Physical and social environment as factors of crop distribution and

production

PHYSICAL FACTOR

CLIMATIC FACTOR

Most plants cannot grow if the temperature falls below 6°C or the soil is frozen
for five consecutive months. As a consequence many areas are unsuitable for
crop cultivation.

Altitude affects temperature so it also affects farming. In the Alps for example
you will find dairy farming in valley bottoms and coniferous forestry further
up.When temperatures are consistently high with sufficient precipitation high
yield crops such as rise can be grown. These have the added advantage of
producing up to three crops a year.

Water is obviously a key factor in plant growth. The greater the average
temperature the greater the amount of water required for plant growth. Seasonal
variation is important as different crops require water at different times. Coffee
for example must have a period of drought before and during harvest whilst
maize would benefit from heavy rain in the same period. A farmer is therefore
looking for rainfall reliability so that he can select the most appropriate crop for
the area. Rice is the principal crop in the tropics because it requires substantial
quantities of water, is a very high yield crop and has good nutritional value.
With the addition of consistently high temperatures it can also produce two or
three crops a year.

Soil

Soil type will influence crop cultivation because different crops prefer different
soils. Clay soils with their high water retention are well suited to rice whilst
sandy soils with good drainage are good for root vegetables. Soil type can be
influenced through the input of lime, clay or fertilizer but this can only make
limited differences.

Topography

Topography affects agriculture as it relates to soil erosion, difficulty of tillage

and poor transportation facilities. Mechanization of agriculture depends entirely
on the topography of land. On rough, hilly lands, the use of agricultural
machinery is impossible. In areas where the pressure on soil is great, even the
slopes of mountains are terraced into small farms to provide agricultural land. In
China, farm terraces may be seen clinging to hillsides to a height of several
thousand feet. It is known that in extreme cases agriculture may succeed in
conquering slopes of as much as 45 degrees.

Social Factors

Land Tenancy

Land tenure includes all forms of tenancy and also ownership in any form. Land
tenancy and land tenure affect the agricultural operations and cropping patterns
in many ways. The farmers and cultivators plan the agricultural activities and
farm (fields) management keeping in mind their rights and possession duration
on the land.

In different communities of the world, the cultivators have different land

tenancy rights. In the tribal societies of the shifting cultivators land belongs to
the community and individuals are allowed only to grow crops along with other
members of the community for a specific period. But among the sedentary
farmers land belongs to individual farmers. In such societies it is believed that
one who owns land he owns wealth.

The ownership and the length of time available for planning, development and
management of arable land influence the decision making process of the
cultivator. Depending on the nature of tenancy rights he decides the extent to
which investment on land could be made. For example, if the cultivator is the
sole owner of the land, he may install a tube well in his farm and may go for
fencing and masonry irrigation channels.

But a tenant farmer or a sharecropper will not go for the long term investment in
the field as after a short period of occupancy he will have to vacate the land and
the real owner may cultivate that piece of land either himself or may lease out to
other cultivator. In fact, a farmer who has the right of ownership, he has the
freedom to choose a system of production and investment which improves the
quality of land and gives him increasing capacity to borrow money.

The cropping patterns and farm management are also dependent on the duration
of time for which the land is to remain under cultivation. For example, among
the shifting cultivators (Jhumias of northeast India), the allotment of land to the
cultivator is normally done for one or two years, depending on the fertility of
the land.

The hilly terrain, the limited rights of the occupant and poor economic condition
of the tillers hinder the development and efficient management of land. Since
the land belongs to the community and not to the individuals, this type of land
tenancy prevents the energetic, efficient and skilled individuals of the
community to invest in the farm.

Under such a system individuals are also unlikely to put much efforts or invest
more money on the improvement of cultivated land as the field is allotted by the
community for a short period. Under this type of land tenancy there is no
incentive to individuals to improve the agricultural efficiency and productivity
of the land.

Labour

The availability of labour is also a major constraint in the agricultural land use
and cropping patterns of a region. Labour represents all human services other
than decision making and capital. The availability of labour, its quantity and
quality at the periods of peak labour demand have great influence on decision
making process of the farmer. The different crops and agrarian systems vary in
their total labour requirements. The labour inputs vary considerably round the
year for most of the agricultural enterprises with the result that many farmers
employ a mixed system of production in order to keep their labour fully
employed.

Even then, in many parts of India, seasonal unemployment remains on most of

the holdings, while during the peak periods of crop sowing (rice, wheat,
sugarcane, vegetables and potatoes) and harvesting, there occurs acute shortage
of labour which influences the sowing and harvesting operations and thereby
affect the decision of a farmer whether to grow or not a crop.

Religion

The religion of the cultivators has also influenced the agricultural activities in
the different parts of the world. Each of the major religions has certain taboos
and the use of certain agricultural commodities is prohibited in each of them.
The Khasis and Lushais of Meghalaya and Mizoram are not interested in
dairying as milk and milk products are taboo in their society. Piggery is
prohibited among the Muslims, Hindus hate slaughtering, while Sikhs never go
for the cultivation of tobacco.

The productive and adequately irrigated loamy tracts of western Haryana

(including Bhiwani, Hissar, Mohindergarh, and Sirsa districts) are ideally suited
for the cultivation of sunflower. It is a short duration highly remunerative cash
crop which matures in only 60 days. For the last two decades, the farmers in
these districts were obtaining two sunflower crops in a year in between the
 kharif and rabi crops. Unfortunately, the population of Neelgai (an antelope) has
multiplied in this region significantly.

This antelope which is being considered as sacred cow relishes the plant of
sunflower and prefers to stay in or around its fields. The Neelgai menace has
forced the cultivators of Haryana to give up sunflower cultivation. It is one of
the unique examples in which the wild animals have influenced the cropping
pattern significantly and the progressive farmers of Haryana are being deprived
of a highly remunerative cash crop.

Keeping into mind the religious sentiments of the Hindu farmers and the im-
portance of sunflower as a cash crop (oilseed), the government should evolve a
suitable strategy to check the fast growth of Neelgai population, failure to which
the process of agricultural development in the region may be adversely affected.

Agroecology

 Agroecology is recognised worldwide as a system that

enhances fertile landscapes, increases yields, restores soil
health and biodiversity, promotes climate resilience and
improves farmers’ well-being.
 Its practices are supported by many agricultural scientists, the
Food and Agriculture Organization, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, farmers’ groups and several NGOs.
 Agroecology is the solution proposed to the current industrial
food systems which are failing and harming the environment.

What is Agroecology?

 Agroecology is the study of ecological processes applied to

agricultural production systems.
o Application of ecological principles to agroecosystems can help
in developing novel management approaches and techniques in
agriculture systems.
o The field of agroecology is not associated with any one
particular method of farming, whether it be organic, integrated,
or conventional, intensive or extensive. However, it has much
more in common with organic and integrated farming.
 Agroecology is not against the use of technology in agriculture
but assesses how, when, and if technology can be used in
conjunction with natural, social and human assets.
o It recognizes that there is no universal formula or recipe for the
success and maximum well-being of an agroecosystem and is
context- or site-specific.
 Agroecology is not defined by certain management practices,
instead, it studies questions related to the four system
properties of agroecosystems:
o productivity,
o stability,
o sustainability and
o equitability.
 Agroecologists see all four properties as interconnected and
integral to the success of an agroecosystem and study them
through an interdisciplinary lens,
o using natural sciences to understand elements of
agroecosystems as well as
o using social sciences to understand the effects of farming
practices on rural communities, economic constraints to
developing new production methods, or cultural factors
determining farming practices.
 Agroecologists do not limit themselves to the study of
agroecosystems at any one scale: gene- organism- population-
community- ecosystem- landscape- biome, field- farm-
community- region- state- country- continent- global.

What are the benefits of Agroecology?

 Agroecology is all about the design and management of

sustainable farms. It provides a robust set of solutions to the
 environmental and economic pressures facing agriculture
today.
 The current industrial food system has gone off the rails,
increasingly dependent on health-harming pesticides and other
chemical inputs that degrade soil, threaten pollinator
populations and pollute water.
 By shifting farming policies and practices to embrace
agroecology, we can create a food system to sustain this and
future generations — one rooted in productivity, resilience,
equity and sustainability.
 Agroecological farming can double food production within ten
years without harming the environment.
 Agroecology recognizes the multifunctional dimensions of
agriculture – which not only produces food, jobs and economic
well-being but also creates cultural, social and environmental
benefits.
 Agroecology also protects and provides ecosystem services like
pollination, natural pest control, nutrient and water cycling and
erosion control.

Agroecological farming has been shown to

 Increase ecological resilience, especially with respect to

volatile weather conditions;
 Improve health and nutrition through more diverse,
nutritious and fresh diets and reduced incidence of pesticide
poisonings and pesticide-related diseases;
 Conserve biodiversity and natural resources such as soil
organic matter, water, crop genetic diversity and natural
enemies of pests;
 Improve economic stability with more diverse sources of
income, the spread of labour needs and production over time,
and reduced vulnerability to commodity price swings; and
 Mitigate effects of climate change through reduced reliance
on fossil fuels and fossil fuel-based agricultural inputs,
increased carbon sequestration and water capture in soil.
 Issues

Threats from Powerful Elites

 Farming sector in India has an overarching influence of

powerful lobbies with vested interests and connections to deep
pockets which include fossil fuel, fertilizer and seed companies
as well as scientists with funding connections to agribusiness.
 These lobbies perceive large-scale transitions to agroecology as
a substantial threat to their influence on farming systems.
Hence these powerful elites are lobbying against natural
farming which is still a small player in the margins.
 For example, recently, the National Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, based on a brainstorming session that included
industry representatives has sent a letter to the Prime Minister
opposing Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF).

Zero Budget Natural Farming

 Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF) is a method of chemical-

free agriculture drawing from traditional Indian practices. It is a
form of agroecology as it promotes ecological practices to
improve productivity while protecting the environment.
 It was originally promoted by Maharashtrian agriculturist and
Padma Shri recipient Subhash Palekar, who developed it in the
mid-1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution’s methods
driven by chemical fertilizers and pesticides and intensive
irrigation.
 Instead of commercially produced chemical inputs, the ZBNF
promotes the application of jeevamrutha — a mixture of fresh
desi cow dung and aged desi cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour,
water and soil — on farmland.
 This is a fermented microbial culture that adds nutrients to the
soil, and acts as a catalytic agent to promote the activity of
microorganisms and earthworms in the soil.
 A similar mixture, called bijamrita, is used to treat seeds, while
concoctions using neem leaves and pulp, tobacco and green
chillies are prepared for insect and pest management.
 The ZBNF method also promotes soil aeration, minimal
watering, intercropping, bunds and topsoil mulching and
discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing.

Conclusion

 Agroecology is a knowledge-intensive & inclusive system at the

same time improves the adaptive capacity of agroecosystems
and reduces vulnerability to natural disasters, climate change
impacts, and new and emerging environmental and economic
system stresses and shocks.
 It could be the answer to our woes about food security in a
changing climate, increasing natural disasters and growing
population.

Cropping Patterns and Cropping Systems in India

The choice of crop cultivation of farmer is guided by the factors like

Cropping Patterns and Cropping Systems in India

The Farmers chose the crops for the cultivation on the basis of the factors like
Physical, Social and Economic. Sometimes they cultivate a number of crops at
their farms and rotate a particular crop combination over a period. But it is
noteworthy that the best farming practices always followed by certain cropping
patterns as well as cropping system for raising their productivity and also for
maintaining the fertility of soil.

Cropping pattern in India

Cropping pattern is a dynamic concept because it changes over space and time.
It can be defined as the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time.
In other words, it is a yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of sowing and
fallow on a given area. In India, the cropping pattern determined by rainfall,
climate, temperature, soil type and technology.
The cropping patterns in India can be presented by taking the major crops into
consideration as the base crop and all other possible alternative crops. It is very
important to identify crops and their showing agro-climatic condition so that
they can be categorized. For example, wheat, barley and oats, are taken as one
category.

Food Grains and their required agro-climatic condition

Food Grains Agro-Climatic Condition

Rice Temperature: 22 -32 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 150-300 cm

Soil Type: Deep clayey and loamy soil

Wheat Temperature: 10-15 degree Celsius (Sowing

time)

Temperature: 21-26 degree Celsius (Ripening &

Harvesting)

Rainfall: 75-100 cm

Soil Type: Well-drained fertile loamy and clayey

loamy

Millets Temperature: 27-32 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 50-100 cm

Soil Type: They are less sensitive to soil

deficiencies. They can be grown in inferior alluvial
or loamy soil
Grams Temperature: 20-25 degree Celsius (Mild cool &
Dry Climate)

Rainfall: 40-45 cm

Soil Type: Loamy Soil

Sugar Cane Temperature: 21-27 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 75-150 cm

Soil Type: Deep rich loamy soil

Cotton Temperature: 21-30 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 50-100 cm

Soil Type: Black soil of Deccan and Malwa

Plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial
soils of the Sutluj-Ganga plain and red and laterite
soils of the peninsular region

Oilseeds Temperature: 20-30 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 50-75 cm

Soil Type: Well drained light sandy loams, red,

yellow and black soils are well suited for its
cultivation.

Tea Temperature: 20-30 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 150-300 cm
 Soil Type: Well drained, deep friable loamy soil.

Coffee Temperature: 15-28 degree Celsius

Rainfall: 150-250 cm

Soil Type: Well drained, deep friable loamy soil.

Regional distribution of crops in India

Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana

Rice West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh,

Cereals Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu

Gram Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

Barley Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and

Rajasthan

Bajra Maharashtra, Gujarat and

Rajasthan

Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra

Cash Crops
Poppy Uttar Pradesh and Himachal
Pradesh

Coconut Kerala and Tamil Nadu

 Linseed Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

Oil Seeds
Groundnut Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu

Rape & Mustard Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh

Sesame Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan

Sunflower Maharashtra and Karnataka

Cotton Maharashtra and Gujarat

Fibre Crops Jute West Bengal and Bihar

Silk Karnataka and Kerala

Hemp Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

Coffee Karnataka and Kerala

Rubber Kerala and Karnataka

Plantations
Tea Assam and Kerala

Tobacco Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya

Pradesh

Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

Spices Cashew Nuts Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra

Pradesh

Ginger Kerala and Uttar Pradesh

 Turmeric Andhra Pradesh & Odisha

Cropping System in India

The Indian agriculture is decided by the soil types and climatic parameters
which determine overall agro-ecological setting for nourishment and
appropriateness of a crop or set of crops for cultivation. There are three distinct
crop seasons in India, namely Kharif, Rabi and Zaid. The Kharif season started
with Southwest Monsoon under which the cultivation of tropical crops such as
rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur are cultivated. The Rabi season starts with
the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. Zaid is a
short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of Rabi
crops. There are four cropping systems in India which is discussed below:

1. Rainy Season Cropping Systems: In this system of cropping, Rice,

Sorghum, Pearl Millet (Bajra), Maize, Groundnut and Cotton are grown.

2. Winter Cropping Systems: In this system, wheat, barley and oats, sorghum
and chickpea are grown.

3. Plantation and other commercial crops: Sugarcane, Tobacco, Potato, Jute,

Tea, Coffee, Coconut, Rubber, Spices and condiments are important crops are
grown in this system.

4. Mixed Cropping: In this system, pulses and some oilseeds are grown with
maize, sorghum and pearl millet.

Types of Cropping System in India

There are three types of cropping system followed in India which is below:

1. Mono-Cropping or Monoculture: In this system, only one crop is grown on

farm land year after year.

2. Multiple-Cropping: In this system, farmers grow two or more crops on farm

land in one calendar year with intensive input management practices. It includes
inter-cropping, mixed-cropping and sequence cropping.

