,
martial arts. 2008) as limited evidence could be provided that meas-
Despite the increased attention among scientists for ured outcomes were specifically attributed to martial arts
martial arts studies, until now only a limited number of practise. Thirdly, studies evaluating self-defence pro-
literature reviews have been published regarding this grams were also excluded as Brecklin (2008) recently
research (e.g., Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988; Gutiérrez García reviewed the majority of these studies. Fourthly, when the
and Pérez Gutiérrez, 2009; Henning, 1999; Pieter, 1994). used methodology was not presented clearly or when a
These reviews covered a wide range of scientific disci- study had many limitations (as concluded by the authors),
plines (e.g., biomechanics, psychology, history, physiol- they were omitted from this review (e.g., Delva-Tauiliili,
ogy, sociology, pedagogy, epidemiology of injuries) and 1995; Strayhorn and Strayhorn, 2009). Fifthly, as only
paucities in certain domains have been reported. For ex- few studies focused on specific target groups, such as
ample, Pieter (1994) concluded that pedagogical research persons with disabilities (e.g., Conant et al., 2008; Martin,
in martial arts was sorely lacking and Fuller (1988) 2002) or made use of a qualitative research methodology
claimed that due to their negative public image, martial (e.g., interviews) (Konzak and Klavora, 1980; Theeboom
arts have been largely neglected as a focus of psychologi- et al., 2008; 2009), none of this research was included in
cal research. As these reviews are more than 15 years old, this review as no meaningful comparison would be possi-
it is interesting to learn about more recent martial arts ble. Sixthly, the focus is on studies conducted from the
research. Among other things, it would be worthwhile to mid ‘90s onwards, as the older ones were mostly included
specifically focus on young martial artists, as several in the previous reviews (such as Cox, 1993; Fuller, 1988;
studies have reported an increased percentage of adoles- Pieter, 1994). However, to enable a comparison with
cents involved in martial arts. For example, in the Nether- more recent research, major findings of these older stud-
530 Social-psychological outcomes of young martial artist
ies were included as well. Seventhly (and finally), the things, results and used methodology will be examined
review covers only research that has been published in more closely.
English, Dutch or French. Studies written in another lan- Studies examining different personality traits, such
guage were not discussed in the review (e.g., Matsumoto as self-confidence, self-assurance, anxiety level, and self-
et al., 2006; Matsumoto and Konno, 2005). The final regulation are discussed first (Table 1). Afterwards, re-
selection resulted in 27 studies that will be reviewed be- search regarding the relation between martial arts practise
low (12 studies before and 15 studies after the mid ‘90s). and aggressive behavior is looked at because of its in-
The results of this literature study will be de- creased attention by researchers in recent years (Table 2).
scribed in the present review, which consists of two parts.
In the first part, studies reporting the possible effects of Personality traits
martial arts practise on participants will be discussed. Most research looking at personality profiles of martial
However, the majority of these studies cannot determine artists used a cross-sectional design. A number of these
to what extent the observed effects can be attributed to the studies have compared personality traits according to the
practise of a martial art since several methodological and performance level of martial artists (e.g., winning or los-
conceptual limitations can be noticed. The second part of ing a competition, earning a trophy or a medal) (e.g.,
this review will focus specifically on these restrictions. McGowan and Miller, 1989; Richman and Rehberg,
Finally, a conclusion is presented and recommendations 1986). In an earlier study, Richman and Rehberg (1986)
are provided for further investigation. showed that the level of performance had a positive im-
pact on personality traits of participants (e.g., higher self-
Social-psychological outcomes of martial arts practise esteem). Around the same period, McGowan and Miller
Firstly, a number of trends can be noticed with regard to (1989) reported that successful competitors showed more
themes, groups of participants and methodologies in mar- anger than less successful ones. However, in this study
tial arts research. Studies regarding social-psychological anger was used in a positive way, namely the energy
effects of martial arts practise date back to the late 60’s needed to win a karate competition. It is not possible to
and the early 70’s (e.g., Kroll and Carlson, 1967; Pyecha, infer from these findings that competitors remain feeling
1970). These earlier studies focused on personal charac- angry. More recent studies (e.g., Kuan and Roy, 2007)
teristics of martial artists, how these characteristics de- made use of a similar research methodology and revealed
termined preferences for specific types of martial arts and positive findings. Kuan and Roy (2007) used the “Psycho-
the extent in which they changed as a result of martial arts logical Performance Inventory” (PPI) to examine differ-
involvement. Since then, more researchers have become ences in self-confidence and negative energy control
interested in the outcomes of martial arts practise. Inter- among wushu athletes (medallist compared to non-
estingly, for a number of reasons, a turning point in mar- medallist). Results revealed that medallists scored signifi-
tial arts research can be detected around the mid ‘90s. For cantly higher on self-confidence and negative energy
example firstly, while earlier studies focused on martial control than non-medallists. Consequently, it was also
arts involvement in general, in more recent years attention concluded that successful athletes reported more positive
shifted to outcomes of martial arts practise among chil- outcomes on personality traits than less successful ath-
dren and adolescents. More than 60% of more recent letes.
