Drowning

It is defined as a form of death which occurs when atmospheric air is

prevented from entering lungs due to submersion of body in water or
other fluids. To die from drowning, it is not essential that there should be
a complete submersion. Even if only face is submerged, death can occur.

Types of Drowning
The various types of drowning are as follows:
1. Wet Drowning: It may be in fresh water or sea water. The post-
mortem findings are
different in both cases.
2. Dry Drowning: Sometimes, as water enters the air passages, it
induces laryngeal spasm
which leads to complete closure of air entry into lungs. As a result of
this, water does not reach lungs. The characteristic features of drowning
are absent.
3. Secondary Drowning: It is when death occurs after sometimes when
the animal is rescued from being drowned. Death may occur due to
aspiration, pneumonia or electrolyte imbalance.
4. Immersion Syndrome (Cold water drowning): Sometimes when
animal is dropped into cold water, skin receptors are activated
immediately. Consequently, sudden dyspnoea and sometimes vagal
inhibition occurs. As a result of which heart stops immediately.

Mechanism of Drowning

When animal jumps into water or is thrown into it, he sinks to the
depth in proportion to the momentum of his fall, but as a result of
struggling movements, he comes to the surface.
struggles to keep mouth above water level. But since the body is heavy,
starts going downwards. During this process, water enters into his
respiratory passage and induces coughing. The water enters the lungs
and replaces air. As a result, the body becomes heavier and goes down
further. Due to movements of limbs, he may rise further and take more
water into lungs. This alternate rising and sinking continues till becomes
unconscious.

Cause of Death in Drowning

In drowning, death occurs due to following reasons:

1. Asphyxia: It is the commonest cause of death in majority of the cases.
2. Vagal Inhibition: It may be seen in some cases in cold water
drowning.
3. Concussion: It may occur if an animal head strikes against some hard
object inside water.
4. Syncope: It may occur in epileptics suddenly falling into water.
5. Exhaustion: The animal may die from exhaustion in order to keep
himself above the water.

Post-mortem Findings

The external and internal post-mortem findings are as follows:

1. External: The face is usually pale , the conjunctivae are congested
and pupils are dilated. A fine, white, lathery tenacious froth is seen at the
mouth and nostrils. It increases on compression of chest. It is regarded
as a diagnostic sign of drowning.
Sometimes, grass or weeds or leaves may be seen clasped in the limbs of
deceased due to cadaveric spasm.
The special external findings sometimes observed in cases of drowning
are :
Cutis anserina (Goose skin): The granular and puckered appearance
of skin may be seen on front surface of body especially on limbs in
winter season due to contraction of the
involuntary muscle of the skin.
2. Internal: The chest findings are quite typical in drowning. The lungs
are distended like balloons. They overlap heart and may protrude out of
chest wall when it is opened.
Lungs may be indented with rib marks. They are heavy, doughy to feel,
grossly oedematous and may pit on finger pressure. Large patches of
haemorrhages commonly seen subpleurally. They occur due to increased
pressure causing rupture of alveolar walls. On section, frothy fluid
mixed with blood may exude from the cut section. Fine froth may be
seen in trachea and bronchial passages. A large quantity of water along
with small weeds may be seen in stomach and small intestine.

SUDDEN DEATH

If animal without suffering from a recognizable cause, the likely

reason for death, this death would be called a ‘sudden death’. Most of
these deaths occur by natural causes but obvious etiology is not known
at that time.
Causes
The natural causes of death are:
1. Diseases of Cardiovascular System:
These constitute the majority of sudden death like myocardial
infarction, hypertension, acute myocarditis due to infections like enteric,
diphtheria, ischaemic heart disease, sub-acute bacterial endocarditis,
rupture of aneurysm, left ventricular failure, or patent ductus arteriosus,
occlusion of coronary arteries due to thrombosis/embolism or
atherosclerosis, right ventricular failure due to lung diseases,
cardiomyopathies, etc.

2. Diseases of Respiratory System:

Diseases producing asphyxia like membrane deposit in larynx or
tumour pressing on trachea, spasm of vocal cords. can result in sudden
death. Other respiratory reasons are air embolism,, haemothorax,
pneumothorax, hydrothorax, carcinoma of lung, asthma, pneumonia,
acute bronchitis.

3. Diseases of Alimentary System:

It includes peptic ulcer, carcinoma of stomach or oesophagus,
perforation of peptic ulcer, peritonitis, acute gastroenteritis, bursting of
liver abscess, rupture of enlarged spleen, strangulated hernia, obstructive
cholecystitis.

4. Diseases of Urinary System:

Prominent diseases include Uremia, acute or chronic renal failure due
to diseases, electrolyte imbalance, renal diseases, tumours.