3. Inter-cropping: In this system, farmers grow two or more crops

simultaneously on the same field in one calendar year.
The Indian agricultural practices are still lacking by intensive planning because
India has diversified agro-climatic zone, which is unfortunately not giving
sufficient production. If our farming system relied on modern cropping pattern
and cropping system, then we have a predominance of food grain crops, our
farming will also inclined towards commercial crops and most importantly it
will noticeable increase in the production of individual crops.
Forest produce:

Forest produce is defined under section 2(4) of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. Its
legal definition includes timber, charcoal, caoutchouc, catechu, wood-oil, resin,
natural varnish, bark, lac, myrobalans, mahua flowers (whether found inside or
brought from a forest or not), trees and leaves, flowers and fruit, plants
(including grass, creepers, reeds and moss), wild animals, skins, tusks, horns,
bones, cocoons, silk, honey, wax, other parts or produce of animals, and also
includes peat, surface soil, rocks and minerals etc. when found inside or brought
from a forest, among other things.

Forest produce can be divided into several categories. From the point of view of
usage, forest produce can be categorized into three types: Timber, Non Timber
and Minor Minerals. Non-timber forest products [NTFPs] are known also
as minor forest produce (MFP) or non-wood forest produce (NWFP). The
NTFP can be further categorized into medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP), oil
seeds, fiber & floss, resins, edible plants, bamboo, reeds and grasses.

Wood products

Timber

The Odisha Forest Development Corporation (OFDC) trades timber in round

and sawn forms, in different dimensions, from several depots. Round timbers
are sold monthly from each depot, through general auction.

Sandalwood

The sandalwood tree is found in southern Indian forests, i.e. in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, etc.

Plywood

The plywood industry at Kuikeda near Saintala of Bolangir district, Odisha, was
incorporated during 1983, and started commercial production during the year,
1986-87; it operated until 1992-93.

Non-wood forest produce

Non-timber forest product (NTFP) refers to all biological materials other than
timber extracted from natural forests for human and animal use.

Kendu leaves
Orissa is the third largest producer of Kendu leaf in India. The uniqueness of
kendu leaf in Orissa is because of its specification of Color, Texture, Size and
Body condition of the leaf.

Tendu Patta (Leaf) Collection

Bamboo

The collection and marketing of Bamboo from the natural forest is done either
by OFDC or through the RMP (Raw Material Procurer) as per the decision of
the Government to regulate the collection and trade of Bamboo.

Sal seed

Sal seed is a nationalized product since 1973 and is one of the important
Produce obtained from Sal (Shorea robursta) tree, which is predominantly
available in Orissa.

Honey

OFDC is involved in collection, processing and trading of honey from natural

forest with an assurance of pure and genuine in quality.

Medicinal plants

With the financial aid of National Medicinal Plants Board, Government of

India, 16 projects for promotional activities are currently running in Orissa.
Medicinal Plant Karra

Rubber

OFDC is having rubber plantation and processing unit in Baripada &

Bhubaneswar zone, since 2003. OFDC is extracting the rubber from the
matured trees and marketing it.

Pickle & squash

OFDC is manufacturing and marketing high quality, delicious pickles such as

Mango Pickle, Mixed Pickle – free from preservatives.

Cashew & spice

OFDC Ltd. have raised cashew plantation over an area of 18704.99 ha. from
1978-79 to 1992-93 in Bhubaneswar and Berhampur Division. Out of which
pure cashew plantation over an area of 11,053.99 ha.

Minerals

Biodiesel plant

Biodiesel is the name of a clean burning alternative fuel, produced from

domestic, renewable resources. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be
blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a biodiesel blend.

You can also know about

 Forestry in India

 Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education

 [Van Vigyan Kendra(VVK)]Forest Science Centres

 Biodiversity Conservation
“Whatever we do to protect the number and variety of plants and
animals is known as biodiversity conservation”

In-situ biodiversity conservation (Natural Home)

 Identification of an area with high biodiversity (area having a lot of
variety of plants and animals)
 Isolation and protection of this area from human activities by
establishing a natural park/sanctuary/biosphere reserve
 Very essential for big animals like elephants, rhinos, tigers as they
require huge area.

National Parks
 Relatively large area consisting of one or more ecosystems, operates
at National Level
 No human activity or settlement allowed i.e. human interference is
totally prohibited
 Villagers cannot graze their animals
 Extremely strict rules about jungle produce collection for ex. Honey
National Parks State Key Species

Dachigam National Park J&K Hangul/Kashmiri Stag

Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh Blue sheep, Snow leo

Rajaji National Park Uttarakhand Tigers

Valley of flowers National Park Uttarakhand Snow Leopard, Flora

Corbett National Park Uttarakhand Tigers

Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand

Chandra Prabha National Park UP

Dudhwa tiger Reserve UP Tigers

Ranthambore National Park Rajashthan Tigers

Keoladeo National Park Rajashthan Birds & Deers

Sariska National Park Rajashthan Tigers

Desert National Park Rajashthan

National Parks State Key Species

Palamu National Park Jharkhand Tigers

Betla National Park Jharkhand bison, elephant, tiger, leopard, axis-axis

Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand Elephants

Sundarbans National West

Park Bengal Tigers

Kanchenjunga National
Park Sikkim Musk Deer, Snow Leopard
Balpakhram National Meghalay
Park a Elephants, Golden cat

Manas National Park Assam Tigers, Elephants

Kaziranga National Park Assam One-Horned Rhinoceroses

Nameri National Park Assam Elephants

Arunachal
Mouling National Park Pradesh Red Panda

Arunachal
Namdapha National Park Pradesh Red Giant Flying Squirrel

Keibul Lamjao National Only floating park in the world, Famous fo

Park Manipur Deers

Bandhavgarh National
Park MP Tigers

Kanha National Park MP Tigers

Pench National Park MP Tigers

Madhav National Park MP

Panna National Park MP Tigers

 Chhattisga
Indravati National Park rh Tiger & wild Buffalo

Gir National Park Gujrat Asiatic Lion

Gulf of
Marine National Park Kutch

Wild Ass Wildlife Rann of

Sanctuary Katch Wild Ass

Simlipal National Park Odisha Tigers

Chilka Lake Bird

Sanctuary Odisha

Maharasht
Melghat Tiger Reserve ra Tigers

Dr. Salim Ali Bird

Sanctuary Goa

Andhra
NagarJuna National Park Pradesh Tigers

Bandipur National Park Karnataka Tigers

Nagarhole National Park Karnataka Tigers & Elephants

Karnataka Tigers
Banerghatta National
Park

Silent Valley National

Park Kerala

Wayanad Wildlife
Sanctuary Kerala Tigers

Periyar National Park Kerala Tigers & Elephants

Parambikulam Tiger
Reserve Kerala Tigers

Wildlife Sanctuary
 Regulated human activities are allowed → Grazing of animals,
Firewood collection, Tourism
 can be created for a particular specie which is not the case with
national; operates at State Level
 A sanctuary can be upgraded to a National park but not vice versa

Biosphere Reserve
 Unique ecosystem of terrestrial & coastal areas internationally
recognized by UNESCO under Man and Biosphere (MAB)
programme
 People are allowed to live, own private land & carry own traditional
activities but only in outer zone

Biosphere reserves are globally considered as:

 Sites of excellence where new & optimal practices to manage nature
& human activities are tested & demonstrated;
 Tools to help countries implement the results of the World Summit
on Sustainable Development in particular, of CBD & its Ecosystem
Approach;
 Learning sites for the UN Decade on Education for Sustainable
Development

After their designation, biosphere reserves remain under national

sovereign jurisdiction, yet they share their experience and ideas
nationally, regionally and internationally within the World Network of
Biosphere Reserves
To carry out the complementary activities of biodiversity conservation
and sustainable use of natural resources, biosphere reserves are
traditionally organized into three interrelated zones:

 Central area that has to be kept undisturbed of all activities

Core  Research activities allowed, which don’t disturb wildlife
zone
 No human activity is allowed in this zone

 Limited human activity is permitted viz. tourism, fishing, grazing etc.

Buff
er  Only activities are allowed which don’t disturb the core zone
zone
 Research activities are encouraged here

Tra
nsiti  Outmost part & not delimited
on
 Greater activities are allowed viz. Settlements, cropping, forestry,
zone
recreation etc.

Man and the Biosphere Programme

 Launched in 1971, UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme
(MAB) is an Intergovernmental Scientific Programme that aims to
establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships
between people and their environments along with rational and
sustainable use & conservation of the resources of the biosphere
 Predicts the consequences of today’s actions on tomorrow’s world
and thereby increases people’s ability to efficiently manage natural
resources for the well-being of both human populations and the
environment
 Promotes the exchange and transfer of knowledge on environmental
problems and solutions, and to foster environmental education for
sustainable development
Biosphere reserves have three main aims viz.
 Conservation

 Economic development
 Research & education

Thus, biosphere reserves serve as living laboratories for testing &

demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity.
 Biosphere reserves of India

Name State Key Fauna

Tamil Nadu,
Kerala,
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Karnataka Lion-tailed macaque

Gulf of Mannar
Biosphere Reserve TamilNadu Sea Cow

Sundarbans Biosphere
Reserve West Bengal Bengal Tiger

Nanda Devi Biosphere

Reserve Uttarakhand

Nokrek Biosphere
Reserve Meghalaya Red Panda

Pachmarhi Biosphere
Reserve Madhya Pradesh Giant Squirrel, Flying Squirrel

Simlipal Biosphere
Reserve Odisha

Achanakmar-Amarkantak
Biosphere Reserve Chhattisgarh, MP

Great Nicobar Biosphere

Reserve A&N Saltwater Crocodile
Khangchendzonga
Biosphere Reserve Sikkim Snow Leopard, Red Panda

Above 10/18 Biosphere reserves are under MAB of World Network of

Biosphere Reserves under UNESCO

Golden Langur, Red

Manas Biosphere Reserve Assam Panda

Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere
Reserve Assam Golden Langur

Dihang-Dibang Biosphere
Reserve Arunachal

Agasthyamalai Biosphere Kerala,

Reserve Tamilnadu Nilgiri Tahrs, Elephants

Great Rann of Kutch

Biosphere Reserve Gujrat Indian Wild Ass

MP (Latest one Tiger, Chital, Chinkara,

Panna Biosphere Reserve in 2011) Sambhara, Sloth bear

Seshachalam Hills Biosphere

Reserve Andhra Pradesh

Cold Desert Himachal Snow Leopard

 Ex-Situ biodiversity conservation (Artificial home)
Seed Banks
 Store seeds at extremely low temperature & humidity

 Advantage → can save large variety of plant species in a very small

space
 Problems → Every seed has an expiry date; you cannot store it for
an indefinite time. So every once in a while, you have to take out the
seeds, germinate them and get new seeds and store them again
 Multinational companies such as Monsanto have excellent
infrastructure for these activities, but they care for only storing the
seeds of commercially viable species like Wheat, maize, rice, potato
etc.
 They have no interest in protecting some unknown grass or jungle
fruits which are on the verge of extinction, hence this duty falls under
the government agencies

Central Zoo Authority of India

 Enforces minimum standards and norms for upkeep and health care
of animals in Indian Zoos
 Restrains mushrooming of unplanned and ill-conceived Zoos that
were cropping up as adjuncts to public parks, industrial complexes
and waysides

Zoos
 Bring some endangered species in zoo, breed them, and reintroduce
their offspring in jungle ex. Pandas, Orangutans etc.

Problems
 Not all species can breed in captivity

 Life expectancy of Caged Ex-situ animal is less than its in-situ cousin
 Offspring born in captivity, have problems in adjusting & surviving
in jungles
 Zoos require huge land, lot of funds, trained personnel.
 Zoos concentrate on protection and breeding of big and popular
species such as Tiger, Panda, orangutans, etc. as it brings more public
support and funds, But small and unknown species such as frogs and
birds gets neglected.

Botanical Gardens
 An establishment where plants are collected, cultivated and displayed
off to public with their botanical names for scientific study purposes

Other Prominent Related Reserves

 An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or State
Reser Forest Act
ved  It has full degree of protection
Forest
 All activities are prohibited unless permitted

 An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or State

Protec Forest Act
ted  It has limited degree of protection
Forest
 All activities are permitted unless prohibited

 Can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the

Conse government
rvatio  Particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and
n those areas which link one Protected Area with another
Reser
 Such declaration should be made after having consultations with the
ves
local communities

Com  Can be declared by the State Government in any private or

munit community land
y
 Not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation
Reser
Reserve
ves
 Particularly where an individual or a community has volunteered to
conserve wildlife and its habitat

Legal Aspects
 covered under the Indian Forest Act,
1927
 focus here is not really on protecting
Reserve Forests & Protected
flora/fauna, but on protecting forests
Forests
and their economic wealth

National Parks, Sanctuaries,

Conservation  covered under the Wildlife (Protection)
Reserves and Community Act, 1972
Reserves
 focus on conservation on flora/fauna

 boundaries cannot be altered except by

a law passed by the State Legislature, so
the Executive can’t freely alter
boundaries
National Parks and
 other protected areas do not have this
Conservation Reserves
protection

All of the above are notified by state governments (even National Parks- the
name can be misleading). Central government is involved in the notification
only if the protected area includes territorial waters or when the land belongs
to the Central government.
  not specifically defined by any
Parliamentary law
 derived from UNESCO’s Man and
Biosphere Program (1972)
 a combination of Reserve Forests /
Protected Forests / National Parks /
Biosphere Reserves
Sanctuaries

 legally protected areas, covered under

Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act,
2006
 notified by state governments, but on
the recommendation of a Central
Authority- the National Tiger
Tiger Reserves
Conservation Authority
Soil Fertility Principles:

Soil fertility is a topic that is much discussed, but poorly understood.

From the perspective of crop production, soil fertility at its core is determined
by soil life. Conventional agronomy as it is taught in most formal university
settings does not prioritize soil life as the central force, and it could be argued
that this is causal in the drastic decrease in agricultural soil fertility worldwide.
Conventional fertility and management protocols are in many ways very
destructive to soil life, and due to this have effected desertification, erosion,
pollution of waterways, aquifers, and the environment in general. The following
analysis does not accept conventional agronomy as sufficient.

Soil fertility from the growers perspective correlates with the ability of the crop
plant to get its nutritional needs met, and to flourish. To understand how this
works the first central point that must be understood is that all plants in nature,
and in healthy environments have well established multi-speciated symbiotic
relationships with soil and leaf life. In nature, plants produce sugar through
photosynthesis that is then fed by the plant to numerous species of bacteria and
fungi that use that sugar to reproduce and access minerals out of the soil and air
environment that are digested and then fed back into the plant and soluble
organic compounds. This symbiotic relationship is at the core of soil fertility,
and must be understood as the central force at work.
Nutrient Management :: Rice

TRANSPLANTED PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE

Seed treatment

 Treat the seeds in Carbendazim or Pyroquilon or Tricyclozole solution at 2 g/l of water for
1 kg of seeds. Soak the seeds in water for 10 hrs and drain excess water.
 This wet seed treatment gives protection to the seedlings up to 40 days from seedling
disease such as blast and this method is better than dry seed treatment.
 If the seeds are required for sowing immediately, keep the soaked seed in gunny in dark
and cover with extra gunnies and leave for 24hrs for sprouting.
 Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens: Treat the seeds with talc based
formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10g/kg of seed and soak in 1lit of water
overnight. Decant the excess water and allow the seeds to sprout for 24hrs and then
sow.
 Seed treatment with biofertilizers : Five packets (1kg/ha) each of Azospirillum and
Phosphobacteria or five packets (1kg/ha) of Azophos bioinoculants are mixed with
sufficient water wherein the seeds are soaked overnight before sowing in the nursery bed
(The bacterial suspension after decanting may be poured over the nursery area itself).
Biocontrol agents are compatible with biofertilizers.
Biofertilizers and biocontrol agents can be mixed together for seed soaking.
Fungicides and biocontrol agents are incompatible.

Nutrient management

 Apply 1 tonne of fully decomposed FYM or compost to 20 cents nursery and spread the
manure uniformly on dry soil.
 Basal application of DAP is recommended when the seedlings are to be pulled out in 20-
25 days after sowing in less fertile nursery soils.
 For that situation, before the last puddling, apply 40 kg of DAP and if not readily
available, apply straight fertilizers 16 kg of urea and 120 kg of super phosphate.
 If seedlings are to be pulled out after 25 days, application of DAP is to be done 10 days
prior to pulling out.
 For clayey soils where root snapping is a problem, 4 kg of gypsum and 1 kg of DAP/cent
can be applied at 10 days after sowing.

