Course reflection

The 4- credit modular course of Research Methodology was very interesting as students were taught
how to write a research proposal and report which will be useful not only be useful for master’s thesis
report but also for other academic papers and reports. Students were made to understand about the
problematic reality, and the philosophy of the research which were not understood prior to the course.
Various range of research methodologies, methods, techniques, tools and strategies were introduced
along with each of their weaknesses and strengths. Nature and types of research, language of research
– terminologies, structures and processes of research, paradigms in social research, use of logic in
research, literature survey, building theory, referencing, data analysis and interpretation, application
of SPSS and EXCEL were covered in the course. Guest lecture on Statistics and SPSS application by
lecturer Sudip Pokhrel were very interesting and useful for the mini- research. Students got involved
in mini- research where the knowledge obtained in the theory class were applied in the field and
experience was obtained in writing a scientifically correct research report.

Course delivery
Lots of examples were given during the course delivery and personally for me giving examples
provide better understanding of the topic rather than explaining the topics. Some of the lectures were
skipped during the classes and due to some lacking in schedule management some topics were left
out, however, since references are provided these could be easily covered by students on their own.
Another reason for missing out of topics is due to the guest lecture on Statistics and SPSS application
which could be taught in detail as a separate 2 credit course so that full of the designated time for
Research Method could be utilized.
 Term paper
Research methodology

Day 1
Research Methodology, Applied research and Fundamental Research
Research methodology composes of two words, ‘research’ and ‘methodology’. Research is about
searching again. Research can be understood as diligent and systematic investigation into a subject in
order to discover new facts, revision to accepted conclusions, theories and laws in the light of new
discoveries or to the practical application of such conclusions, theories and laws. For example; old
theory might have new observations, new observations could lead to new theories and new procedures
could be developed for old knowledge.
Among the various types of research, applied research deals with the investigations that are
immediately applicable to the problem where specific problem has specific solution. Due to its
immediate applicability, applied research is also called decisional research. For example, a factory to
sustain in the competitive market might have to either improve the existing brand or introduce a new
brand. As both have their own advantage and disadvantage, the company shall do research taking into
account the capabilities, technical knowhow, resources, risk and so on. The finding thus obtain can
be directly applied. Fundamental research in other hand deal with knowledge production, improves
our understanding of certain problems commonly occurring in organizational settings and how to
solve them. It adds knowledge to particular area of interest and rather than direct application of
findings, fundamental research helps to understand certain phenomenon and problems that occur in
social situations. For example, an office believes that OJT has great impact on workers productivity
but in contrary it was found that, after age 40, the productivity of workers doesn’t improve despite the
training. Such phenomenon needs observation in different work setting to understand relationship to
determine why it happens and what are the factors responsible for it thus adding knowledge to this
area of interest.
There are various purpose of research and they are to explore, explain and describe a phenomenon.
While the scope of research could be to explore the reality and be familiar with social issues; describe
the phenomenon and add more to our knowledge; explain the phenomenon and explain relationship
between variables of phenomenon; theory building which could be foundation for further studies;
generalization and prediction where generalization could be universal (nomothetical) or contextual;
and refine the existing research method or provide better methods.
Day 2
Research problem and problem in reality
The research problem is a problem in reality. The problem might be realist which deals with objective
reality or relativist which deals with subjective reality. The problem in reality might either be in
natural world or a social world. The natural science is external to a researcher and committed to
objective reality while the social science is internal where researcher constructs a reality and is
committed to subjectivity. Hence, in defining the scientific research, it is based on universal law where
cause and effect are universal. The data thus obtained from different science could be qualitative or
quantitative where quantitative data can be measured but the qualitative data are interpreted.
The research on natural science has its own methodology and differs to that of the social science where
subjectivity matters. Positivism is a such a mental model of looking at things which is based on
verification as epistemological basis. The verification is done based on the observational evidences
and empiricism. Such paradigm deals with quantitative data. However, the research on social science
where falsification might be a basis for epistemology deals with qualitative data and hence there was
paradigm shift from positivism to post- positivism followed by other paradigms. The post- positivism
paradigm dealt with imperfect truth i.e. based on theory of probability which deals with likelihood
that an event will occur.