STARVATION

Starvation or Malnutrition is poor nutrition that has arisen as a

consequence of insufficient or poorly balanced food, or because of faulty
digestion or utilisation of food. Owners and keepers of animals have a
responsibility to investigate the causation of any suspected malnutrition
problem in animals under their care.
 Body condition scoring methods are available for different species of
domestic animals and are subdivided for different classes of farm
animal, e.g. dairy cows and beef
suckler cows and heifers. These guides can be invaluable to clinicians as
the veterinarian must have a thorough under standing of the variation in
body condition that is the ‘accepted norm’ at different times of the year
in the various livestock husbandry systems.
During infections the patient may have a reduced food intake,
compounded by increased energy consumption, catabolism of muscle
proteins, loss of nitrogen stores, and
depletion of glycogen and fat stores. The animal moves from a state of
marginal diet into protein-energy malnutrition. Without an improvement
in diet, cell-mediated immunity is impaired and infections persist or
recur before the immune damage can be repaired. Thus, the body
condition of the animal continues to decline.

Post-mortem findings in malnutrition

Skin
There is loss of subcutaneous fat, and the skin may become wrinkled
through dehydration. Protein deficiency leads to a dull, dry and brittle
coat. Particular mineral or vitamin deficiencies may give rise to specific
histopathological changes, e.g. parakeratosis in zinc-deficient pigs.
Muscle
Atrophy of muscle masses begins in monogastrics after 24 hours of
starvation. In calves and lambs this change takes slightly longer, whilst
its onset in adult ruminants is delayed
for about 3 days. The back and thigh muscles are first affected but the
process extends to all muscle groups.
Fat
The fat deposits in the omentum and mesentery are first to be depleted.
Fat is then mobilised from other sites such as the perirenal area (the
major deposit in adult ruminants), from under the skin, around the heart,
and within the bone marrow. Fat is also lost from the connective tissue
in muscle, resulting in a flabby appearance. ‘Serous atrophy’ is the term
used to describe the gelatinous masses containing flecks of degenerating
fat found in the perirenal and coronary areas of emaciated animals.
These jelly-like deposits are formed as the fat droplets are removed and
replaced by proteinaceous fluid accompanied by a general increase in
interstitial fluid related to hypoproteinaemia.
Histopathological examination may show droplets of fat in the loops
of Henle in the kidney (experience is required when interpreting changes
in cats) and in myocytes.
Stomach and intestines
In the normal, healthy ruminant, the rumen accounts for approximately
25% of live weight. The ruminal contents of normal sheep tend to be
relatively dry compared with those of cattle, and the observation of
moderate quantities of fluid in the ovine rumen is an indication of
starvation and not that the sheep had been drinking water.
As a result, starved ruminants commonly have quantities of wet or
bulky intestinal contents. Dogs and cats do not store food in their
stomachs for extended periods. In most cases, food passes to the
intestines within hours of ingestion. Consequently, in contrast to
ruminants, the stomach and small intestines of dogs and cats after
several days of starvation may be virtually empty, or may contain only
quantities of mucus. Gastric ulceration , caused by reduced blood flow to
the lining of the stomach, in malnourished dogs may lead to perforation
of the stomach wall. Hungry animals may ingest a variety of indigestible
materials (plastic bags, rubber, cloth, wood) and the stomach can
become distended with this type of non-food material . Dry or sticky
faecal material may be present in the large intestine.
A notable feature of dogs and cats that have starved to death is that
the gastrointestinal tract is often considerably less malodorous than that
of adequately nourished and hydrated specimens.

Thermal Injuries
Thermal injuries are caused by:
• Direct (contact) heat such as a flame, hot surface (including
electrocution burns) or hot liquid.
• Radiant heat, e.g. a dog lying close to but not touching a wood burning
stove.
• Microwave radiation in a microwave oven.
• Hyperthermia related to excessive ambient temperature .
• Hypothermia and frostbite .
Direct and radiant heat injuries tend to be localised, whereas the lesions
of hyperthermia and hypothermia may be more generalised.

Hyperthermia/heat stroke

Heat stroke is a result of exposure to a hot environment where the

normal physiological mechanisms, used to maintain the core body
temperature within defined limits, are overwhelmed and the animal is
unable to prevent its body heat rising to harmful and frequently fatal
levels. The typical heatstroke patient is usually collapsed, has a very
high body temperature, and shows serious complications in the brain,
kidney, liver and circulation. During hyperthermia the core body
temperature rises, and when it exceeds 106ºF (41ºC) death may
supervene. The upper fatal body temperature in dogs is considered to be
107.6ºF (42ºC). The time taken to develop clinical and pathological
features of heat stroke/hyperthermia is variable depending on the
environmental conditions (ambient temperature, humidity, ventilation) .
All organs (including the mucous membranes, which may be
discoloured deeply red or dirty brown) are affected by vascular
congestion. This change is most pronounced in the trachea , lungs and
bronchi. The heart, kidneys, meninges, lymph nodes and muscles may
also show severe congestion. The speed of onset of rigor mortis is
increased by high environmental and body temperatures and muscular
effort. The rate of post-mortem changes is also accelerated in
hyperthermic animals.