Main field

Nutrient management

Application of organic manures

 Apply 12.5 t of FYM or compost or green leaf manure @ 6.25 t/ha.

 If green manure is raised @ 50 kg seeds/ha in situ, incorporate it to a depth of 15 cm
using a green manure trampler or tractor.
 In the place of green manure, press-mud / composted coir-pith can also be used.

Stubble incorporation

 Apply 10 kg N/ha (22 kg urea) at the time of first puddling while incorporating the
stubbles of previous crop to compensate immobilization of N by the stubbles.
 This may be done at least 10 days prior to planting of subsequent crop. This
recommendation is more suitable for double crop wetlands, wherein, the second crop is
transplanted in succession with short turn around period.
Biofertilizer application

 Broadcast 10 kg of soil based powdered BGA flakes at 10 DAT for the dry season crop.
Maintain a thin film of water for multiplication.
 Raise Azolla as a dual crop by inoculating 250 kg/ha 3 to 5 DAT and then incorporate
during weeding for the wet season crop.
 Mix 10 packets ( 2 kg/ha ) each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria or 10 packets (2
kg/ha) of Azophos inoculants with 25 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil and broadcast the mixture
uniformly in the main field before transplanting and
 Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf 1) at 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil
andbroadcast the mixture uniformly before transplanting.

Application of inorganic fertilizers

 Apply fertilizer nutrients as per STCR-IPNS recommendations for desired yield target
(Appendix I) (or)

 N dose may be through Leaf Color Chart (LCC)*

 P & K may be through Site Specific Nutrition Management by Omission plot technique**

If the above recommendation are not able to be followed, adopt blanket recommendation as
follows:

P2O5
Nutrients N K2O
(kg/ha)
Short duration varieties (dry season)
a) Cauvery delta & Coimbatore tract 150 50 50
b) For other tracts 120 40 40
Medium and long duration varieties (wet season) 150 50 50
Hybrid rice 175 60 60
Low N responsive cultivars (like Improved White
Ponni) 75* 50 50

* For Ponni, N should be applied in three splits at AT, PI and H stages** in addition to GLM or
FYM application.

**Phenological stages of rice (days after sowing)

Stages Short (105) Medium (135) Long (150)

Active Tillering (AT) 35-40 50-55 55-60
Panicle Initiation (PI) 45-50 70-75 85-90
Heading (H) 70-75 100-105 115-120

* N management through LCC

 Time of application is decided by LCC score

 Take observations from 14 DAT in transplanted rice or 21 DAS in direct seeded rice.
Repeat the observations at weekly intervals up to heading
  Observe the leaf colour in the fully opened third leaf from the top as index leaf. Match the
leaf color with the colours in the chart during morning hours (8-10 am). Take observation
in 10 places.
 LCC critical value is 3.0 in low N response cultures like White Ponni and 4.0 in other
cultivars and hybrids
 When 6/10 observations show less than the critical colour value, N can be applied as per
the following recommendation : Application of 25 kg N ha-1 (1 bag urea) at 7 DAT
followed by N @ 40 kg ha-1 each time for kuruvai/ short duration rice / 30 kg ha-1 each
time for medium & long duration rice as and when the leaf colour value falls below the
critical value of 4 for varieties and hybrids and critical value of 3 for white ponni,
monitored from 14 DAT.
 For aged seedlings : Basal application of 35 kg N per ha is recommended to avoid yield
loss when seedlings aged 35 - 45 days are used for transplanting and the LCC based N
management can be followed from 14 DAT.

**Recommendation of P&K fertilizer rates based on SSNM approach for rice growing
tracts of Tamil Nadu (other than Cauvery Delta)

Calibrated SSNM fertilizer dose

Sl.No. Location (kg/ha)*
P2O5 K2O
Cauvery delta
1 (i) Old delta 35 50
(ii) New delta 35 80
Coimbatore District
2 (i) General 30 40
(ii) Annamalai block 30 80
3 Killikulam 30 50
4 Trichy 35 50
5 Ambasamudram 40 50
6 Bhavanisagar 20 25
7 Paiyur 25 45
8 Yethapur 30 45
9 Aruppukottai 20 30
10 Cuddalore 30 50

** The above SSNM based fertilizer P and K arrived based on yield response are recommended
for specific soil series prevailing in different rice growing areas for adoption by farmers

Split application of N and K

 Apply N and K in four equal splits viz., basal, tillering, panicle initiation and heading
stages. Tillering and Panicle initiation periods are crucial and should not be reduced with
the recommended quantity.

 N management through LCC may be adopted wherever chart is available

Application of P fertilizer

 P may be applied as basal and incorporated.

  When the green manure is applied, rock phosphate can be used as a cheap source of P
fertilizer. If rock phosphate is applied, the succeeding rice crop need not be supplied with
P. Application of rock phosphate + single super phosphate or DAP mixed in different
proportions (75:25 or 50:50) is equally effective as SSP or DAP alone.

Application of zinc sulphate

 Apply 25 kg of zinc sulphate/ha mixed with 50 kg dry sand or apply 25 kg of TNAU

Wetland rice MN mixture/ha enriched in FYM at 1:10 ratio incubated for 30 days at friable
moisture, just before transplanting.

 It is enough to apply 12.5 kg zinc sulphate /ha, if green manure (6.25 t/ha) or enriched
FYM, is applied.

 If deficiency symptom appears in the standing crop, foliar application of 0.5% zinc
sulphate + 1.0% urea can be given at 15 days interval until the Zn deficiency symptoms
disappear.

Application of gypsum

Apply 500 kg of gypsum/ha (as source of Ca and S nutrients) at last ploughing.

Foliar nutrition

Foliar spray of 1% urea + 2% DAP + 1% KCl at Panicle Initiation (PI) and 10 days later for all
varieties.

Neem treated urea and coal-tar treated urea

Blend the urea with crushed neem seed or neem cake 20% by weight. Powder neem cake to
pass through 2mm sieve before mixing with urea. Keep it overnight before use (or) urea can be
mixed with gypsum in 1:3 ratios, or urea can be mixed with gypsum and neem cake at 5:4:1 ratio
to increase the nitrogen use efficiency. For treating 100 kg urea, take one kg coal-tar and 1.5
litres of kerosene. Melt coal-tar over a low flame and dissolve it in kerosene. Mix urea with the
solution thoroughly in a plastic container, using a stick. Allow it to dry in shade on a polythene
sheet. This can be stored for a month and applied basally.

N management through LCC

For sodic soil

In the case of sodic soils, LCC critical value is 4.0 for varieties and 5.0 for the hybrids.

Other special cultural practices (Contingent Plan)

Application of Pink Pigmented Facultative Methylotroph (Methylobacterium sp.) as seed

treatment (@ 200 g / 10 kg seeds), soil application (@ 2 kg / ha) and foliar spray (@ 500 ml / ha)
at panicle initiation and flag leaf stages for alleviation of water stress effects in both SRI and
transplanted system of rice cultivation.

TRANSPLANTED HYBRID RICE

Fertilizer 175:60:60 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha

Other nutrient management practices: same as in transplanted rice variety

SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION

Mat nursery preparation

Preparation of soil mixture: Four (4) m3of soil mix is needed for each 100 m2of nursery. Mix70%
soil + 20% well-decomposed pressmud / bio-gas slurry / FYM + 10% rice hull. Incorporate 1.5 kg
of powdered DAP or 2 kg 17-17-17 NPK fertilizer in the soil mixture.

Seed Treatment with biofertilizers:Five packets (1 kg/ha) of Azospirillum and five packets
(1kg/ha) of Phosphobacteria or five packets (1 kg/ha) of Azophos. Biofertilizers are mixed with
water used for soaking and kept for 4 hrs. The bacterial suspension after draining may be
sprinkled in the nursery before sowing the treated seeds

Pre-germinating the seeds 2 days before sowing: Soak the seeds for 24 hr, drain and incubate
the soaked seeds for 24 hr, sow when the seeds sprout and radical (seed root) grows to 2-3 mm
long.

Soil application of biofertilizers :Application of Azospirillum @ 2 kg and Arbuscular mycorrhizal

fungi @ 5 kg for 100 m2 nursery area
Spraying fertilizer solution(optional): If seedling growth is slow, sprinkle 0.5% urea + 0.5%zinc
sulphate solution at 8-10 DAS.

Spraying fertilizer solution

(Sprinkle 0.5% urea + 0.5% zinc sulphate solution at 8-10 DAS)

Main field

Nutrient management

 As per transplanted rice.

 Use of LCC has more advantage in N management.
 Green manure and farm yard manure application will enhance the growth and yield of
rice in this system approach.
  Under sodic soils, during rotary weeding, apply Azophosmet @ 2.2 kg/ha and PPFM as
foliar spray @ 500 ml/ha

LCC N Management

WET SEEDED PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE

Manures and fertilizer application

 For direct wet seeded lowland rice, the recommendation is same at that of transplanted
rice. Apply N and K as 25% each at 21 DAS, at active tillering, PI and heading stages.
 If N applied through LCC, use the critical value 4 for line sown drill seeded rice.
 Entire P as basal applied in the last plough or at the time of incorporation of green
manure/ compost.
 Biofertilizers as recommended to transplanted rice may be followed wherever feasible
and moisture available.
 Micro nutrient, foliar application and biofertlizers as recommended to transplanted rice.
 Incorporation of green manure

DRY SEEDED RAINFED UN-PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE

Manures and fertilizer application

 Blanket recommendation : 50:25:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O /ha

 Apply a basal dose of 750 kg of FYM enriched with fertilizer phosphorus (P at 25 kg/ha)
Apply N and K in two equal splits at 20 - 25 and 40 - 45 days after germination.
 If the moisture availability from the tillering phase is substantial, three splits (25 kg N and
12.5 kg K at 20-25, 40-45 and 60-65 DAG) can be adopted.
 N at PI may be enhanced to 40 kg, if the tiller production is high (may be when the
estimated LAI is greater than 5.0) and moisture availability ensured by standing water for
10 days.
 Basal application of FeSO4 at 50 kg/ha is desirable for iron deficient soil (or) apply
TNAU
 Rainfed rice MN mixture @12.5 kg/ha as EFYM at 1:10 ratio incubated for 30 days at
friable moisture.
 Need based foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO4 and 1% FeSO4 may be taken up at tillering
and PI stages.
 Foliar spray of 1% urea + 2% DAP + 1% KCl at PI and 10 days later may be taken up for
enhancing the rice yield if sufficient soil moisture is ensured.

DRY SEEDED RAINFED UN-PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE WITH SUPPLEMENTAL

IRRIGATION

Manures and fertilizer application

 Blanket recommendation : 75:25:37.5 kg N:P2O5:K2O /ha

 Apply a basal dose of 750 kg of FYM enriched with fertilizer phosphorus (P at 25 kg/ha)
Apply N & K in three splits at 20-25, 40-45 and 60-65 days after germination.
 Each split may follow 25kg N and 12.5 kg K2O.
  If the moisture availability is substantial, split application at panicle initiation may be done
with 40 kg N and 12.5 kg K2O.
 If the moisture availability is substantial, the split at 40-45 DAS (panicle initiation) may be
applied up to 40kg N and 12.5kg K2O to enhance the growth and the grain yield.
 Basal application of ZnSO4 at 25kg/ha and FeSO4 at 50/ha is desirable wherever zinc
and
 iron deficiency were noted (or) apply TNAU Rainfed rice MN mixture @12.5 kg/ha as
EFYM at 1:10 ratio incubated for 30 days at friable moisture.
 Need based foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO4 and 1% FeSO4 may be taken up at tillering
andPI stages.
 Foliar spray of 1% urea + 2% DAP + 1% KCl at PI and 10 days later may be taken up for
enhancing the rice yield if sufficient soil moisture is ensured.

DRY SEEDED IRRIGATED UN-PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE

Manures and fertilizer application

 Apply FYM/compost at 12.5 t/ha or 750 kg of FYM enriched with 50 kg P2O5 as basal
dose in clay soils of Nagapattinam / Tiruvarur district.
 Blanket recommendation : 75:50:37.5 kg N:P2O5:K2O /ha

 N and K in three splits at around 20-25, 40-45 and 60-65 days for short duration varieties
or four splits for medium duration varieties at around 20-25, 40-45, 60-65 and 80-85 days
after germination is suitable.
 Each split may follow 25kg N and 12.5 kg K2O.

 If the moisture availability is substantial and canal water received from tillering phases
itself, the split at panicle initiation (40-45 DAS in short duration and 60-65 DAS in medium
duration) may be applied up to 40kg N and 12.5kg K2O to enhance the growth and the
grain yield.

 To induce tolerance under short and prolonged drought situation in Kuruvai season, apart
from seed treatment, foliar spray with 1% KCl + CCC at 500ppm during vegetative stage
is effective in mitigating the drought and in increasing the yield.

 Basal application of ZnSO4 at 25 kg/ha and FeSO4 at 50 kg/ha is desirable wherever

zinc and iron deficiency were noted (or) apply TNAU Rainfed rice MN mixture @12.5
kg/ha as EFYM at 1:10 ratio incubated for 30 days at friable moisture.

 Need based foliar application of 0.5% ZnSO4 and 1% FeSO4 may be taken up at tillering
and PI stages
 Foliar spray of 1% urea + 2% DAP + 1% KCl at PI and 10 days later may be taken up for
enhancing the rice yield if sufficient soil moisture is ensured.

RICE SEED PRODUCTION

Blanket fertilizer recommendation

Short duration : NPK @ 120:40:40 kg ha-1

Medium duration : NPK @ 150:50:60 kg ha-1
Long duration : NPK @ 150:50:80 kg ha-1

Zinc deficient soils

Apply ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1

Foliar application

 DAP 2% or 0.5% NutriGold (organic growth promotor) at boot leaf stage and at 5-10%
flowering.

 Spray with 3% cowpea sprout extract at vegetative and flowering stage.

Hybrid seed production Techniques (ADTRH 1 and CORH 2)

Fertilizer application

150 : 60 : 60 kg NPK / ha. N and K applied in 3 split doses viz., basal, active tillering and panicle
initiation.

Foliar spray

 Spray DAP 2% at boot leaf stage and at 5-10% flowering (or)

 Spray 0.5% NutriGold (organic growth promoter) at boot leaf stage and at 5-10%
flowering (or)

 Spray 3 % cowpea sprout extract at boot leaf stage and at 5-10% flowering.
 Potassium in Plants
Potassium is essential in nearly all processes needed to sustain plant growth and reproduction.
Plants deficient in potassium are less resistant to drought, excess water, and high and low
temperatures. They are also less resistant to pests, diseases and nematode attacks. Because
potassium improves the overall health of growing plants and helps them fight against disease, it is
known as the "quality" nutrient. Potassium affects quality factors such as size, shape, color and
vigor of the seed or grain, and improves the fiber quality of cotton.

Potassium increases crop yields because it:

 Increases root growth and improves drought tolerance

 Builds cellulose and reduces lodging
 Activates at least 60 enzymes involved in growth
 Aids in photosynthesis and food formation
 Helps translocate sugars and starches
 Produces grains rich in starch
 Increases protein content of plants
 Maintains turgor, reduces water loss and wilting
 Helps retard the spread of crop diseases and nematodes.

Potassium Uptake by Crops

Time of potassium uptake varies with different plants. However, plants generally absorb the
majority of their potassium at an earlier growth stage than they do nitrogen and phosphorus.

Experiments on potassium uptake by corn showed that 70 to 80 percent was absorbed by silking
time, and 100 percent was absorbed three to four weeks after silking. Translocation of potassium
from the leaves and stems to the grain was much less than for phosphorus and nitrogen. The
period during grain formation is apparently not a critical one for supply of potassium.