Day 3
Research philosophy
Philosophy is to research what grammar is to language. Philosophy involves what is to be known
about a problematic reality and how to proceed to find what is to be known. Hence, philosophy of a
research deals with structure of research, its paradigms, the logic systems and the quality in research
to provide answers for the questions put forward above about what and how.
The basic structure of research can be described as analogous to an hourglass. This is called as the
“hourglass” notion of research where the research begins with broad questions which will be narrowed
down to operationalized focus. This will be followed by observation, analyzation of data, resulting
into conclusion and generalized back to the questions. The hourglass notion of research consists of
three parts. The beginning is when the research purpose is decides in terms of research questions
which is aided by background, need and importance and problem statement. The middle part of this
notion includes operationalization, observation and analysis. Then the end will produce conclusion
and in case of nomothetical research, it will produce generalization.
The nomothetical research is also known as causal research which mainly concerns with positivist
paradigm where one cause will produce an effect. It deals with a causal relations study where causal
(input) variables will lead to effect (outcome) variables. The flow of the causal research is shown in
the figure below. The key components of the causal research are the problem, the research question
or hypothesis, the program (cause), the units, the outcome (effects) and the design (experiment). The
experiment involves two main variables which are dependent and independent variables. The
independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in an experiment to test the effects
on dependent variables. The dependent variables, on the other hand, is the variable that is being tested
and measured in a scientific experiment and depends on the independent variable. For example, let us

consider a statement ‘Income effects nutrition’. As the nutrition depends on the income of a person
given by the fact that more income leads to affordability to a more balanced diet, the income is the
independent variable while nutrition is a dependent variable.
The next element that constitutes philosophy of research is paradigm. Paradigm is the mental model
of looking at things or the nature of the research topic. The main components of a paradigm are
‘ontology’, ‘epistemology’ and ‘methodology’. Paradigm can also be defined as a broad framework
of perception, understanding, belief within which theories and practices operate. As Kuhn (1962)
defines it, research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists
about how problems should be understood and addressed.”
Day 4
Research Paradigm
There are various research paradigms. Positivist believe that there is single reality which can be
measured and known. Therefore, they are more likely to use quantitative methods to measure and

know this reality. Post- positivist, on the other hand, believes that reality is what we perceive to be
real and deals with qualitative methods and social science doesn’t give a perfect truth of the reality. It
is based on critical realism i.e. it believes that there is truth but it is not absolute. Another branch is
the constructivist who believe that there is no single reality or truth and hence needs interpretation
and therefore more likely to use qualitative methods to get those multiple realities. Pragmatists on the
other hand believe that reality is constantly interpreted, renegotiated, debated and therefore the best
method is the one that solves problem. The critical paradigm believes that realities are socially
constructed entities that are under constant influence. According to this paradigm, reality and
knowledge is both socially constructed and influenced by power relations within society.
As mentioned earlier, the main components of Research Paradigm are ontology, epistemology and
methodology. Ontology is concerned with basis of existence or ‘concerned with being’ or reality. It
is concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality. Snape and Spencer (2003) have identified
three distinct ontological position i.e. realism, idealism and materialism. Realism claims that there is
an external reality independent of what people may think or understand it to be and looks into it
objectively. Idealism maintains that reality can be only understood through the human mind and
socially constructed meanings. Materialism, like realism, claims that there is a real world but only the
material or physical world that is considered to be real and beliefs, values or experiences arises from
material world and hence, don’t shape it. ontology is the starting point of all research which is logically
followed by epistemology and methodology. It can also be defined as the image of social reality upon
which a theory is based.
Epistemology, on other hand, is concerned with the theory of knowledge, especially in regards to its
methods, validation and ‘the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever it is
understood to be. According to Blaikie (2000), epistemology claims about how what is assumed to
exist can be known. Epistemology has been derived from Greek words episteme (knowledge) and
logos (reason). It focuses on the knowledge gathering process and is concerned with developing new
models or theories that are better than competing models and theories.
Research methodology refers to general principles which underlines how we investigate the social
world and how we demonstrate that the knowledge generated is valid. Research methods, on the other
hand refers to more practical issues of choosing an appropriate research design i.e. experiment or a
survey- to answer the research question. Hence, if we look at the interrelationship between the
building blocks of research, we can conclude that ontology refers to ‘what’s there to know’;
epistemology refers to ‘what and how can we know about it’; methodology refers to ‘how can we go
about acquiring knowledge’; methods refers to ‘what procedure can we use to acquire it’; and source
refers to ‘which data can we collect’.