papers and reports that were analyzed, addressed youth, Instead of dividing the sample according to level
whereas less than 20% of the studies conducted before the of performance, a number of researchers examined differ-
mid ‘90s examined this issue. Secondly, a shift can be ences in personality traits of martial artists between dif-
noticed regarding the type of martial arts under study. ferent teaching styles (i.e., traditional versus modern
Previously, the majority of studies focused on traditional training methods). While a traditional approach was de-
martial arts (e.g., judo, karate, taekwondo), while in more fined as focusing on meditative aspects, stressing self-
recent years a growing interest for (harder) Western mar- control, conflict avoidance, respect for others, kata train-
tial arts can be noted (e.g., boxing, mixed martial arts). ing, and the study of philosophy, modern training was
Thirdly, an evolution in the used methodology can be described as emphasizing sport and competitive aspects,
noticed as well. While until the mid ‘90s, most studies as well as focusing teaching to physical aspects only
made use of cross-sectional designs (viz, 92% of the older (Donohue and Taylor, 1994; Nosanchuk and MacNeil,
studies included in this review), in later years more longi- 1989).
tudinal studies have been set up (viz, 40% of the studies In an earlier study, Trulson (1986) suggested that tradi-
conducted after the mid ‘90s). And fourthly, throughout tional martial arts practise has a positive influence on
the years, the type of social-psychological outcomes un- personality traits of participants, as opposed to training in
der study changed. While most of the earlier studies pri- modern martial arts. More recently, Najafi (2003) also
marily looked at the influence of martial arts practise on a divided his sample as a function of teaching styles and
variety of personality traits of practitioners (viz, 58% of came to similar conclusions. His findings revealed that
the studies conducted before the mid ‘90s), in recent years practitioners of traditional martial arts emphasize more
the emphasis is more on the relationship between martial humility and report more overall levels of hope compared
artists and aggression (viz, 61% of all studies that were to those involved in modern martial arts. In this study,
analyzed). hope was defined as “…the motivation to accomplish the
In the following section an overview is presented harsh task” (p. 25).
of empirical studies with regard to social-psychological The majority of studies that employ a cross-
outcomes of martial arts practise, in which, among other sectional design to examine personality profiles of martial
Vertonghen and Theeboom 531
hostile or frustrating situations to examine the aggressive- effects stemmed both from the practise of power sports
ness among judoka. Their results revealed that aggres- itself, as well as from the repeated contact with a “macho”
siveness decreased across training, as well as across age, culture prevalent in the sporting clubs. As earlier indi-
with gender having no effect. Consequently, findings cated, Endresen and Olweus’ study has been criticized by
were consistent with those of the previous studies. How- others.
ever, Wargo et al. (2007) failed to support previous find- Finally, only a few studies made use of a cross-
ings. In their study the “Minnesota Multiphasic Personal- sectional design to measure the aggressiveness among
ity Inventory 2” (MMPI-2) was used to assess the person- young martial artists. For example, Steyn and Roux
alities of yellow and black belt taekwondo-in and (2009) used the “Buss and Perry Aggression Question-
karateka. It was reported that participants were no more naire” to examine the aggression levels of 15 to 18 year
likely to view ambiguous situations as warranting retalia- old taekwondo-in compared to hockey players and a non-
tion compared to the general population. sport group of the same age category. Findings revealed
Instead of dividing the sample as a function of that the verbal aggression and hostility scores of taek-
level of experience, Björkqvist and Varhama (2001) made wondo participants were significantly lower than the other
a comparison between different types of martial arts. two groups.
Attitudes towards violent conflict resolution were exam- In conclusion, most studies investigating the rela-
ined among female and male practitioners of different tionship between martial arts practise and aggressiveness
styles of martial arts (karateka compared to wrestlers and revealed positive outcomes, in a general population, as
boxers), practitioners of non-contact sports and controls well as specifically for adults or for adolescents. How-
who did not practice any sport. Results indicated that ever, findings are not always consistent with one another,
martial arts practise had positive effects on male, but since some studies reported that martial arts would have
negative effects on female participants when compared to no or even negative effects on the aggressiveness of par-
participants in a control group. ticipants.