CROP YIELD UPTAKE (K2O)

 CROP YIELD UPTAKE (K2O)

Alfalfa 10 lb/ton 600 lb/acre

Corn 200 bu/acre 266 lb/acre

Cotton (Lint) 1,500 lb/acre 210 lb/acre

Grain Sorghum 800 lb/acre 240 lb/acre

Peanuts 4,000 lb/acre 185 lb/acre

Soybeans 60 bu/acre 205 lb/acre

Wheat 80 bu/acre 162 lb/acre

Source: IPNI
Note: Potassium content of fertilizers is expressed as K O, although there is no such compound in
2

fertilizers, nor is it absorbed by or found in the plant in that form. Soil and plant tissue analysis
values are usually expressed in terms of percent potassium (K), but fertilizer recommendations are
expressed as K O. To convert from K to K O, multiply K by 1.2. To convert from K O to K, multiply K O
2 2 2 2

by a factor of 0.83.

Potassium Removal by Crops

Nutrient uptake or utilization is an important consideration, but crops take up far more potassium
than they remove with the harvested portion. For example, a 200 bu/acre corn crop takes up or
utilizes about 266 lb/acre of potash. But when the corn is harvested as grain, only 0.25 lb/bu is
removed, or 50 lb/acre K2O is harvested and removed from the field. However, if the crop were
harvested as silage, then 7.3 lb/ton K2O are vested and removed from the field. Therefore, a 32-
ton/acre silage crop would remove 234 lb/acre K2O. Harvest management is the major
consideration in developing a potash fertilization program. Crops harvested in which the whole
plant is removed from the field, like alfalfa hay, must have more potash applied than crops where
only grain, lint or fruit are removed. Often with hay and silage crops, removal is an excellent
guide for planning the potash fertilization program. With other crops, such as grain, soil tests
offer the best guide.

CROP REMOVAL (K2O)

Alfalfa 49.0 lb/ton

Corn Grain 0.25 lb/bu

Corn Silage 7.30 lb/ton

Coflon (Lint) 19.0 lb/bale

Grain Sorghum 0.27 lb/bu

Peanuts (Nuts) 17.0 lb/ton

Rice Grain 0.16 lb/bu

Soybean Grain 1.18 lb/bu

Sugarcane 3.50 lb/ton

Fescue (DM) 54.0 lb/ton

Spring Wheat Grain 0.33 lb/bu

 CROP REMOVAL (K2O)

Winter Wheat Grain 0.29 lb/bu

Source: IPNI

Potassium Deficiency
Symptoms
Potassium is a highly mobile element in the plant and is translocated from the older to younger
tissue. Consequently, potassium deficiency symptoms usually occur first on the lower leaves of
the plant, and progress toward the top as the severity of the deficiency increases. One of the most
common signs of potassium deficiency is the yellow scorching, or firing (chlorosis), along the
leaf margin. In severe cases, the fired margin of the leaf may fall out. However, with broadleaf
crops, such as soybeans and cotton, the entire leaf may shed, resulting in premature defoliation of
the crop.

Potassium-deficient crops grow slowly and have poorly developed root systems. Stalks are weak,
and lodging of cereal crops such as corn and small grain is common. Legumes are not strong
competitors for soil potassium and are often crowded out by grasses in a grass-legume pasture.
When potassium is not sufficient, winter killing of perennial crops such as alfalfa and grasses can
occur.

For more information on potassium deficiency, click here.

Symptoms in Corn

Firing or scorching appears on outer edge of leaf while midrib remains green. May be
some yellow striping on lower leaves. (Sorghum and most grasses also react this way.)
Poor root development, defective nodal tissues, unfilled, chaffy ears, and stalk lodging
are other symptoms in corn.
All photos are provided courtesy of the International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI) and its IPNI Crop Nutrient Deficiency
Image Collection. The photos above are a sample of a greater collection, which provides a comprehensive sampling of
hundreds of classic cases of crop deficiency from research plots and farm fields located around the world. For access to the
full collection, you can visit IPNI's website.

Potassium in Soil

Relatively Unavailable Potassium

From 90 to 98 percent of the total potassium present in soils is found in insoluble primary
minerals that are resistant to chemical breakdown. They release potassium slowly, but in small
quantities compared to total needs of growing crops.

Slowly Available Potassium

This form makes up 1–10 percent of the total potassium supply, and may originate from dissolved
primary minerals or from potassium fertilizers. This potassium is attracted to the surface of clay
minerals, where it may be firmly bound or fixed between the clay layers in a form slowly
available to plants. The actual amount available depends on the type and amount of clay present.

Readily Available Potassium

Readily available forms of potassium make up only 0.1 to 2 percent of the total potassium in the
soil, and consist of potassium dissolved in the soil solution and held on the exchange positions of
the clay and organic matter. This potassium is "exchangeable" because it can be replaced by other
positively charged ions (cations) such as hydrogen, calcium and magnesium. This exchange
happens rapidly and frequently. The potassium in the soil solution may be taken up by the plant
or lost from the soil by leaching, especially on sandy, coarse-textured soils.

Potassium and Balanced Crop

Nutrition
Adequate supplies of other plant nutrients are required to obtain maximum responses to
potassium fertilizer; however, there are several unique relations between potassium and other
nutrients.

High-potassium fertilization can decrease the availability of magnesium to the plant, and may
result in magnesium deficiency of crops grown on soils that are already low in magnesium. This
problem is often encountered with crops grown on sandy soils, particularly in the coastal plain
soils of the southern United States. Conversely, crops grown on soils high in magnesium can
suffer potassium deficiency, especially if the soils are high phosphorus and low in potassium.
This problem is especially severe in the soils of the Mississippi River flood plain.

Leaching of potassium in acidic, sandy soils may be reduced by liming the soil to a pH of 6.2 to
6.5; however, applications of high rates of limestone to a soil low in potassium may induce
potassium deficiency of crops growing on those soils. This problem occurs more on soils with
predominantly 2:1 type clays (such as montmorillonite clays) rather than the 1:1 type (such as
kaolinitic clays).

Percent of soil samples that tested below critical levels for K for major crops in 2010. Source: IPNI

Potassium Fertilizers
Elemental potassium (K) is not found in a pure state in nature because of its high reactivity. It can
be purified, but must be kept in oil to retain its purity and prevent violent reactivity. Potash
deposits occur as beds of solid salts beneath the earth's surface and brines in dying lakes and seas.

Various Potassium Fertilizer Materials and their Percent Nutrient Content

MATERIAL CHEMICAL FORMULA N P2O5 K2O S MG

Potassium Chloride KCl 60-62

 Various Potassium Fertilizer Materials and their Percent Nutrient Content

MATERIAL CHEMICAL FORMULA N P2O5 K2O S MG

Potassium Sulfate K2SO4 50-52 18

Potassium Magnesium Sulfate K2SO42MgSO4 22 22 11

Potassium Nitrate KNO3 13 44

Potassium Sodium Nitrate KNa(NO3)2 15 14

Potassium Hydroxide KOH 83

Potassium Carbonate K2CO3KHCO3 <68

Potassium Orthophosphate KH2PO4K2HPO4 30-60 30-50

Potassium Polyphosphate K4P2O7 40-60 22-48

Potassium Metaphosphate KPO3 55-57 38

Placement of Potassium
Fertilizers
Placement
The common potassium fertilizers are completely water soluble and, in some cases, have a high
salt index. Consequently, when placed too close to seed or transplants, they can decrease seed
germination and plant survival. This fertilizer injury is most severe on sandy soils, under dry
conditions and with high fertilizer rates — especially nitrogen and potassium. Some crops such as
soybeans, cotton and peanuts are much more sensitive to fertilizer injury than corn. Placement of
the fertilizer in a band approximately 3 inches to the side and 2 inches below the seed is an
effective method of preventing fertilizer injury. Band placement of potassium fertilizer is
generally more efficient than broadcast application when the rate of application is low or soil
levels of potassium are low.

Broadcast
Broadcast application of potassium under minimum tillage results in much of the applied
potassium remaining in the top 1 to 2 inches of the soil; whereas, with conventional tillage, it is
distributed throughout the plow layer. Corn usually absorbs sufficient potassium under no-till due
to its extensive root system in the surface layer of the soil. Leaf analysis of corn shows lower
potassium content under minimum tillage than with conventional tillage due to either the location
of the applied potassium or to poorer aeration. Sufficient potassium can be supplied by using a
higher rate of potassium fertilization with no-till systems.
Major irrigation projects in India

Here you can find the list of major irrigation projects in India and the
rivers on which they are built.

Irrigation Project River

Bhakhra Nangal Project Sutlej

Beas Project Beas

Chambal project Chambal

Damodar Valley project Damodar

Gandak project Gandak

Hirakund project Mahanadi

Indira Gandhi Canal Sutlej and Beas

Kosi Project Tapti

Kalkrapar project Tapti

Kosi Project Kosi

Koyna project Koyna

Malprabha Project Malprabha

Mayurkashi Project Mayurkashi

Nagarjuna Project Krishna

Tungbhadra Project Tungbhadra

 Agriculture Produce to Agriculture Marketing
What are the issues in agricultural marketing?
 Indian farmers today can their sell their produce at:

o Farmgate or local market (haat) to village aggregators;

o APMC (agricultural produce market committee) wholesale mandi to
private traders
o To government at the minimum support price (MSP)
o But all three selling options are marred by several issues.
 MSP

o Announced for 23 crops but given for only 3 crops.

o MSP is given only on produce meeting “fair average quality” norms
o Government procurement facilities are not available throughout the
country.
o Also, next phase to growth in agricultural income will come from high yield
commodities like dairy products, vegetables, fruits etc. but the
government still providing MSP in cereals
 APMC

o APMCs technically have multiple buyers, but the system of open auctions
for determining prices through transparent bidding is, in practice, non-
existent.
o In most APMCs, buyers have to route all purchases through licenced
aadhatiyas(middlemen).

 These middlemen charge a commission for their “services” — many

times, both from the buyer and seller.
 The aadhatiya is also often a moneylender, supplying seeds, fertilisers
and pesticides to farmers on credit. They, then, are forced to sell
through him and settle their dues in perpetuity.
o Also, mandi fees ranges from 0.5% to 5% on the value of the sale, while
varying across states and commodities
o Further mandi fees on inter-state trade amount to double taxation,
besides violating the idea of a single national market.
 o Distress sale due to lack of storage infrastructure

 At mandis the lowest prices are during the 3-4 post-harvest months and
highest in the immediate pre-harvest period.
 Farmers undertake maximum sales just after harvest, as they need to
purchase inputs for the next sowing season.
o To rectify this APMC issue:

 The Union Agriculture Ministry has formulated the Model Agricultural

Produce and Livestock Marketing (APLM) Act
 The Act seeks to expand farmers’ marketing choices — by allowing
private markets (as against only APMCs), permitting direct bulk
purchases from the farm gate, declaring warehouses or cold storages
as deemed markets, and demolishing the existing concept of a “market
area”
 But APLM act is witnessing opposition, primarily due to the delineation
of “market area”, which has a bearing on the earnings of APMCs.
 Price volatility

o The root cause of price volatility is the uncontrolled cycles of excesses

and shortages.
o Price projections in a particular commodity are often made based on
previous years’ trends that may not hold true, leading to excess or low
plantings.
What is Market Area as per APMC?

 Currently, an APMC’s purview extends to the entire tehsil and villages in

that sub-district, with any trade undertaken in this so-called market area
being liable for payment of mandi fee.
 The Model APLM Act recognises only the market yard, i.e the area within
the boundary walls where actual trade in the mandi takes place

What are the reforms required?

 Uniform mandi fees:

o It is proposed that a uniform mandi fee of 0.25% or 0.50% be levied

nationwide for foodgrains, oilseeds and fruits & vegetables.
 o The consequent losses to APMCs may be compensated by the Centre
and state governments, as in the case of the Goods and Services Tax.
 Eliminate Aadhatiya-based trading:

o All trade in APMCs should be through open auctioning, involving multiple

bidders for each lot. Such trades should be directly between buyers and
sellers, with no middlemen charging commission.
o The aadhatiya can participate only as a trader.
 Enable sample-based sales:

o The farmer today brings his whole produce to the APMC and the buyers
do the physical inspection before bidding.
o This results in double transportation — from the farm gate to APMC and
from the APMC to the ultimate destination.
o If grading and sorting facilities exist closer to the farm gate, the farmer
needs to take only a sample of his produce, along with the relevant quality
certification documents, to the mandi. It would save both time and cost.
 Storage and banking facilities near APMCs:

o Distress sales can be avoided if facilities for bagging and storage, along
with loans against warehouse receipts, are available to meet immediate
cash requirements. These should exist in the vicinity of APMCs.
 Promote FPOs in marketing:

o Farmer producer organisations/companies should be encouraged to take

up direct marketing of their members’ produce to large buyers and
processors.
o It will result in more competition and better prices at APMCs.
 Relax/abolish Essential Commodities Act(ECA):

o ECA places restrictions on the movement of produce, stockholding,

pricing and adoption of new technologies
o The dismantling of such controls under ECA and other regulations would
expand trade and lead to better realisations for cultivators.
o The narrative of “ease of doing business” is necessary as much for
agriculture as other businesses.
 e-NAM:

o The government has created an electronic national agriculture market

(eNAM) to connect all regulated wholesale produce markets through a
pan-India trading portal.
o Its effectiveness is, however, dependent on the participation of traders
from these mandis.
 Risk management:

o Crop Insurance schemes offer protection to farmers against weather risks.

o The premium in the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana is largely borne by
the Government.
o While still a work in progress, it is a more comprehensive and farmer-
friendly scheme than any other one previously rolled out.
 Increase the number of markets:

o According to Ashok Dalwai Committee, India needs at least 30,000 farms

produce markets, as against the approximately 6,500 now.
o There is a need for a “mini-market” concept to bridge this wide gap.
o Government’s announcement of GRAMs(Gramin rural agricultural market)
is a step in the right direction
o Also with ubiquitous electronic communication and reliable rural roads,
GRAMs can become viable hubs for economic activity and employment
generation.
 AgTech startups should be roped in for price discovery mechanism, so that
price volatility can be controlled.
 Producer consolidation:

o Consolidation of small and fragmented farms into more viable holdings

will improve producers’ access to finance and quality inputs, besides
enabling better price realisations.
o This will also incentivize much-needed investments in land development/
improvement and farm mechanisation.
Addressing the challenges of the agricultural market is complex, yet doable,
as the doubling of farmers income cannot come without developing a thriving
market of agriculture. Hence, it is high time that focus must shift from
agricultural production to agricultural marketing.
Agricultural Marketing Strategy

Marketing is any activity that leads you to sell a product. When you decide what products to sell,
what price to ask, where and how to sell them, and how to promote them, you are marketing.
Your strategy is your means of doing something -- how you will meet your objectives of selling
this year’s crop. Depending on the type and size of your farm, and whether you are farming full
or part time, you have several options for how to market your operation.
Organic Farming

Organic farming is a product strategy -- it defines the type of product you are selling. Farmers
select organic farming for several reasons. They may believe in the concept of organic foods and
are willing to put in the work involved to achieve and maintain organic standards. In addition,
consumers have demonstrated a willingness to pay more for organic food, which leads to a larger
profit margin than conventionally farmed food, even if you have less acreage.

Farmers' Markets

Selling at a farmer’s market is a distribution and sales strategy that is ideal if you are a small or
medium-sized agricultural producer. It can also be a stepping stone to larger markets if you want
to grow, but with the popularity of these markets, many farmers sell at a different market every
weekend within a reasonable distance from their farms. It allows you to sell several types of
produce, provide recipes and offer taste samples. Another benefit is that market operators or local
communities handle much of the promotion, saving you time and money.
1. Small Business»

2. Advertising & Marketing»

3. Marketing Strategies»

Agricultural Marketing Strategy

by Karen S. Johnson

Related Articles

 1Market Okra
  2Agriculture Commodity Marketing Strategy

 3Ranching Business Ideas

 4Become a Raspberry Farmer

Marketing is any activity that leads you to sell a product. When you decide what
products to sell, what price to ask, where and how to sell them, and how to
promote them, you are marketing. Your strategy is your means of doing
something -- how you will meet your objectives of selling this year’s crop.
Depending on the type and size of your farm, and whether you are farming full
or part time, you have several options for how to market your operation.