Day 5
Logic system in research
Throughout the history, the knowledge building has been through common sense, faiths, revelations
and institutes, authority as a source of knowledge, verification, experience and logic, from Aristotle
to Bacon through deduction to perfect induction to probability. However, the reliability of such
knowledge has always been a thing of issue. Hence, the arguments made should be logical. Logic
system is another element of research philosophy and this system has broad explanatory power based
on axiomatic certainties, a priori, linkage of factor and facts. It includes inductive logic, deductive
logic, retroductive logic and abductive logic.
Deductive logic is a form of reasoning in which from two propositions a third is deduced. In such
logic system, until the premises hold true, the conclusion is never false. It moves from generalized
principle that are known to be true to a true and specific conclusion. The deductive logic follows
syllogism where syllogism is a form of deductive logics. For example: all crows are black (major
premise); this bird is a crow (minor premise); therefore, this bird is black (conclusion). Deductive
approach begins with a theory which is used to postulate theories and then proceeds to use
observations to rigorously test the hypotheses.
Inductive logic system, on the other hand, consist of reasoning that begins with observations that are
specific and limited in scope and proceed to generalized conclusion, that is likely but not certain, in
light of accumulated evidences. The perfect induction would include observation of all the existing
subject. For example: Asia has sea, Europe has sea and so do all the continents and hence, we can
conclude that all continents have sea. The imperfect induction has limited observation and
generalization and includes continuous reassessment. For example: all crows are black from limited
observation. What if one day white crow is observed?
A combine approach is a scheme proposed by Wallace (1971) which combines Inductive and
Deductive strategies to capitalize on their strengths and minimize their weaknesses creating a cyclic
process that allows for movement between theorizing and doing empirical research.
Another type of logic system is retroduction approach that involves building of hypothetical models
as a way of uncovering the real structures and mechanisms which are assumed to produce empirical
phenomenon. retroduction starts with hypothesis formulation as first stage of inquiry followed by
deduction of consequences from hypothesis and in third stage, these consequences are tested by means
of induction. Similarly, in abduction, where scientific accounts of social life are drawn from the
accounts given by people who inhabit the social world or are engaged.

Day 6
Literature Review
Literature review is a way to discover what other research in the area of interest/ problem have been
uncovered and what is there to be done, genetic route tracing of the problem, and critically review of
the literature. It establishes a point of departure for future research, avoids needless duplication and
reveals areas that are needed to be researched. The literature review involves topic literature and
methodological literature. Organization of literature is very important and so is important for
composing a bibliography relevant to topic. There are various sources to obtain background,
information and facts. Reference is other important element in a research which is a standardized
method of acknowledging sources of information and avoid plagiarism.

Day 7
Research Strategies, co- relational research and variables
There are various strategies for inquiring the topic of study. Thus, there are various research based on
the approach that it follows in order to generate validated knowledge. They are interpretative-
historical research, correlation research, experimental research, case study/ mixed methods,
qualitative research and simulation research. Interpretative- Historical Research includes studies of
archives; qualitative research is based on grounded theory, ethnography, interpretivism and
phenomenology; correlation research involves survey research, experimental and quasi- experimental
research studies causal relation and so on and belong to various paradigms for example experimental
is based on positivist paradigm, correlation is based on post- positivism; etc.