As indicated earlier, in recent years more re-
searchers have become interested in the relationship of Limitations
martial arts practise and aggressiveness among children
and adolescents. Contrary to more general studies and Examining effects of sports participation is complex as
those conducted in earlier years, a majority of the research several factors (e.g., type of guidance, structural qualities
involving adolescents made use of a longitudinal research of the sport, etc.) can be expected to have an influence. As
design with time between pre- and post-testing ranging a result, this kind of research has several methodological
approximately from 2 months to 2 years. It is also inter- and conceptual limitations, which will be discussed be-
esting to note that several of these longitudinal studies low.
have set up an experimental design in which martial art Several studies, which made use of a cross-
instruction was provided to adolescents with no prior sectional design to compare personality traits of martial
martial arts experience and were aimed at examining arts practitioners at different levels of experience, do not
changes in aggressive behavior over the course of the seem to control for self-selection effects (e.g., Kurian et
program. In most cases, specific target groups were used, al., 1993; Steyn and Roux, 2009; Wargo et al., 2007). It is
such as middle or elementary school youth at risk (Edel- likely that participants in those studies selected martial
man, 1994; Zivin et al., 2001). All these studies reported arts training because it was consistent with their personal
positive outcomes, with decreased post-test scores on tendencies. It is also possible that adolescents whose
hostility and aggression. While most of these studies values and beliefs were not in tune with those of the cho-
made use of martial arts in general, only a few have inves- sen martial art, would most likely decide to give up prac-
tigated differences between specific styles of martial arts. tise. As indicated by several authors (e.g., Cox, 1993;
For example, Reynes and Lorant (2001; 2002a; 2002b; Fuller, 1988), it is therefore better to conduct longitudinal
2004) compared changes in aggressiveness of children studies. However, this kind of design also has its limita-
practicing either judo or karate. After a 1- and 2-year tions. Among other things, it is time-consuming and it
practise period, they reported distinct opposite findings remains difficult to control the period between the first
between the two martial arts, namely young karateka did and second measurement and to prevent the context from
not differ from a control group, whereas young judoka changing (e.g., drop-out, changing of the martial art
were found to be more aggressive than both the control teacher, etc.) (Gravetter and Forzano, 2009). For example,
and the karate group. Also Endresen and Olweus (2005) in the study of Reynes and Lorant (2002a) nearly one
reported negative effects as a result of martial arts practise third of the total sample dropped-out during the one year
among youth. As reported earlier, they conducted a longi- of judo practise. Nosanchuk and Lamarre (2002) indicated
tudinal study in which they examined the relationship in their comments on this study that those who persisted,
between participation in so-called “power sports” and may be more aggressive than those who dropped-out,
violent and antisocial behavior among preadolescent and which could be an explanation for the observed outcomes.
adolescent boys over a two-year period. These power It can also be noted that differences appear regarding the
sports included boxing, weightlifting, wrestling and orien- length of the intervention. While a number of studies have
tal martial arts. Their findings showed that participation in used a one- or two-month period (Edelman, 1994: 12
these sports lead to an increase in antisocial involvement weeks; Lakes and Hoyt, 2004: 16 weeks; Zivin et al.,
outside the sports situation with no indications of selec- 2001: 10 weeks), others raised questions about these
tion effects. The authors suggested that these negative short-term effects. For example, Nosanchuk and Lamarre
534 Social-psychological outcomes of young martial artist
(2002) argued that more than one year of training would martial arts practise. While earlier studies focused on a
be required to assess any meaningful variations. Also more general population, in more recent years, there has
other authors suggested that it takes several years of train- been a shift in attention to younger participants. There has
ing to obtain positive outcomes (e.g., Konzak and Kla- also been more emphasis in later research on the relation-
vora, 1980; Layton, 1990). In addition, only a few re- ship between martial arts practise and aggressive behavior
searchers have conducted a follow-up study to assess and more Western martial arts have been investigated
whether martial artists’ changes in personality, psycho- than before.