Organic Farming

Organic farming is a product strategy -- it defines the type of product you are
selling. Farmers select organic farming for several reasons. They may believe in
the concept of organic foods and are willing to put in the work involved to
achieve and maintain organic standards. In addition, consumers have
demonstrated a willingness to pay more for organic food, which leads to a larger
profit margin than conventionally farmed food, even if you have less acreage.

Farmers' Markets

Selling at a farmer’s market is a distribution and sales strategy that is ideal if

you are a small or medium-sized agricultural producer. It can also be a stepping
stone to larger markets if you want to grow, but with the popularity of these
markets, many farmers sell at a different market every weekend within a
reasonable distance from their farms. It allows you to sell several types of
produce, provide recipes and offer taste samples. Another benefit is that market
operators or local communities handle much of the promotion, saving you time
and money.

Food Hubs

A food hub is a cooperative effort among farmers in a certain region. Using this
model, you address your pricing, selling and promotion marketing strategies.
The hub manager handles the logistics of selling to the consumer or commercial
customer, and gives you -- the grower -- a commitment to purchase a certain
amount of your product. This marketing strategy allows smaller agricultural
businesses to share and minimize risk, while also allowing them to compete as a
group with large food wholesalers.

Community-Supported Agriculture

Try community-supported agriculture as a sales and pricing strategy if you are a

smaller operation that needs reliable cash flow to sustain your operation. With a
CSA, you offer shares in your farm to as many people as your farm can support.
They pay for their shares each year before your crops are harvested, in exchange
for a set amount of food. It can be one box of vegetables, or a box a week --
depending on their subscription or membership, and how much you can
produce. Promote your CSA with online tactics such as social media, a website
and emails.
Market Intelligence: Definition

Market intelligence is defined as the information or data that is derived by an

organization from the market it operates in or wants to operate in, to help
determine market segmentation, market penetration, market opportunity, and
existing market metrics. Market intelligence is a vital aspect to understand the
state of the market, as well as helps collect competitor intelligence which in turn
aids towards becoming profitable.

For example, A company wants to understand who is the right target audience
for a mobile phone they are launching soon. A profile survey can help the
company to shortlist its target audience based on the type of mobile device they
are launching. For instance, if the colors of the phone are bold and its features
are set in a manner to market it as a gaming mobile device, a survey will
shortlist participants who prefer gaming, are in a younger age group and people
who fall in a specific income range. Such information helps the company to
focus its efforts on the right people thus saving costs and efforts.

Market intelligence, however, is not the same as business intelligence. Whilst

business intelligence focuses on mostly internal factors such as billing rates,
headcount, processes etc., market intelligence gathers data externally providing
you a holistic view of the entire market and not just your organization.
However, incorporating market intelligence with business intelligence processes
will enable a company to have a holistic view of the ongoing corporate
performance in specific market conditions.

Market intelligence is closely associated with market research and can be

explained in three simple parts as follows:

Competitor Intelligence – Competitor intelligence can be explained

as the collection of data about your competitor using ethical methods such as
government databases and public records. For example, Japanese automotive
companies were able to capture the US markets and even dominate them using
competitor intelligence. Understanding the need for high quality, fuel-efficient
cars led them to strategize and penetrate the US market successfully.

Product Intelligence – Product intelligence is gathering data related to

competitor products or similar products in the market. For example, A
telecommunications company needs to monitor the prices of competitive mobile
phones in the same segment. A price drop in the competitor product can mean
the company is introducing a new model in the market. Understanding such
information can enable a company to strategically launch their models at the
right time and price.

Market understanding – Market understanding is knowing the market share of

your company, trends in the market, the size of the market and which is your
target market. Understanding the demand in the market, and customer wants can
help a company tremendously to increase their revenues and market share. For
example, A comprehensive market research can give valuable insights to a
brand, for instance, the target market is age 20-40, upper-middle-class family
and the trend in the market is for Crossfit training to get fit and healthy. A
particular gym can use this information and provide services specific to this
requirement enabling them to penetrate the market much faster than the usual
gyms.

Market Intelligence: Types and Methodologies with Examples

While market research is a vast topic and can be gathered through

various quantitative or qualitative methods, most companies prefer the
following basic methodologies to collect market intelligence.

Data collection

Some basic data collection methodologies for Market intelligence are as

follows:

 Surveys

Survey research involves a set of questions put together in a concise manner to

gather data from the target market and analyze the same to create valuable
market intelligence. The larger the group of people, the more reliable are the
results. There are various methods in which surveys can be conducted
depending on what information needs to be collected.

Online Surveys – These are the best and one of the most economical methods
to get data in a swift manner. Such surveys have been associated with unreliable
data, but with newer tools coming into the market, this method has become very
popular and reliable, to get real-time data fast. Furthermore, the majority of the
target audience already prefers online communication, hence online surveys are
the best method to gather market intelligence. For example, A mobile company
wants to understand the competitor’s position in the market to launch its own
product in the same segment. A competitor analysis survey can be conducted to
understand the competitor’s position in the market, their product features, and
their market share. Such information will enable the company to decide the
right audience, the features, and the correct pricing to capture higher market
share.

In-Person Surveys – These surveys are one to one interviews which can be
conducted in high traffic locations such as malls to gather required information.
This also allows you to gather customer feedback as you have the advantage of
showcasing a product or comparing products and gather valuable information.
Such a method has high response rates, however, it is quite expensive as a
skilled person is needed at every location with an appropriate device such as a
tablet which tends to be costly. For example, A FMCG company wants to
launch a new product in the market for women. In-person surveys can be
conducted in malls to understand the trend for particular cosmetic products and
preference of its target audience. Accordingly, the product can be modified and
launched in the market to have a direct impact on the demand of the audience.

Telephone Surveys – These surveys are comparatively less expensive as

compared to in-person surveys but are costlier than mail surveys. Although, a
number of companies use telemarketing and hence the consumer does not
respond well due to constant badgering. Therefore, it gets very difficult to
convince the consumer to take the survey, thus reducing response rates, as well
as the quality of responses. For example, businesses need to understand public
opinion about specific products, for instance – laptops. A telephone survey can
be conducted with a set of questions that include product features, brand
preference, price comfort, and many more, which can help the company to
launch the right kind of product in the market.

Mail Surveys – These are one of the cheapest ways to conduct surveys,
especially to a larger audience. Since the advancement in technology, people
have stopped reading paper mails nowadays and hence the response rates for
such a method is only 3-15%. However, in areas where technology is still
inaccessible, such method is still dominant to gather required information from
the audience.

 Questionnaires – A questionnaire is a series of questions asked in a

printed or online format to conduct research. They can be used for
 qualitative as well as quantitative research and can be used to gather data
from a large set of audience.

 Polls – Polls are somewhat like surveys, however, in such a method there
is only one question to answer. Since it takes very less time to answer
these, the response rate is extremely high.

 Forms – Forms are a set of questions asked by a researcher to collect

very specific information required for the task at hand. Such a method
does not include questions that will state opinions or feedbacks from the
respondent.

 Focus groups – Focus groups are a set of people selected carefully to

represent a target market. Using focus group surveys, a company can
evaluate customer demands and opinions or even take feedback from the
group. This enables to collect information that can be helpful to a
company to penetrate that market or to launch a new product in an
existing market. Usually, a moderator is required to ask the question to a
set of people where a discussion unveils insights into that topic. However,
focus group surveys can now be done online as well thus eliminating the
need for a moderator. For example, A focus group is asked about their
opinions to understand what would be the most ideal phone for them. A
discussion amongst them will give the company information as to what
dimension is most preferred in the market and what are the reasons.
Reasons such as particular features of the product, screen size, the color
of the phone, the speed of the operating system, pricing, etc. can give the
company insights in which particular area they need to invest more and
accordingly use this intelligence to capture higher market share.

 Personal Interviews – Interviews are generally an expensive affair but

provide valuable, reliable information. Such a method is used to
understand in-depth about a particular topic or a product. They are
unstructured open-ended questionnaires and can last to an hour. However,
since they are done on an individual basis, such a method is not preferred
to gather market information, as it will not represent the market as a
whole. Although, interviews with subject matter experts can give you an
understanding of the market trends in a particular industry if you are not
well acquainted with such industry information. For example, A company
wants to understand what are the current technological trends in the
 market. An interview with a subject matter expert in technological
solutions can give a company valuable information as to what is trending
and what can be expected in the near future. Accordingly, strategic
business decisions can be taken to invest in the right direction.

 Observation – Sometimes the data gathered through other types will not
give you reliable data or won’t give you insights about the customer
attitudes or buying behavior. In such a case the observation method
provides you with information such as habits of the customer, buying
patterns, customer preferences such as quality or price, etc.
Understanding this information will enable a company to sell better and
make changes in their products according to the demand. For example,
Brands have cameras fitted in their stores, which are continuously
recording and viewed later to understand the behavior of their consumers.
Using this observation, a company can hack into unconscious buying
behaviors or attitudes of the target market.

 Field trials – Field trials are like conducting experiments in real time. It
involves placing a product in specific stores to understand customer
response to the new product. It can be called a pilot run to test the product
in the market. For example, A chocolate company wants to test a new
product they want to launch. Hence a few select stores are provided with
these chocolates to be tested with their target customers. These customers
have to represent the target market and hence their feedback will enable
the company to understand if the product will work in the market or not.

Analysis

Information is different from intelligence. Information is not useful until it has

some meaning to it. Information is nothing but knowledge about a particular
topic or product, while intelligence is about meaningful information which can
be used to take action. In order to transform collected data to meaningful
intelligence, analysis has to be performed on the collected data. There are
various market intelligence software in the market. Such software not only
allows you to collect data but also analyze the data using advanced analytical
methods. Analyzing the information collected helps you transform it to valuable
market intelligence thus enabling a company to understand target market
opinions, trends, competition and where improvements or modifications are
needed. Advanced analytical techniques such as Conjoint analysis, Maxdiff
analysis, Gap analysis, Trend analysis, Text and Sentiment analysis allow a
company to understand the market accurately which aid them to make strategic
business decisions.

For example, it is important for a company to monitor the market on an ongoing

basis. By analyzing and monitoring the trends, measuring customer satisfaction
scores and Net promoter scores, a company can stay competitive and manage to
increase the market shares, its revenues and also retain its customers. If needed,
accordingly decisions can be taken to change or modify the product on the basis
of the current trends or the situation.

Reports and Presentation

Reports and presentation are an important step in using market intelligence.

Reports and visual infographics will enable a company to understand the
markets in an easier manner and can answer questions like what do the metrics
mean? Wrong interpretation of such data can be hazardous for the company,
hence this step plays a vital role in the market intelligence process. The entire
market intelligence process has now become much easier using reliable and
powerful market intelligence software. Thus using market intelligence
effectively can enable a company to penetrate a market successfully and
effectively, determine market segmentation, understand the competition and
understand the market as a whole.

Advantages of Market Intelligence

Market intelligence not only helps companies to distinguish their brand from its
competitors but also helps in providing valuable information to stay in the game
and excel at it. Following are some of the benefits that market intelligence
provides.

 Holistic view of the market – Understanding the market completely can

lead a company to success in no time. Market intelligence is gathering
data in real time from the market and further understanding the
customers, trends, behaviors, etc, thus enabling a company to stay
competitive and meet market demands.

 Customer retention – No matter how old a customer is to a company,

they are always being monitored and attacked by the competition.
Understanding when the customer is dissatisfied and the reasons behind it
can prevent loss of customers. Market intelligence can help you analyze
 and give you insights into the areas of improvements that are needed by
the customers and thus help you retain them and understand customer
lifetime value.

 Improve sales process – Businesses having a variety of products and a

large number of customers often face an issue, i.e. which product to target
to which groups? Market intelligence helps you to determine market
segmentation, thus allowing the company to understand which product
will succeed with which group of people.

 Boost process efficiency – Market intelligence helps businesses to boost

overall efficiency and productivity by identifying gaps, giving actionable
insights to devise crucial strategies and provides an organization with real
time data and analytics.

 Gives a competitive advantage – First mover advantage or the launch of

a product at the perfect time is a well heard off statement in a lot of
business conversation. These are possible only by using market
intelligence. Market intelligence helps you keep a watch on the
competition, the upcoming trends, and gives a complete picture of the
market, which allows a company to penetrate the market or capture the
market share by launching a product or a new feature at the right time
thus giving them a competitive advantage.

Importance of Market Intelligence

Market intelligence is vital to the success of any organization, being the

foundation on which all marketing is based. Effective use of market intelligence
involves the collection of data, analysis and end use of the information. Market
intelligence helps you to become customer-centric, understand the market
demands and consumer opinions, collect real-time relevant data, boost your
upselling opportunities, reduce risks, capture higher market shares and gives
you a competitive advantage. These benefits are crucial to the success of any
business and hence market intelligence is one of the most crucial elements in
executing effective plans for the prosperity of any business.

Following are a few points, to understand why market intelligence is crucial to

any business.

To understand your position in the market – Collecting market intelligence

through surveys allows you to understand the market in-depth. It will give you
insights into what the competitors are doing, what is the market demand and
who will be your target audience and many more. Analyzing this information
will enable a company to evaluate its position in the market and make strategies
accordingly.

To evaluate your product – Conducting marketing intelligence surveys will

give you actionable insights on the product trends in the market, the demand for
specific features and product specification currently in demand. Such
information helps you to evaluate your product and make wise business
decisions accordingly.

To know your target audience – Gathering market intelligence will allow a

company to understand the needs of the audience and using surveys, businesses
can shortlist their target audience for specific products/services.

To conduct competitor analysis – Market intelligence is a vast field.

Conducting surveys to gather intelligence about your competitors is vital in
today’s business environment. Using such information, businesses can modify
their products as per the need, understand competitors failures or successes, and
devise strategies based on the competitor’s position.
Agricultural Price Policy in India

Introduction to Agricultural Policy:

Price policy plays a pioneer role in the economic development of a country. It is

an important instrument for providing incentives to farmers for motivating them
to go in for production oriented investment and technology.

In a developing country like India where majority of the population devotes 2/3
of its expenditure on food alone and where majority of the population is
engaged in agricultural sector, prices affect both income and consumption of the
cultivators. The Govt. of India announces each year procurement/support prices
for major agricultural commodities and organizes purchase operations through
public agencies.

Need of Agricultural Price Policy:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Undoubtedly, violent fluctuations in agricultural prices have harmful results.

For instance, a steep decline in the price of particular crop in few years can
inflict heavy losses on the growers of that crop. This will not only reduce the
income but also dampen the spirit to cultivate the same crop in the coming year.
If this happens to be a staple food item of the people, supply will remain below
the demand.

This will force the Govt. to fill the gap by restoring imports (in case of no buffer
stock). If, on the other hand, prices of a particular crop increase rapidly in the
particular period, them the consumer will definitely suffer. In case, the prices
continuously increase for the particular crop, this can have disastrous effect on
the sector of the economy.

Objectives of Agricultural Price Policy:

The objectives of agricultural price policy vary from country to country

depending upon the place of agriculture in national economy. Generally, in
developed countries, the major objective of price policy is to prevent drastic fall
in agricultural income while in developing economies it is to increase the
agricultural production.

However, its main objectives are summarized below:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(i) To Ensure Relation between Prices of Food-grains and Agricultural

Goods:

The foremost objective of agricultural price policy is to ensure the appropriate

relationship between the prices of food grains and nonfood grains and between
the agricultural commodities so that the terms of trade between these two
sectors of the economy do not change sharply against one another.

(ii) To Watch Interests of Producers and Consumers:

To achieve the balance between the interest of producers and consumers, price
policy should keep a close eye the fluctuations within maximum and minimum
limits.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(iii) Relation Between Prices of Crops:

The price policy should be such which may sustain the relationship between the
prices of competing crops in order to fulfill the production targets in respect of
different commodities in accordance of its demand.

(iv) To Control Seasonal Fluctuations:

Another object of price policy is to control cyclical and seasonal fluctuations of

price rise to the minimum extent.