Correlation research was explored further in the class. In correlation research, real world variables i.e.
characteristics of physical features, of people, of activities or of meanings would be identified and
measurement of specific variables would be done. The levels of measurement precision would be
Nominal (categorical); ordinal scales; interval scale; and ratio scales. Nominal measurement involves
simply placing of data into categories for example, “Do you live in this neighborhood?” YES/NO.
Ordinal measurement refers to ranking for example; ranking of jobs in terms of their social status.
Similarly, interval scale has equidistance points between each of the scale elements and statistics used
in such measurements are mean, standard deviation, t- test and f- test (tests of significance). Ratio
measurement where an interval scale is an interval scale with zero at the bottom end and indicates
magnitude and proportions of the differences. The statistics would be used to clarify the pattern of
relationships, their association and significance where descriptive statistics and co-relational statistics
would be used to inquire the topic of study. Unlike the qualitative research, the correlation research
involves measurement and quantification.
Similarly, variable is defined as anything that can take on differing or varying values. The variables
can be classified as quantitative variables and quantitative variables. The quantitative variables are
measured on ordinal, interval, or ratio scales. The quantitative variables can be further classified into
continuous variables (example, a person’s height where height exists anywhere along the range of
values possible); and discrete variables where one cannot take on all values within the limits of the
variables (example, responses to a five point rating scale can only take values 1,2,3,4 and 5 and cannot
take value of 1.7). Similarly, qualitative variables are generally measured in nominal scale. For
example, if subjects were asked to name their favorite actress, the variable would be qualitative.
Similarly, variables can also be classified as dependent and independent variables where dependent
variable’s value depend upon the other variable(s) while independent variables is not influenced by
any other variables under study and it influences the dependent variables.
Through the correlational research, the relationship between the variables are obtained such as nature
and predictive power of relationship between variables (higher level of plaza utilization and combined
presence of bunch of variables including sittable space, proximity to street life, sun, water/ fountains,
trees and availability of food from vendors, etc.) and strength of co-relations (test of statistical
significance, a co- relation significance at the 0.01 level meaning that there is only 1 in 100 chance
that the overall assessment of community is unrelated to the components measured).

Day 8
Data Collection Techniques- Sampling
Data collection techniques in the co- relational research were also explored where sampling was
studied. Sample is representative group based on which generalization to the population or even a
universe may be attempted. Although, sampling is needed to be done in other research strategies also,
for co- relational research, it’s of particular significance. Sample is basically a subset of a larger
population where sample design includes sample frame, sample items and sample size. The findings
of the statistics (sampled population) is then generalized to the population (parameter). The sampling
design includes the theoretical population (for whom do you want to generalize?); the study
population (what population can you get access to?); the sampling frame (how can you get access to
them?) and the sample (who is in your study?). Sample distribution during the sampling needs to be
normal where sample distribution refers to the distribution of statistic across n infinite number of
samples. While probabilistic sampling is very representative of the population (random sampling) and
can be used to generalize to larger population while the non- probabilistic sampling or purposive
sampling should not be generalized as convenient purposive sampling was opted for its convenience,
speed and practicality and no consideration were made to ensure randomness and representativeness.
There are several types of probability sampling such as simple random, stratified random, cluster and
systematic. In simple random sampling, the researcher must ensure that all members of the population
are included in a master list and from the master list, subjects are selected randomly. Biasness is
removed in simple random sampling and is highly representative, however, it is time consuming and
tedious when creating large samples. The stratified random sampling includes grouping of the subjects
into different classifications such as gender, level of education, or socio- economic status and then
samples are selected from each sub groups. this method of probability sampling is best used when
goal of the research is to study a particular sub- group within greater population and also results are
more precise than simple random sampling. The cluster sampling is done when the size of a population
is too large to perform simple random sampling. Example, studying most likely market of soap in
Nepal- the population is just too large to manage effectively. Hence, the researcher selects a number
of identified boundaries and in case of Nepal 7 province areas are selected and simple random
selection is done to select the subjects. Suppose, province 2 was found to be most likely market, this
data would be representation of whole Nepal. Systematic random sampling is often compared to
arithmetic progression in which the difference between any two consecutive numbers is of the same
value. For example, a researching is examining a clinic that has 100 patients and hence, the subjects
for our study would be 1,6, 11, 16, etc.
Non- probability sampling on the other hand, includes various type such as convenience, quota,
judgmental and snowball sampling. Convenient sampling is opted for its convenience, speed and
practicality and no consideration were made to ensure randomness and representativeness. Quota
sampling aims to end up with samples where the strata being studied (males versus female students)
are proportional to the population being studied. Judgmental sampling relies on the judgement of the
researcher when it comes to selecting subject. Snowball sampling, on the other hand,, is particularly
appropriate when the population you are interested is hidden or hard to flash such as homeless people,
drug addicts, HIV/ AIDS patients, and so on and sample is created first by identifying one or more
units in the desired population followed by using these units to find further units and so on until the
sample size is met.