Frostbite(Hypothermia)

In small animals, the ears, digits, scrotum and tip of tail are the areas
most commonly affected because of their peripheral position, lack of
hair or limited blood supply. The hind feet of calves are vulnerable,
together with the tips of the ears and the distal 5–10 cm of the tail.
Calves that are unwell as a consequence of pneumonia, diarrhea or other
systemic infections are at greater risk than healthy calves. Adult cattle
may develop frostbite of the teats, base of udder and scrotum.
Frozen areas may develop a dark or bluish appearance with diffuse
subcutaneous oedema and haemorrhage. Ischaemic necrosis may lead to
sloughing, but the extent of the damage may not be fully demarcated
until 4–15 days after the incident. Frostbite in birds is not uncommon
and usually affects the feet, although distal wing necrosis of falcons may
also be a cold-related injury. In addition to lack of acclimatization of
non-native birds, various risk factors include unseasonable weather,
anaesthesia, wire cages, metal leg bands and any constrictions to blood
supply, such as over-tight bandaging or previous injury. The scaly legs
of birds do not blister, as might be seen in mammals, but oedema of the
foot or lower limb may be noted after 24 hours.

Electrocution

Injuries caused by electricity range from electrothermal burns

through fractures, cardiac and neurological damage, vascular and other
tissue damage to death.
The nature of the injuries caused by the passage of the current is
governed by the physics related to the flow of the electrical charge.

Electrothermal burns

Electrical current, measured in amperes, is the ‘energy’ that flows

through a conductor and is responsible for the generation of heat (heat
generated is proportional to the amperage squared). The current flows
from one contact point to another and it is at these points of contact that
the greatest tissue damage often occurs. Injury to deeper organs can be
patchy and unpredictable, with burned tissue lying adjacent to unharmed
tissues. Burns to the lips and mouth of domestic animals (e.g. puppies
and hamsters) may be caused by chewing through the insulation of live
electricity cables in the home. Such burns are usually less severe than
the injuries associated with high-voltage cables.
When skin and hair are dry and electrical resistance is high, more
heat is generated and the likelihood of burns and hair singeing is
increased.
Prolonged (seconds) contact causes full-thickness skin burns and
destruction of underlying tissues including muscle, tendons and bone .
The skin at the margins of the burns may be carbonised and the
surrounding skin or feathers may be coated with soft, brown crumbly
material, which is the remnant of heated blood/tissue.

Mechanism of death
Fatal electrocution is usually a result of the current passing through
the body or head causing cardiac arrest or damage to vital centres in the
brain. ‘Stride voltage’ may play an important role in fatal electrocution.
The body is a better conductor of electricity than the ground.
Consequently, when an electrical current is running through the
ground, it will preferentially enter the body usually through one foot,
exiting through another. The foot closer to the electrical source has a
potential difference with the other feet, and the greater the potential
difference the greater the risk to the animal. Large animals, such as
cattle and horses, because of the distance between front and hind feet,
are at particular risk from the effects of ‘stride voltage’.

Post-mortem findings

It is generally agreed that rigor mortis develops quickly and passes

off early in electrocuted animals, and is accompanied by accelerated
post-mortem decomposition. Congestion and petechiae may occur
throughout the body. This may be particularly noticeable in the upper
respiratory tract, with linear tracheal haemorrhages being present. The
blood may be dark and unclotted. Some cadavers will have few
indications of the cause of death and a diagnosis of electrocution will
rely on exclusion of other causes, e.g. life-threatening acute infectious
disease or chemical poisoning, and on other evidence such as clear
indication of ‘sudden’ death (food in mouth) .Post-mortem examination
showed the characteristic features of heatstroke, including brown–red
discoloration of the
lining of the mouth and extreme congestion of the conjunctivae,
subcutaneous tissues, lining of the windpipe and all internal organs.

Lightning

differences exist between lightning strike and electrocution by

artificial electricity. The duration of a lightning strike is extremely short
and much of the strike washes over the outside of the body rather than
passing through the internal organs. Deep burning is not a regular
feature of lightning strike, although some singeing and superficial burns
may be found. Linear burns on the medial aspects of the limbs are more
commonly found than elsewhere on the body. The ‘arboreal’ burn or
‘feathering’ marks on the skin are not true burns but rather a pattern of
superficial injury caused by the electron shower induced by the
lightning. The effects of lightning strike vary and depend on whether the
animal received a direct hit or suffered shock from spread through the
ground or through direct or indirect contact with a conductor such as a
fence. More commonly, death is a consequence of cardiac arrest and
neurological injury following spread of electricity through the earth or
tree roots, entering the body via the feet. Animals resting against, or
close to, a fence or pole may suffer flashover as the lightning jumps
from the primary object on to the animal and then to the ground.