(v) Integrate the Price:

The agricultural price policy should also aim at to bring the greater integration
of price between the various regions in the country so that regular flow of
marketable surplus could be maintained and exports of farm products stimulated
regularly.

(vi) Stabilise the General Price:

To stabilize the general price level, it should aim at increasing the public outlay
to boost economic development in the country.

(vii) Increase in Production:

ADVERTISEMENTS:
The agricultural price should aim at to raise the production of various
commodities in the country. Therefore, it must keep balance between output and
input required by the cultivations.

Major Objectives:

The important objectives of the new agricultural policy are stated below:

1. Facilities for All-Round Development:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

In order to accelerate the pace of development, the new agricultural policy has
set an objective to augment facilities for processing, marketing, storage,
irrigation, along with development of horticulture, fisheries, biomass, livestock,
sericulture etc. for all round development of agricultural sector.

2. Infrastructural Development:

The new policy favoured to make the provision for infrastructural development
related to agriculture and thereby to infuse new dynamism through increased
volume of public investment.

3. Revising and Strengthening Co-Operatives:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The policy also aims at reviving and strengthening Co-operatives and local
communities for the development of agriculture.

4. Involvement of NGOs:

The policy also aims at involving the nongovernment organisations on a large

scale for the development of agricultural sector.

5. Encouragement:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The policy aims at providing necessary support, encouragement and thrust on

farming activities so that rural people accept it as a noble and viable occupation.

Features of New Agricultural Policy:

The important measures or features of new agricultural policy are
summarized as under:

(i) Raising Capital Formation:

The new policy has undertaken a strategy to raise the rate of capital formation in
agricultural sector as the same is maintaining a decreasing trend from 18.7 per
cent of total gross capital formation in 1978- 79 to only 9.5 per cent in 1993-94.

As the invisible resources are being diverted from agriculture to industry and
sectors, the new policy, thus introduces measures to rechnelise available
resources for productive investment in the sector. The policy will focus to create
a better investment climate for the farmers by introducing a favourable price
and trade regime.

(ii) Enhancing Public Investment:

In order to raise the volume of public investment, new agricultural policy will
take steps to create public investment for building supportive infrastructure for
agriculture. Conservation of water and use of alternative and renewable sources
of energy for irrigation and other agricultural works have also been encouraged.
Such enhancement of infrastructural investment will reduce the regional
imbalances and generates more value added exportable surpluses.

(iii) Raising the Flow of Credit:

The policy will make an attempt to enhance the flow of credit to the agricultural
sector. In this connection, the Co-operative credit societies were engaged for
such purpose.

(iv) Improving Agricultural Marketing:

An attempt will be made to improve the marketing arrangement of agricultural

produce through agro- processing, marketing and storage.

(v) Ensuring Remunerative Prices:

The new policy has entrusted the Government to undertake responsibility for
ensuring remunerative prices of agricultural produce to the farming community
by adopting necessary price support policy.

(vi) Raising Agro-Exports:

The new policy has made an attempt for harnessing the comparative natural
advantage in agricultural export of the country. The policy has laid special
thrust on the exports of fruits, vegetables, flowers, poultry and livestock
products so as to raise the share of agricultural exports.

(vii) Land Reforms:

The new policy will make efforts to take land reform measures for the interest
of small and marginal farmers and raise agricultural output.

(viii) Development of Land:

The policy has made an attempt to develop land permanently for cultivation to
meet the growing needs of population. In order to develop rainfed areas of the
country watershed management scheme has been given much importance so as
to bring integrated development of the land.

(ix) Treating Agriculture at Par with Industry:

The steps for creating a positive trade and investment climate for agriculture
and also to treat agriculture at par with industry for the purpose will be taken.

(x) Crop Insurance Scheme:

Considering the problems of crop failure and high risk of instability in

production, the policy stressed for redesigning the crop and livestock insurance
schemes in a comprehensive manner so that the farmers can recover their losses
arising out of natural disasters.

Types of Agricultural Price Policy:

The prices favourable to the producers of agricultural products may work

against the interest of the non-agricultural sector vice-versa. In fact, this has
been one of the major considerations underlying the agricultural price in various
countries during the course of the development of their economies.

Sometimes, the prices of agricultural products as well as the agricultural inputs

have been so manipulated and the ancillary fiscal and administrative policy so
devised that the benefits of development of the agricultural sector were partly or
wholly passed on to the industrial sector. Such a policy changed the terms of
trade, against agriculture.
On some other occasions, the price policy has favoured the agricultural sector at
the cost of the non-agriculture sector. The two types of price policy have been
called ‘Negative’ and ‘Positive’ price policies respectively.

The following paragraph discuss these two price policies in some detail:

1. Negative Price Policy:

In the context of the policy of accelerating economic growth, a “negative”

agricultural price policy has been practiced by a large number of countries in
the early stages of their development.

The main objectives of such a policy was to keep the prices of food and raw
materials relatively low (when compared with the prices of industrial products)
so as to facilitate the growth of the industrial and tertiary sectors and to provide
surpluses in the form of savings for these sectors. In other words, the terms of
trade were purposively kept unfavourable for the agricultural sector.

2. Positive Price Policy:

In contrast to the above methods, a number of countries today follow what may
be termed as the “positive” price policy which consists of light taxes on the
agricultural sector and also assure the farmer of a fair price for his produce.

Such a policy is considered necessary in the context of the realisation that

unless the agricultural sector attains some critical minimum rate of growth, it
would not be possible to attain the general targets of economic growth and
development.

This is true for a number of reasons, chief among which are:

(i) In most of the developing countries, agriculture continues to be the single

most important sector from the points of view of generating income,
employment and exports, and

(ii) The increasing demand for food caused by increasing population and rising
money incomes can be met only by a continuously growing agricultural
production.

Evaluation of Agricultural Price Policy:

The draft agricultural policy envisages 3.5 per cent annual growth in agriculture
as compared to 2.6 per cent growth rate registered since independence. The
draft of the National Agricultural Policy circulated for comments has secured
broad agreements form all the State Government, central ministries and
Agricultural Universities.

But its adoption by the Government at this moment might create new problems
for the Union Agriculture Ministry and the Planning Commission for its
inclusion within the already launched Ninth Plan. Thus under the present
circumstances, the adoption of the draft agricultural policy by the Government
may take some time for making necessary adjustment with the agriculture
component of the Ninth Plan.

In short the draft agricultural policy has offered a detailed framework of policy
initiative required for the agricultural sector on a long term perspective. By
introducing a favourable price and trade regime, the policy has created a
suitable environment for the sector.

The thrust of the policy is to make the sector a viable and profitable for the
nation. Thus the new policy is expected to improve the quality of life in villages
and can reduce the gap in the social welfare facilities between rural and urban
areas and create sufficient gainful employment opportunities on a self-
sustaining basis.

Moreover, new agricultural policy proposed to accord the status of industry.

The new agricultural policy resolution would bestow the same benefits to
agriculture as were being enjoyed by the industry but care should be taken to
ensure that agriculturists were not subjected to the regulatory and tax collection
machinery of the Government.

Thus the draft agricultural policy was intended for the progress and welfare of
farmers. The Agricultural Ministry has also given stress on drip irrigation
projects so that agriculture did not suffer. Attention was also being paid to
watershed management, soil conservation environment and other aspects which
would benefit agriculture. Besides, the benefits of liberalisation and technology
transfer should reach to the farmers.

Effects of Agricultural Price Policy:

It is correctly stated that agricultural price has worked remarkably well to

streamline the price stability activities.

However, its effect are shortly mentioned below:

1. Incentive to Increase Production:

Agricultural price policy has been providing necessary incentive to the farmers
for raising their agricultural output through modernisation of the sector. The
minimum support price is determined effectively by the government which will
safeguard the interest of the farmers.

2. Increase in the level of income of Farmers:

The agricultural price policy has provided necessary benefit to the farmers by
providing necessary encouragement and incentives to raise their output and also
by supporting its prices. All these have resulted in an increase in the level of
farmers as well as its living standards.

3. Price Stability:

The agricultural price policy has stabilized the price of agricultural products to a
greater extent. It has successfully checked the undue fluctuation of price of
agricultural products. This has created a favourable impact on both the
consumers and producers of the country.

4. Change in Cropping Pattern:

As a result of agricultural price policy, considerable change in cropping pattern

of Indian agriculture is needed. The production of wheat and rice has increased
considerably through the adoption of modern techniques by getting necessary
support from the Government. But the production of pulses and oilseeds could
not achieve any considerable change in the absence of such price support.

5. Benefit to Consumers:

The policy has also resulted in considerable benefit to the consumers by

supplying the essential agricultural commodities at reasonable price regularly.

6. Benefit to Industrials:

The agricultural price policy has also benefited the agro industries, like sugar,
cotton textile, vegetable oil etc. By stabilizing the prices of agricultural
commodities, the policy has made provision for adequate quantity of raw
material for the agro industries of the country at reasonable price.

Shortcomings of Agricultural Price Policy:

The major shortcomings of the agricultural price are as under:

1. Inadequate Coverage:

Inadequate coverage of procurement facility has rendered the price ineffective.

The facility of official procurement reaches only a handful of farmers—of the
total food gains production, procurement covers hardly 15 per cent.

2. Remunerative Price:

The remunerative price and/or subsidized inputs have failed to keep pace with
the rate of increase in costs. It has had two consequences. The farmer is
discouraged from producing the maximum level of output; he tries to balance
his output against the level of costs, and settles for a lower level of output.

3. Ineffective Public Distribution System:

The public distribution has not been very effective. A large section of the poor
people are outside the purview of the system. Even those who are covered under
the system do not necessarily get the benefit of issue prices. The system has
absolutely failed to serve the objective. Besides, the burned on the national
exchequer is increasing enormously.

4. Difference in Prices:

There is an important issue of wide difference between prices received by the

producers and prices paid by the consumers. In this context, issues relating to
the network of regulations and costs associated with it, incidence of octroi,
increase in transportation costs, over fragmentation of the distribution network
etc. require careful study.

5. Unaccompanied by Effective Policy:

The efficacy of the price policy depends on a number of other factors inherent
in the system of agricultural operations like land holding patterns, income
distribution, general disparities and cropping pattern. But, it is pity to say that
the price policy has not been accompanied by any effective policy for a total
development of agriculture.

A continuous increase in procurement prices may have even an adverse impact

on agricultural productivity. Price increases which over-compensate cost
increases can discourage measures to raise agricultural productivity since such
prices automatically lead to higher profits for the farmers.

Suggestions for Reorientation of Agricultural Price Policy:

The adequacy of the present agricultural price policy calls for reorientation in
relation to the priority objectives which are likely to shape the development
strategy. Considering the present critical situation in the national economy,
concern with and about broad-based and sustained growth is bound to be a
dominant objective. Such crucial issues relating to the strategy needed to
achieve such growth are yet to be settled and focused.

Given the recent thinking in India and outside on the relative roles of
government, markets, private enterprise and non-government organizations, a
careful look would have to be given to the issues regarding spheres appropriate
for direct government intervention.

While it is important to explore opportunities to transfer certain takes from the

government to others, it would be equally important to demarcate areas, where
the government must act. It would be wishful to assume that wherever the
government performs badly, others would readily take-over and do better.

This means that top priority should be given to national issues rather than
ideological issues of different political parties of the country. There is ample
reflection of these broader objective in the recent and continuing discussion on
the yet to be finalized Agricultural Policy Resolution.

Some obvious indications are:

(i) Systematic attempts to orient agricultural planning towards effective use of

resource endowments

(ii) A much-expanded employment-cum-investment programme for

conservation and upgradation of land and water resources;

(iii) Greater priority for dry land agriculture,

(iv) A substantial set-up in the proportion of total planned resources earmarked

for agriculture/rural sectors; and

(v) Time-bond targets for provision of rural infrastructures, etc.

(vi) Comparative advantages of grow climatic areas of the country,

(vii) Policy regarding growth of inputs and extension services and marketing
etc.

Sincere and determined efforts for development of agriculture/rural sectors

would have three main implications for the agricultural price policy.

1. Agricultural growth in the areas, crops and farms which have remained
stagnant so far would have the effect of expanding the boundaries of that part of
Indian agriculture which is responsive to agricultural price changes.

2. Improvements in what CACP considers as important ‘non-price’ factors—

technology, inputs, marketing etc. —would add to the effectiveness of price
policy as an instrument to promote growth along with efficiency and cost
effectiveness.

3. The most important, if income and welfare support for the poor and the
problems of non-viable small and marginal farmers get priority attention in the
overall development strategy, the price policy would be able to focus itself more
pointedly on its primary economic functions.

In view of the above considerations, following suggestions can be made in

regard to reorientation of the agricultural price policy:

1. Minimum Support Prices:

Two economic criteria should govern the operations based on minimum support
price. First, it should give protection only to the efficient producer so that
minimum support price promotes growth and efficiency and merely subsidizes
all sections of farmers.

Specifically, it is urgent to realize that non-viable farmers cannot be helped

simply by fixing a high enough minimum support price; the solution of their
problems lies in other areas than in policy. Secondly, the protection should be
given only to prevent losses being made by the efficient producer and not to
ensure him profits.

2. Maximum Price:

The criteria for fixing a maximum for the prices of a commodity are not equally
easy or strength forward to stipulate.

The primary responsibility of the government in relation to price level is:

(a) To keep in check the inflationary forces bringing about increases—sustained
and cumulative—in the overall price level, and

(b) Elimination of collusive and manipulative practices leading to artificial

scarcity and high prices for particular commodities.

If these two sources of price rise are effectively neutralized, it is difficult to

think of any need to match every minimum support price with corresponding
ceiling price. When the stability of the general price level is maintained; the
efficacy of the price mechanism would depend on the extent to which the
relative prices are left free to vary in response to changes in the underlying
supply and demand conditions.

3. Balanced and Integrated Price Structure:

A balanced and integrated price structure criteria should be evolved. This type
of price structure would help not so much in price fixation as in monitoring the
changes in factors which affect prices. The extent to which an agricultural price
policy would help development strategy and planning for agriculture would
depend on its capacity to extrapolate, forecast and work out the implications of
alternative actions.

In a market-based economy, such analytical exercises would need models of

interconnected markets based on the concept of equilibrium and capable of
showing the manner in which the markets adjust to policy interventions,
disturbances etc.

Summary of Agricultural Price Policy in India:

The summary of agricultural price policy followed by the Government of

India since independence is stated below:

(i) Setting Institutions:

The Government of India has set up some institutions for the implementation of
agricultural price policy in the country accordingly; the Agricultural Price
Commission was set up in 1965 which announced the minimum support prices
and procurement prices for the agricultural products. In 1985, the name of this
institution was changed into Agricultural cost and Price Commission.
Moreover, the Food grains policy.
Committee was, appointed by the Government in 1966 which also
recommended various measures of price support. The Food Corporation of
India was also set up in 1965 for making necessary procurement, storage and
distribution of food grains.

In 1989-90, total capital employed in FCI was to the Extent of Rs. 5138 crore
with its total storage capacity at 18 million tones. The corporation organises the
price of food grains at government determined price and sale these food stocks
through the network distribution system. In the year 2009-10 and 16.28 million
tonnes of wheat and 4.94 million tonnes rice were distributed to FCI.

(ii) Minimum Support Price:

The government fixes the minimum support prices of agricultural products like
wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane, pulses etc. regularly to safeguard the
interest of farmers. The FCI also make their purchase of food grains at the
procurement prices so as to maintain a rational price of food grains in the
interest of farmers.

(iii) Protecting the Consumers:

To safeguard the interest of the consumers, the agricultural price policy has
made provision for buffer stock of food grains for its distribution among the
consumers through public distribution system.

(iv) Fixation of Maximum Price:

In order to have a control over the prices of essential commodities the

government usually determines the maximum price of agricultural products so
as to protect the general people from exorbitant rise in prices.
Crop Insurance

Crop Insurance

 Refers to insurance services brought by farmers against loss or damage to

growing crops.

 Damages can be due to natural disasters such as drought, hail, floods, or

either due to decline in prices of the agriculture commodity.