logical and behavioral characteristics are long-lasting It can be argued that these trends are in line with a
(e.g., Zivin et al., 2001). It is also interesting to note that number of social developments, such as an increased
some researchers reported significant effects, but used popularity of martial arts among socially vulnerable
small-sized samples, which may have resulted in low youth. Hence, several pedagogues and welfare workers
statistical power (e.g., Edelman, 1994: n = 15; Reynes and have used martial arts in their work with this target group
Lorant, 2002b: n = 9). Furthermore, many studies did not and employ it as an instrument to improve their social and
take gender differences into account. For example, a personal development (e.g., Fleisher et al., 1995; Ham,
number of studies only investigated boys (e.g., Endresen 2008; Nuchelmans, 2008; Theeboom et al., 2004).
and Olweus, 2005; Kurian et al., 1994; Reynes and The present review provides an overview of re-
Lorant, 2002a; 2002b; 2004; Zivin et al., 2001). Only search that has been conducted over the past two decades
Lakes and Hoyt (2004) indicated that benefits received by on social-psychological outcomes of martial arts in-
girls may be manifested differently than those obtained by volvement, with youth in particular. Past research has
boys. mostly pointed in the direction of the appearance of posi-
Moreover, a few studies made a comparison be- tive effects, going from a higher level of self-regulation
tween different martial arts styles and revealed differ- and an increased psychological well-being, to a decreased
ences along the different styles (e.g., Björkqvist and Var- violence level among its participants. Nevertheless, some
hama, 2001; Daniels and Thornton, 1990; Reynes and contrasting images have been found, since a few studies
Lorant, 2004). This finding indicates that each martial art reported negative outcomes as a result of martial arts
has its own qualities, which can lead to different out- involvement, such as an increased antisocial behavior. In
comes. However, in some studies the characteristics of conclusion, it has not been able to provide overall conclu-
specific martial arts were not taken into consideration. In sive evidence regarding the social-psychological out-
these cases adolescents involved in different martial arts comes of martial arts practise.
were pooled together into one group and compared with a However, it remains difficult to determine if and
non-participation group (e.g., Endresen and Olweus, to what extent the practise of a martial art can be ac-
2005; Daniels and Thornton, 1992; Duthie et al., 1978; counted for the reported effects. The presumed effects
Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Wargo et al., 2007). cannot be attributed solely to mere sport participation,
Finally, as indicated by Jones, MacKay and Peters because other factors could have an influence as well.
(2006), it is not only important to take the kind of martial For example, the cause and effect relationship of martial
art into account, it is perhaps more important to look at arts practise as well as the self-selection bias remain criti-
the role played by the instructor, which can create differ- cal issues. It has been argued that it is often too difficult
ent styles within one martial art. The effect of the martial to make general statements about the social-psychological
arts being taught can be very different depending on who outcomes of sports participation, without taking several
is teaching. It can be noted, however, that many authors influential factors into consideration, such as the type of
did not describe the type of guidance used within the guidance, the structural qualities of the sport, the charac-
selected martial arts (e.g., Daniels and Thornton, 1992; teristics of the participants and the social context (Coalter,
Endresen and Olweus, 2005; Steyn and Roux, 2009). The 2007; Patriksson, 1995; Shields and Bredemeier, 1995).
few studies that explicitly referred to the type of guidance However, the present review shows that only a few re-
(e.g., Najafi, 2003; Nosanchuk and MacNeil, 1989; Trul- searchers have considered one or more of these influential
son, 1986) reported different outcomes according to the factors.
specific guidance approach that was used. Based on this, some suggestion for future research
will be proposed in the final part of this review. Regard-
Conclusion ing the structural qualities of the martial arts, it can be
concluded that some researchers have tried to take this
To date, many common beliefs with regard to the social- into consideration by making a comparison between dif-
psychological outcomes of martial arts practise exist, ferent martial arts styles. Such studies revealed the impor-
ranging from very positive to very negative. To formulate tance of taking the specific martial arts style being prac-
more thoughtful and scientifically based statements, in ticed into account. Also some attention has been paid to
recent years, researchers have become more interested in the type of guidance, by comparing traditional with mod-
martial arts. Next to an increased number of scientific ern training methods. In general, the former showed more
meetings and publications with regard to martial arts, also positive effects than the latter. However, in future re-
a significant growth in the number of presentations on search it would be relevant to look more closely at the
martial arts at sports scientific congresses has been de- different teaching styles being used. For example, this can
tected. be linked to a specific climate that is created by the
Furthermore, a number of trends may be noticed teacher’s behavior, which in turn can have an impact on
regarding research on social-psychological outcomes of motivational responses in youth. Ames (1992) argued that
Vertonghen and Theeboom 535
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Key points