Day 9
Data collection Techniques- Survey
Survey is one of the methods for data collection where data or statistics on a subset of the population
of interest is collected by asking questions and it brings three methodological areas together i.e.
sampling, question design and interviewing. The questionnaire-based survey may be mail survey,
group administered survey and household- drop off survey. The components of a survey research
includes (i) establishment of goals of study (what you want to research); (ii) determination of sample
(from whom you will get the information); (iii) choosing of method of survey; (iv) creation of one’s
own questionnaires (what will you ask); pre-testing of the questionnaires; (v) conduction of data
collection and entering of data; (vi) data analyzation (produce the reports). During the survey, the
question should be such that certain issues should be avoided such as ethical issues, personal questions
and so on. the complex questions should be split into sub questions and sequence, length and other
aspects needs to be considered. The type of question could be unstructured (open- ended questions);
structured questions where respondents require to give concrete answers and filter or contingency
questions.
The reliability and validity of the data collection
methods is an important concern in research. The true
score theory measures the reliability and validity
according to which, every measurement is composite
of two components i.e. true ability of the respondent
on that measure and random error. Mathematically, it
can be expressed as X= T+ ex where X is the observed
score. Hence, according to this theory, a measure that
has no random error (i.e. is all true score) is perfectly reliable and measure that has no true score (i.e.
is all random error) has zero reliability. With addition to random error, there exist systematic error.
Systematic error is the error that tends to occur across most or all of the members of a group. Hence,
mathematically, we can express it as X- T+ e where e has two components er and es i.e. X= T+ er +
es where er is the random error and es is the systematic error.
While the random error doesn’t affect the average, only the variability around the average, the
systematic error on the other hand doesn’t affect the variability but effects the average.

Reliability, in general, refers to dependability but in research, reliability is used more to mean
‘consistency’ or repeatability’ and reliable measure would give the same result over and over again.
Validity, however, doesn’t give automatic reliability to the research method. There could be errors in
measurement and such errors and extend of variance will affect the reliability of the conclusion. The
reliability of the research method can be increased by appropriate pilot testing of instruments of
survey, training the interviewers and observers which reduces measurement errors, use of multiple
measures of the same construct, triangulation in case of multiple measures. Similarly, some strategies
that ensure validity are triangulation, member checks, long- term or repeated observations, peer
examination, participatory modes of research, researcher’s biasness and so on.

Day 10, 11 and 12

Ethics in social research and research paradigms
Ethics in social research is based on the principle that humans should not be used as ‘guinea pigs’ are
used in scientific research. Harming innocent people must be avoided and consent should be sought
of stakeholders and research participants protecting their rights.
Various research paradigms and social research were further explored. Positivism paradigm makes an
ontological claim that there is single reality which can be measured and known. Positivist
epistemology, therefore, assumes that only “facts” derived from the scientific method can make
legitimate knowledge claims where there is dualist relationship between the researcher and research
as research looks at the research objectively. As the research methodology follows from
epistemological position, to produce a valid knowledge, quantitative methods are chiefly used in
positivism. Similarly, in post- positivist paradigm, it is believed that the reality is imperfect (critical
realism) and apprehendable probabilistically only. Hence, the only way of knowing of the reality is
by finding probable truth with a modified dualist approach. The valid knowledge is then obtained
through modified experimental; critical multiplism, falsification of hypothesis, and may include
qualitative approach.
Similarly, critical theory/ emancipatory/ transformative paradigm is based on the ontological claim
that realities are socially constructed entities that are under constant internal influence. It is based on
historical realism i.e. virtual reality shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, and gender
value which have crystallized over time. The epistemological position of this paradigm lies in
transactional/ subjectivist approach where value mediated findings are obtained. The methodology
used to acquire knowledge is dialogical (dialectical). Constructivism/ Interpretive paradigm has its
ontological position in relativism were there is no single reality or truth, and therefore reality needs
to be interpreted. The knowledge of the reality is thus obtained through transactions (subjectivist
approach). The methodology thus used are hermeneutical/ dialectical where truth is obtained through
exchange of logical arguments. While the researcher is extrinsic in case of positivism and post
positivism while intrinsic in case of critical theory and constructivism.