History of Crop Insurance in India

 As far back as 1915 in the pre-independence era, J.S. Chakravarthi had

proposed a rain insurance scheme for the farmers with view to insuring
them against drought. His scheme was based on, what is referred to today
as the ‘Area Approach’.

 Apart from this, certain princely states like Madras, Dewas, and Baroda,
also made attempts to introduce crop insurance relief in various forms,
but with little success.
  After independence, the first crop insurance program was introduced in
1972-73 by LIC on Cotton in Gujarat.

 Later in 1972, the newly set up General Insurance Corporation (GIC)

took over the experimental scheme and subsequently widened the
coverage of crops as well as area of implementation. This experimental
scheme was based on ‘Individual Approach’.

 It was realized that crop insurance programmes based on the individual

farm approach would not be viable in India.

 Professor V. M. Dandekar (Father of Crop Insurance in India) suggested

an alternate ‘Homogeneous Area Approach’. Based on this approach, the
General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) introduced a Pilot Crop
Insurance Scheme from 1979.

 Based on the learning from Pilot Crop Insurance Scheme,

the Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme was introduced in
1985 by the Government of India. The CCIS was implemented on
Homogeneous Area Approach. All crop loans given for notified crops in
notified areas were compulsorily covered under the CCIS.

 The CCIS was eventually discontinued after Kharif 1999, to be replaced

by the improved and expanded National Agriculture Insurance
Scheme (NAIS).

 Later “National Crop Insurance Programme” was launched in 2013

by merging three schemes viz. Modified National Agricultural insurance
Scheme (MNAIS), Weather Based Crop insurance Scheme (WBCIS) and
Coconut Palm Insurance Scheme (CPIS).

 Since 2016, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana is being implemented

by replacing MNAIS and CPIS.

 But WBCIS is still working along with PMFBY.

Crop Insurance Schemes

Why it is difficult to design

1. The risk of crop loss has a significant systemic component; and

 2. Ex ante risk assessment and ex post loss assessment for individual
farmers are costly.

Crop insurance is mandatory for

1. farmers who have taken short-term crop loan (loanee farmers).

But Crop Insurance is voluntary for

1. all other farmers (non-loanee farmers).

The premium of crop insurance is

1. Is deducted from the loan amount for loanee farmers, and claim, if any, is
adjusted against the loan amount.

2. The non-loanee farmers, pay premium from their pocket, and receive the
claim amount if crop loss is recognised.

Coverage of crop insurance (according to Govt):

1. around 26% farmers have been covered in 2017 so far.

Reasons behind the low demand for crop insurance in India

 In India, demand for crop insurance is highly price-sensitive.

1. Even a small change in premium rates leads to wide shifts in demand.

2. PMFBY, with its attractive premium, is expected to be a hit.

 Poor awareness.

1. An overwhelming majority (60% farmers) lack awareness about crop

insurance schemes (NSSO)

 Delay in settlement of claims.

1. Lengthy and complex system of claim settlement discourages farmers

from insuring their crops.

 Mandatory only for loanee farmers

1. Thus, PSBs do not have any incentive to sell it to non-loanee farmers.

Livestock Insurance
The Livestock Insurance Scheme:

1. Is centrally sponsored scheme

2. Implemented on a pilot basis during 2005-08 in 100 selected districts

3. Presently being implemented in all districts of the country (since 2014) as

a sub-mission under the National Livestock Mission

Under the scheme

 The animals

1. Indigenous / crossbred milch animals

2. Pack animals (Horses, Donkey, Mules, Camels, Ponies and Cattle/Buffalo

Male)

3. and Other Livestock (Goat, Sheep, Pigs, Rabbit, Yak and Mithun etc.)

 The insurance:

1. Done at their current market price

2. Premium subsidy of 50% is borne entirely by centre

 Twin objectives are to:

1. Protect incomes

2. Popularize livestock insurance (ultimate aim – qualitative improvement in

livestock and their products)

CAG report on Agriculture insurance in India

 CAG audit report of centre’s crop insurance schemes has highlighted

gaps in their implementation.

 Two schemes that were audited: From Kharif 2011 to Rabi 2015-16

1. Modified National Agriculture Insurance Scheme ( MNAIS )

2. National Crop Insurance Programme ( NCIP )

 The present Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana has not been scrutinised
by the CAG.
  It came in Kharif 2016.

Problems highlighted by CAG in Agri-insurance in India

 Delayed payments by state government.

 Agriculture Insurance Company Of India Ltd. ( AIC ) failed to follow due

to protocols in verification of claims by private insurance companies
before releasing funds to them.

 Difficulty in cross checking

 Missing records of beneficiaries

 The low inclusion of Small and Marginal farmers

 Low coverage of non-loanee farmers.

 Lack of Awareness

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)

 Started in the Kharif season of 2016

 To reduce the burden of crop insurance on farmers.

 In line with ‘One Nation – One Scheme’ theme.

 Replaced the National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) and

Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS).

 The Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) remains in place,

though its premium rates have been made the same as in PMFBY.

 State governments to decide whether they want PMFBY, WBCIS or both

in their states.

 It incorporates the best features of all previous schemes and at the same
time, all previous shortcomings/weaknesses have been addressed.

How is PMFBY different

 Lowest premium for farmers

1. in the history of Independent India

 2. kept at a maximum of 1.5% for Rabi, 2% for Kharif and 5%
for annual horticultural/commercial crops

 Uncapped premium would ensure farmers get a higher claim

1. ≥25% of the claim is settled directly through farmers’ bank

account

2. previous schemes had higher + capped premium

 The scheme

 is open to all farmers irrespective of whether they are loanees or not

1. previously, loanee farmers were mandated to take crop

insurance

 Covers localised losses due to floods

1. Only hailstorm and landslide were covered in previous

schemes.

 Post-harvest loss

1. Previous schemes covered only coastal areas for cyclones.

2. PMFBY covers all-India for both cyclonic and unseasonal

rains.

 Use of modern tech for quicker assessment and claim settlement\

1. PMFBY makes it mandatory – remote sensing, smartphones

etc

2. Previous schemes only relied on Crop Cutting Experiment

(CCE) data instead

3. Collecting this data and processing of claims delayed

settlement

 Awareness generation (AG)

1. Previous schemes did not focus on AG; therefore insurance

adoption remained low

2. PMFBY targets at least 50% coverage through greater AG

Successes of PMFBY

 In the very first Kharif season (2016)

1. The area under coverage increased by 38% (vs. 2015)

2. The number of farmers covered increased by 47% (vs. 2015)

3. Sum insured (per ha) increased by 51% (vs. 2015)

4. The number of non-loanee farmers opting for PMFBY increased by

23%, driven primarily by Maharashtra.

5. Increase in risk coverage against non-preventable natural risks

from pre-sowing to post-harvest losses

Challenges / Loopholes

 Settling claims

1. Slow submitting yield data by states to the insurance

companies.

2. The lackadaisical attitude of state agencies causes painful

delays.

3. Farmers still to get over Rs 5,600 crore worth of estimated

claims from the 2016 kharif season

 Assessing crop losses

1. Modern tech not used to the fullest, despite being mandatory causing
huge delays in assessment and reporting

2. The states are also slow in conducting village-level crop-cutting

experiments

 No direct connection with the farmers

1. Everything from damage assessment to claim settlement by govt

and insurance companies.

2. Therefore farmers have no role.

3. The premiums are collected and passed on by the banks that extend
loans to the farmers.
 4. “More as loan insurance than as crop insurance”.

Conclusion on PMFBY

 PMFBY has made appreciable progress in terms of coverage

 But it has failed in timely settlement of claims

 If the PMFBY has to succeed farmers must have a bigger stake in its
functioning

 Use modern tech in crop assessment and reporting

 Modern tech is crucial for timely claim settlement

 Link the insurance database with Core Banking Solution (CBS) so as to

keep farmers apprised of premium deductions and claim receipt

 Centre should take over the entire premium subsidy burden.

 Ensure social audit

 Cross check by various authorities and stakeholders

Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)

 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

 As defined by the World Bank NGOs refers to not-for-profit

organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the
interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social
services, or undertake community development.

 These organisations are not a part of the governement, have a legal status
and are registered under the specific Act (Societies Registration Act,
1860 in India) of the government.

 The term NGO in India denotes wide spectrum of organisations which

may be non-governmental, quasi or semi governmental, voluntary or non-
voluntary etc.

In India, based on the law under which they operate and the kind of activities
they take up, civil society groups can be classified into following broad
categories:

 Registered Societies formed for specific purposes

 Charitable Organizations and Trusts

 Local Stakeholders Groups, Microcredit and Thrift Enterprises, Self Help

Groups

 Professional Self-Regulatory Bodies

 Cooperatives

 Bodies without having any formal organizational structure

 Government promoted Third Sector Organizations

Need for NGOs

 Since independence, India has achieved phenomenal economic growth in

education, healthcare, poverty alleviation and overall standard of living.

 Issues of exclusion of women, children and marginalized communities in

the development process however remains.
  Other adverse consequences of inequitable growth include the spread of
Naxalism, recurrent violence for reservations and ever increasing cases of
farmer suicides.

 India ranks 130th in the 2018 Human Development Index rankings.

The Global Hunger Index for 2018 indicates that 38.4% of children
under five in India are stunted.

 In such an environment civil society plays a key role in raising the

concerns of people and ensuring that minorities are not neglected.

 The state requires the constructive and collaborative engagement of the

civil society in its various developmental activities and programs.

 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) acts as the operational arm of

the civil society and thus have an important role in the development
processes.

Legislations regulating the finances of NGOs

Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010

 Foreign funding of voluntary organizations in India is regulated under

FCRA act and is implemented by Ministry of Home Affairs.

 The acts ensure that the recipients of foreign contributions adhere to the
stated purpose for which such contribution has been obtained.

 Under the act organisations require to register themselves every five

years.

Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999

 Foreign Exchange Management Act (1999) aims to consolidate and

amend the law relating to foreign exchange with objective of facilitating
external trade and payments and for promoting the orderly development
and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.

 A transaction under FEMA is called a fee or a salary while the same

under FCRA is called a grant or a contribution.

o In 2016, the powers of Ministry of Finance to monitor NGOs were

placed under the FEMA. The idea was to bring all NGOs, which
 receive foreign contributions, under one umbrella for better
monitoring and regulations. The step was taken to that ensure only
one custodian monitors flow of foreign funds to these
organisations.

Constitutional Provisions for NGOs in India

 Article 19(1)(c) on the right to form associations;

 Article 43 which highlights the State’s having an endeavor to promote

cooperatives in rural areas;

 Concurrent List in Entry 28 mentions about – Charities and charitable

institutions, charitable and religious endowments and religious
institutions”.

Role of Non-Governmental Organisations

The Advocacy/Social Safety-Valve Role

 Non-profit organisations play vital role in mobilizing public attention to

societal problems and needs.

 They are the principal vehicle through which communities can give voice
to their concerns.

Improving government performance

 NGOs can broaden government’s accountability by ensuring government

is responsive to citizens at large rather than to narrow sectarian interests.

 They also induce innovation and flexibility in policymaking by bringing

their own independent expertise and research teams.

 They enhance the efficiency of delivery of many services at the local

level through involvement of residents.

 They also improve policy monitoring and evaluation as Comptroller and

auditor general (CAG) takes cognizance of reports and social audits by
NGOs while preparing its reports.

The Service Role

  The non-profit sector acts as a flexible mechanism through which people
concerned about a social or economic problem can begin to respond.

 It also caters to groups of the population who desire a range of public

goods that exceeds what the government or society is willing to support.

 NGOs help in constructive conflict resolution. In the international arena

Track II diplomacy (involving non-governmental bodies) plays a crucial
role in creating an environment of trust and confidence.

Building Community Participation

 The non-profit organisations offer alternative perspectives; and most

importantly, the capacity to conduct a meaningful dialogue with
communities, particularly those that are disadvantaged.

 They foster pluralism, diversity and freedom. Many NGOs work to

preserve and promote India’s diverse culture. For example SPIC
MACAY is a society for promoting Indian classical music and culture
amongst youth.

Activities undertaken by NGOs

 Advocacy, Analysis and Awareness Raising – acting as a voice for

people both on a representative and self-appointed basis; researching,
analyzing and informing the public about issues; mobilizing citizen action
through media campaigns and other forms of activism; and lobbying
business leaders and policymakers.

 Brokerage – acting as an intermediary between different sectors and

groups.

 Conflict resolution – acting as a mediator and facilitator.

 Capacity Building – providing education, training and information.

 Delivery of services – operational delivery of essential humanitarian,

development and/or social services.

 Evaluation and Monitoring – serving as a ‘watchdog’ or third party /

independent ‘auditor’, invited and uninvited, of government and
corporate performance, accountability and transparency.
Issues with NGOs

 Accreditation remains a big challenge as it is very difficult to distinguish

whether an organization wants to work for the cause or has been set up
only for the purpose of receiving government grants.

 Over dependence on funds from the government dilutes the willingness of

NGOs to speak out against the government.

 NGOs have acted as a cover for organized crime in past and are often
seen as fronts for fundamentalist causes. Foreign funded NGOs have been
responsible for organising agitations and scuttling development projects
in India.

 NGOs are often seen as encroaching on centuries-old tradition and culture

of the people, and lead to mass protest at times. Ban of Jallikattu, after the
PIL by PETA is one such example.

Way Forward

 A National Accreditation Council consisting of academicians, activist,

retired bureaucrats should be made to ensure compliance by NGOs.

 There should be better coordination between Ministries of Home Affairs

and Finance in terms of monitoring and regulating illicit and unaccounted
funds.

 A regulatory mechanism to keep a watch on the financial activities of

NGOs and voluntary organizations is the need of the hour.

 Citizens today are keen to play an active role in processes that shape their
lives and it is important that their participation in democracy go beyond
the ritual of voting and should include promotion of social justice, gender
equity, inclusion etc.
Self Help Groups (SHGs)

What are SHGs?

 Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are informal associations of people who choose

to come together to find ways to improve their living conditions.

 It can be defined as self governed, peer controlled information group of

people with similar socio-economic background and having a desire to
collectively perform common purpose.

 Villages face numerous problems related to poverty, illiteracy, lack of

skills, lack of formal credit etc. These problems cannot be tackled at an
individual level and need collective efforts.

 Thus SHG can become a vehicle of change for the poor and marginalized.
SHG rely on the notion of “Self Help” to encourage self-employment and
poverty alleviation.

Functions

 It looks to build the functional capacity of the poor and the

marginalized in the field of employment and income generating activities.

 It resolves conflicts through collective leadership and mutual discussion.

 It provides collateral free loan with terms decided by the group at

the market driven rates.

 Such groups work as a collective guarantee system for members who

propose to borrow from organised sources. The poor collect their savings
and save it in banks. In return they receive easy access to loans with a
small rate of interest to start their micro unit enterprise.

 Consequently, Self-Help Groups have emerged as the most effective

mechanism for delivery of microfinance services to the poor.

Need for SHGs

 One of the reasons for rural poverty in our country is low access to credit
and financial services.
  A Committee constituted under the chairmanship of Dr. C.
Rangarajan to prepare a comprehensive report on 'Financial Inclusion
in the Country' identified four major reasons for lack of financial
inclusion:

o Inability to provide collateral security,

o Poor credit absorption capacity,

o Inadequate reach of the institutions, and

o Weak community network.

 The existence of sound community networks in villages is increasingly

being recognised as one of the most important elements of credit linkage
in the rural areas.

 They help in accessing credit to the poor and thus, play a critical role in
poverty alleviation.

 They also help to build social capital among the poor, especially women.
This empowers women and gives them greater voice in the society.

 Financial independence through self-employment has many externalities

such as improved literacy levels, better health care and even better family
planning.

Genesis of SHG

 The Genesis of SHG in India can be traced to formation of Self-

Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in 1970.

 The SHG Bank Linkage Project launched by NABARD in 1992 has

blossomed into the world’s largest microfinance project.

 NABARD alongwith RBI permitted SHGs to have a savings account in

banks from the year of 1993. This action gave a considerable boost to the
SHG movement and paved the way for the SHG-Bank linkage program.