Day 13
Interpretative Historical Research strategy

Interpretative- historical research seeks to explain those phenomena in narrative form or in holistic
fashion. It includes study of social- physical phenomena with complex context. For example, a
phenomenon of past but is a problem in present context – Saati Pratha was socially accepted in the
past but is problem in present context, so here the phenomenon is a past condition, relative to the
researcher. It involves (i) searching for evidence; (ii) collecting and organizing that evidence; (iii)
evaluating it and (iv) constructing a credible holistic narrative.
Narrations and analysis are the paradigmatic basis for I- HR where the idea of history is produced as
a series of narrative construction that relies on literal metaphors in narratives. The role of imagination
and comprehension plays an integral part to study history as a species of genus story with not only
collection of discreet narratives but accounting with a beginning, a development and a conclusion.
The ontology claims past as an objective reality (no subjective interpretation) and analysis and
verification are a part of the continuum of space and time. Textual authentication, validity of factual
inferences and weighing of alternative interpretations result in more accurate findings and ensures is
believability.
Interpretation is the basis for knowing about reality (epistemology) in I-HR. the epistemological
position of I- HR is located in the casual explanation of history as an idea of covering law for social
phenomena. Epistemological claims for I-HR explains history as an ongoing evolution of communal
consciousness. Different ages or time periods in history of time has laid the foundation for
contemporary beliefs and proper identification, organization and evaluation are required for proper I-
HR to take place. Interpretive-Historical Research is the only strategy to study past events and can
inform other strategies using narratives. However, as the object of inquiry cannot be empirically
available, narrations are dependent on emplotments and literary constructions.
There are various types of evidences as authenticity of data is major concern in I- HR. Deterministic
evidence is able to place the object in time and place firmly, for example, dates, inscriptions,
photographs, artifacts, etc.; contextual evidences (based on the context – no east gate of kailashkut
Bhawan); inferential evidence (Sri Kalah Abhimani wrote book on Sabda Vidhya); recollective
evidence (interpretation of the interviewee: memories).
The major strength of I- HR is that it is the only strategy for past events and can inform other strategies
using narratives. However, weaknesses out numbers the strength where the greatest limitation being
that the object of enquiry cannot be empirically available thus, needs to depend on emplotment and
literary construction. Hence, I- HR requires historical imagination and accuracy and fitting into ‘one
historical world’ is not easy in practice.

Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is multi- method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its
subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting
to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings that people bring to them.
Qualitative research has emphasis on natural settings; focus on interpretation and meaning (subjective
constructions); a focus on how the respondents make sense of their own circumstances; and use of
multiple tactics. Hence, the qualitative research involves is holistic approach, has prolonged contact
between researcher and subject where the researcher goes into the field to observe phenomenon in its
natural state and typically takes extensive notes which are subsequently coded and analyzed in variety
of ways; open ended; analysis through narrations and empirical in nature except for I- HR which uses
documents or artifacts. The three qualitative approaches or strategies are: Grounded theory;
ethnography; and phenomenology (interpretivism and hermeneutics)
Day 14
Grounded Theory or Substantive Theory
Grounded theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1960’s and the purpose of grounded theory
is to develop theory about phenomena of interest unlike abstract theorizing and is grounded theory is
rooted in observations. There is no pre- set notions and the theory emerges from the data itself. It is a
complex iterative process and raising of generative questions guides the research where the question
is not intended to be either static or confining. People’s experiences with a process or phenomenon
are studied and at the continuous patterns of behaviors are monitored. Then the data collection and
analysis are merged together to develop/ modify research question which then leads to theory.

The data collection and analysis is called coding while the theory development is called memoing. As
data begins to be gathered, core theoretical concepts are identified and tentative linkage are developed
between the theoretical core concept and the data. Coding is a process for both categorizing qualitative
data and for describing the implication and details of these categories. The initial open coding
considers the data in minute detail while developing some initial categories and later moves to more
selective coding where one systematically codes with respect to a core concept.
Memoing is the process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher as they evolve
throughout the study and it is an extensive marginal notes and comments. In early stage, memos tend
to be very open while later on they tend to increasingly focus on the core concepts. Integrative
diagrams and sessions are used to pull all of the details together to help make sense of the data with
respect to the emerging theory. These diagrams may be concept maps or directed graphs or even
simple cartoons that can acts a summarizing device. Eventually, one approaches conceptually dense
theory as new observation leads to new linkage which requires revision in the theory which in turn
requires more data collection. Then the core concept is identified and fleshed out in detail. At the end,
a well-considered explanation for a phenomenon of interest i.e. a grounded theory is obtained which
is narrative with much of the contextually relevant detail collected.