 In 1999, Government of India, introduced Swarn Jayanti Gram

Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) to promote self-employment in rural areas
through formation and skilling of SHGs.
  The programme evolved as a national movement in 2011 and became
National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) – world’s largest poverty
alleviation programme.

 Today, State Rural Livelihood Missions (SRLMs) are operational in 29

states and 5 UTs (except Delhi and Chandigarh).

 NRLM facilitated universal access to the affordable cost-effective reliable

financial services to the poor like financial literacy, bank account,
savings, credit, insurance, remittance, pension and counselling on
financial services.

Benefits of SHGs

 Social integrity – SHGs encourages collective efforts for combating

practices like dowry, alcoholism etc.

 Gender Equity – SHGs empowers women and inculcates leadership skill

among them. Empowered women participate more actively in gram sabha
and elections.

 There is evidence in this country as well as elsewhere that formation of

Self-Help Groups has a multiplier effect in improving women’s status in
society as well as in the family leading to improvement in their socio-
economic condition and also enhances their self-esteem.

 Pressure Groups – their participation in governance process enables

them to highlight issues such as dowry, alcoholism, the menace of open
defecation, primary health care etc and impact policy decision.

 Voice to marginalized section – Most of the beneficiaries of government

schemes have been from weaker and marginalized communities and
hence their participation through SHGs ensures social justice.

 Financial Inclusion – Priority Sector Lending norms and assurance of

returns incentivize banks to lend to SHGs. The SHG-Bank linkage
programme pioneered by NABARD has made access to credit easier and
reduced the dependence on traditional money lenders and other non-
institutional sources.

 Improving efficiency of government schemes and reducing corruption

through social audits.
  Alternate source of employment – it eases dependency on agriculture by
providing support in setting up micro-enterprises
e.g. personalised business ventures like tailoring, grocery, and tool repair
shops.

 Changes In Consumption Pattern – It has enabled the participating

households to spend more on education, food and health than non-client
households.

 Impact on Housing & Health – The financial inclusion attained through

SHGs has led to reduced child mortality, improved maternal health and
the ability of the poor to combat disease through better nutrition,
housing and health – especially among women and children.

 Banking literacy – It encourages and motivates its members to save and

act as a conduit for formal banking services to reach them.

Opportunities

 SHGs often appear to be instrumental in rural poverty alleviation.

 Economic empowerment through SHGs, provides women the confidence

for participation in decision making affairs at the household-level as well
as at the community-level.

 Un-utilised and underutilised resources of the community can

be mobilised effectively under different SHG-initiatives.

 Leaders and members of successful SHGs bear the potentiality to act as

resource persons for different community developmental initiatives.

 Active involvement in different SHG-initiatives helps members to

grow leadership-skills. Evidences also show that often women SHG
leaders are chosen as potential candidates for Panchayat Pradhans or
representatives to Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI).

Weaknesses of SHGs

 Members of a group do not come necessarily from the poorest families.

 Though there has been social empowerment of the poor, the economic
gain to bring about a qualitative change in their life has not been
satisfactory.
  Many of the activities undertaken by the SHGs are still based on
primitive skills related mostly to primary sector enterprises. With poor
value addition per worker and prevalence of subsistence level wages,
such activities often do not lead to any substantial increase in the income
of group members.

 There is a lack of qualified resource personnel in the rural areas who

could help in skill upgradation or acquisition of new skills by group
members. Further, institutional mechanisms for capacity building and
skill training have been lacking.

 Poor accounting practices and incidents of misappropriation of funds.

 Lack of resources and means to market their goods.

 SHGs are heavily dependent on their promoter NGOs and government

agencies. The withdrawal of support often leads to their collapse.

Challenges

 Lack of knowledge and proper orientation among SHG-members to take

up suitable and profitable livelihood options.

 Patriarchal mindset – primitive thinking and social obligations

discourages women from participating in SHGs thus limiting their
economic avenues.

 Lack of rural banking facilities – There are about 1.2 lakh bank
branches and over 6 lakh villages. Moreover, many public sector banks
and micro-finance institutions are unwilling to provide financial
services to the poor as the cost of servicing remains high.

 Sustainability and the quality of operations of the SHGs have been a

matter of considerable debate.

 No Security – The SHGs work on mutual trust and confidence of the

members. The deposits of the SHGs are not secured or safe

 Only a minority of the Self-Help Groups are able to raise themselves

from a level of micro-finance to that of micro-entrepreneurship.

Measures to Make SHGs Effective

  The Government should play the role of a facilitator and
promoter, create a supportive environment for the growth and
development of the SHG movement.

 Expanding SHG Movement to Credit Deficient Areas of the Country -

such as Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, States of the North-East.

 Rapid expansion of financial infrastructure (including that of

NABARD) and by adopting extensive IT enabled communication and
capacity building measures in these States.

 Extension of Self-Help Groups to Urban/Peri-Urban Areas – efforts

should be made to increase income generation abilities of the urban poor
as there has been a rapid rise in urbanisation and many people remain
financially excluded.

 Positive Attitude – Government functionaries should treat the poor and

marginalized as viable and responsible customers and as possible
entrepreneurs.

 Monitoring – Need to establish a separate SHG monitoring cell in every

state. The cell should have direct links with district and block level
monitoring system. The cell should collect both quantitative and
qualitative information.

 Need Based Approach – Commercial Banks and NABARD in

collaboration with the State Government need to continuously innovate
and design new financial products for these groups.

Case studies

 Kudumbashree in Kerala

o It was launched in Kerala in 1998 to wipe out absolute poverty

through community action. It is the largest women empowering
project in the country. It has three components i.e., microcredit,
entrepreneurship and empowerment. It has three tier structure -
neighborhood groups (SHG), area development society (15-20
SHGs) and Community development society (federation of all
groups). Kudumbashree is a government agency that has a budget
 and staff paid by the government. The three tiers are also managed
by unpaid volunteers.

 Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal (MAVIM) in Maharashtra

o SHGs in Maharashtra were unable to cope with growing volume

and financial transactions and needed professional help.
Community managed resource centre (CMRC) under MAVIM was
launched to provide financial and livelihood services to SHGs.
CMRC is self-sustaining and provides need-based services.
What is a chromosome?

In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like
structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.

Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not even under a

microscope—when the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up
chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then
visible under a microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes
was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division.

Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides
the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome
is labeled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.”
The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific
genes.

DNA and histone proteins are packaged into structures called chromosomes.
Chromosome structure and numbers review

Term Meaning

The full set of genetic information an organism

Genome has in its DNA

Threadlike structure of DNA and protein

Chromosome containing genetic information

Set of chromosomes (one from each parent), that

Homologous are very similar to one another and have the
chromosomes same size/shape

Cell that contains two sets of homologous

Diploid (2n) chromosomes

Haploid (n) Cell that contains only a single set of genes

One of two chromosomes (X or Y) that

Sex chromosome determines an organism's sex

Autosome Chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

Micrograph image of diploid set of

Karyotype chromosomes, grouped in pairs
History

Plant breeding is an ancient activity, dating to the very beginnings

of agriculture. Probably soon after the earliest domestications of cereal grains,
humans began to recognize degrees of excellence among the plants in their
fields and saved seed from the best for planting new crops. Such tentative
selective methods were the forerunners of early plant-breeding procedures.

The results of early plant-breeding procedures were conspicuous. Most present-

day varieties are so modified from their wild progenitors that they are unable to
survive in nature. Indeed, in some cases, the cultivated forms are so strikingly
different from existing wild relatives that it is difficult even to identify their
ancestors. These remarkable transformations were accomplished by early plant
breeders in a very short time from an evolutionary point of view, and the rate of
change was probably greater than for any other evolutionary event.

In the mid-1800s Gregor Mendel outlined the principles of heredity using pea
plants and thus provided the necessary framework for scientific plant breeding.
As the laws of genetic inheritance were further delineated in the early 20th
century, a beginning was made toward applying them to the improvement of
plants. One of the major facts that emerged during the short history of scientific
breeding is that an enormous wealth of genetic variability exists in the plants of
the world and that only a start has been made in tapping its potential.
Mendel's law of segregationCross of a purple-flowered and a white-flowered
strain of peas. R stands for the gene for purple flowers and r for the gene for
white flowers.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Law of homologous series / Law of Parallel Variation

Law of Parallel Variation

 The concept of parallel variation also known as law of homologous series

of variation was developed by Vavilov (1951) based on his study of crop
diversity and centres of origin. Law of homologous series states that a
particular variation observed in a crop species is also expected to be
available in its related species. For instance, if we get dwarf collections in
one species of a crop, the same may be observed in another related
species also. Vavilov used principle of homologous series of variation as
a clue for discovering similar characters in related species.
 Recurrent selection and types

Introduction

 The recurrent selection was first suggested by Hayes and Garber in 1919.
Independently byEast and Jones 1920. In 1945, Hull suggested that
recurred selection will be useful in improving specific combining ability.
It is devisedinheterosisbreedingisolation of superior inbreds from the
population and to utilize themin hybrid and synthetic varieties.

Isolation of inbred depends on two factors

 1) The proportion of superior genotypes present in the base population from which

inbreds are isolated.

 2) The effectives of selection during the inbreeding process increasing the

frequency gene combinations.

 The recurrent selection schemes are of4 different types.

Simple recurrent selection

 A number of desirable plants are selected and self pollinated. Separate progeny rows

are grown from the selected plants in next generation. The progenies are intercrossed

in all possible combination by hand. Equal amount of seed from each cross is mixed

to raise next generation. This completes original selection cycle. From this, several

desirable plants are selected and self pollinated. Progeny rows are grown and inter

crosses made. Equal amount of seeds are composited to raise next generation. This

forms the first recurrent selection cycle.

First Year:

i) Several superior plants are selected.

ii) Selected plants selfed.

iii) Harvest thesingle plants.

iv) Seedsare evaluated, superior plants are identified.

Second Year:

i) Progeny rows raised

ii) Inter crosses are made in all combination by hand.

iii) Equal amount of seed Recurrent bulked from each cross Selection Cycle.

Third Year:

i) Composited seeds raised

ii)Repeattheoperationasin firstyear

Fourth Year:

Repeat as in second year.

i) Recurrent selection is effective in increasing the frequency of desirable genes in the

population

ii) Most suited for characters having high heritability.

iii) Inbreeding is kept at minimum.

 Eg: oil content. Protein content and high heritability traits are affective for increasing

the frequency of desireble genes in the selected populations

Recurrent selection for General combining ability

 Recurrent selection for general combining ability was proposed by Jenkins 1935. The

progenies are crossed with tester strain with a broad genetic base. So plants are

selected on the basis of superior performance of their plant X tester progenies would

have superior GCA.

First Year:

 A number of phenotypically outstanding plants are selected from the source

population. The source population may be open pollinated, synthetics or advanced

generation of a hybrid. Selected plant areselfed as well as crossed (as male) to a

number of randomly selected plants form a tester having broad genetic base. Selected

seeds are harvested separately and saved for planting in the third year. The test cross

progeny from each selected plant is harvested separately and used for replicated yield

trial in the second year.

Second Year:

 A replicated yield trial is conducted using plant X tester progeny. Superior progeny

are identified. Selected seeds form the first year from those plants that produced

superior test cross progenies are planted in separate progeny row in a crossing block.

These are inter crossed in all possible combination, equal amount of seeds from all
 the inter crosses are composited to obtain next generation. This completes the

original cycle of selection.

Fourth year:

 Seed obtained from bulking of all the inter crosses are planted as the source

population for the first cycle of recurrent selection. Several plants are selected on the

basis of their phenotypes. Each of them isselfed as well as crossed (as male) to a

number of random plants form the tester with broad genetic base.

Fifth year:

 Operation of second year is repeated.

Sixth year:

 Operation of third year is repeated. This completes the first recurrent selection cycle.

Seventh year:

 The second recurrent selection cycle may be initiated. This method improves the GCA

in the direction of selection. It increases the yielding ability of the populations to

isolate inbreds with superior GCA.

Recurrent selection for specific combining ability

 It was proposed by Hull in 1945 with an objective is to isolate lines from a population

that will combine very well with a given inbred. Large part of the heterosis is due to
 non additive gene action i.e. Dominance and epistasis. So it depends on specific gene

combination and is designed as specific combining ability. The inbred is used as

tester to isolated lines with high specific combining ability.

First Year:

 Several plants are selected from the population and self pollinated. Selected plants

used as males are also crossed to an outstanding inbred used as the tester.

Second Year:

 Replicated yield trial is planted using test cross progeny.

Third Year:

 Selfed seeds from the outstanding progenies are planted in separate progeny rows in

a crossing block. All possible inter cross are made by hand. Equal amount of seed

from the inter crosses are composited. This completes the original selection cycle.

Fourth Year:

 The composited inter cross is planted and the operation of the first year are repeated.

Fifth Year:

 Evaluation under replicated yield trial.

Sixth Year:
 Selfed seed from outstanding progenies are planted and crossed in all possible

intercrosses are composited. The cycle may be repeated.

Reciprocal Recurrent selection (RRS)

 This method was proposed by Comstock, Robinson and Harvey 1949.

Objectives:

 To improve two different populations in their combining ability simultaneously

whentwo populations A and B, are involved in reccurent selection. A serve as a tester

for the population B, and B serves as a tester for the plants selected from A. A and B

population has broad genetic base and genetically heterogenous. Selection for SCA

inbreds derived from each population are crossed to derive hybrid. The method

allows for the selecting both GCA and SCA.

First Year:

 Several plants are selected from the population A and B on the basis of their

phenotype. Each of the selected plants form the population A is crossed as male with

several randomly selected plants from the population B used as female. Similarly

population B as male and population A as female. All selected plants are selfed, selfed

seed is harvested separately.

Second Year:
 Two replicated trials are conducted for the test cross progeny of the plants selected

from population A and population B. On the basis of progeny test plants producing

superior test cross progenies are identified.

Third year:

 Selfed seed of selected plants on the basis of progeny test are planted in two separate

crossing blocks as individual plant progeny rows. Progeny rows of two crossing block

are planted separately. All possible inter crosses are made and equal amount of seeds

from all inter cross in the crossing block A are mixed to carry to next generation of

population A and B. This completes the original selection cycle.

Fourth Year:

 Population A and B are planted from the composited seeds from all intercross in

block A and B separately.

Fifth Year:

 Operation of second year is repeated.

Sixth Year:

 Operation of the third year is replanted and this completes the first

recurrent selection cycle.

Applications of reciprocal recurrent selection

 1) Production of synthetic varieties.

 2) Isolation of inbred lines

 3) Identification of superior single cross combination.

 Application of plant breeding

Aims and scope of plant breeding

Increased yield has been the ultimate aim of most plant breeding in any crop.

Plant breeding aims to improve the characteristic of plants so that they

become more desirable agronomically and economically

1. Higher yield: Higher crops yield. Developing efficient genotypes

hybrid varieties for grain fodder and fiber

2. Improved quality: It determines its suitability for various use

 Grain size, color, milling and baking qualities in wheat

 Cooking quality in rice oil content in oil seed.

 Malting quality in barley and sugar content in sugar cane

 Keeping quality in vegetables

 Protein content in cereals. Lysine in cereals methionine and

tryptophan in pulse

3. Disease and insect resistant varieties are stable, safest and cheapest.

4. Change in Maturity duration- It permits crop rotation, double

cropping, late planting.

5. Agronomic characteristics: Plant height, tillering, branches erect. Eg:

Dwarf in cereals is associated with lodging resistance and fertilizer

response

6. Photo insensitive: It promotes cultivation in new areas throughout

the year.
7. Non shattering eg: Soybean, Mung.

8. Determinate growth: Eg: Mung ,Cowpea and Red Gram.

9. Dormancy Eg: Seeds germinate even before harvesting if there are

rains at the time of maturity. Eg: Greengram and Ground nut.

10. Varieties for new seasons Eg: maize is grown in Kharif. Now it can

be grown rabi/ summer.

11. Moisture stress and salt tolerance.

12. Varieties for rain fed areas, saline soils. In India under 7-20 m. ha

area is salt effected.