Ethnography
Ethnography emphasizes in the study of entire culture, holistic and in situ/ field. And focuses on
finding meanings and functions of human action. It does not aim at an explanatory theory that can be
applied to many settings like in Grounded theory but a richer and fuller description of a particular
setting.it requires immersion of the researcher in particular context and bring out how the ones living
in the context interpret their situation. Originally, culture was notionally tied to ethnicity and
geographic location, however, now this has broadened to include virtually any group or organization,
foe example, study the culture of business or defined group, etc. Mode of data collection is participant
observation. Ethnography is description of social groups or situation, their behavior and shared beliefs
of the group and also explain them. Ethnography relies on unstructured data and focus on a case and
seeks human meanings as central interpretation. Full corporation of the group being studied is
essential and phenomenology as a theory is dominant in ethnographic research.
The data collection technique in ethnography is done through participant observation, most common
technique for technique for qualitative data collection. Participant observation often requires months
or years of intensive work because the researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the
culture in order to assure that the observations are of the natural phenomenon. there is no preset
limiting of what will be observed and no real ending point in ethnographic study.

Day 15
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is a philosophical perspective as well as an approach to quantitative methodology. It
is used in social research disciplines including psychology, sociology, development, urban planning
and social work. Tt emphasizes a focus on people’s subjective experiences and interpretations of the
world as a phenomenologist wants to understand how world appears to others. If we look at the
ontological position of phenomenology, it is based on the experience of the researched i.e. those who
live the phenomena. Hence, phenomenology seeks to understand the world of lived experience from
the point of view of those who live it. Epistemologically, the knowledge can be obtained through
interpretivism, and going beyond empirical realities of observation and interpreting to make sense of
the data. It involves objective interpretation of a subjective human experience and it takes similar
course of that of I- HR i.e. emplotment and literary view.
This qualitative research involves four key steps in producing valid knowledge which are (i) data
collection; (ii) data reduction/ coding; (iii) data display; (iv) conclusion drawing/ verifying. The data
collection techniques that are used in Phenomenology are participant observation, interactive
interviews that could be in- depth unstructured interviewing, key informants’ interview and case
histories; and focus groups discussions; direct observation. This is followed by data reduction or
coding where long interview transcripts, notes, sketches or photographs are reduced in volumes into
manageable chunks of themes, notes in margin, highlights and graphical linkages. Then a scheme of
codes is followed which can be framed from out of one’s research objectives/ questions. The
qualitative data are then displayed as charts, graphs or tables, maps and diagrams, check list matrix
obtained through analysis of data. Then final step is drawing conclusion by identifying patterns and
providing explanations.
Verifying the findings is important aspect which is done by checking for data quality through checking
for representatives, researcher effects, triangulation, weighting the evidence; looking at unpatterns by
checking the meaning of outliers, using extreme cases, following up surprises, looking for negative
evidence; testing explanations by making if- then tests, ruling out spurious relations, replicating a
finding, checking out rival explanation; and testing with feedback i.e. getting feedbacks from
informants.
Like other qualitative research strategies, phenomenology also has its strength and weaknesses. The
strength of phenomenology is that it has capacity to take in rich and holistic qualities of real-life
circumstances, flexibility in design and process allows adjustments in process and is sensitive to
meanings and processes of artifacts and people’s activities. However, on the down side, the main
challenge is of dealing with vast quantities of data, few guidelines or step- by – step procedures have
been established and the credibility of the data can be seen as suspect with post- positivist paradigm.

Day 16
Case- study/ mixed method
Case study is the research strategy which is used when the research has its ontological position in
pragmatic paradigm. A case- study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident. Contrastingly, an experiment deliberately separates the phenomena
from the context by limiting variables and controlled context in laboratory. Surveys also limits ability
to investigate context hence survey cannot solely be used to produce knowledge in case of case- study.
There are three types of case- study which are exploratory case- study, descriptive case study, and
explanatory case- study. Case- study strategy in qualitative research is best used to investigate how or
why question, contemporary set of events and where investigator has little or no control over the set
of events. The case study strategy relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to
converge in a triangulating fashion, and as another result. This strategy benefits from the prior
development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis.

Research design
Research design refers to plan of research i.e. an action plan for getting here to there that links the
empirical data to the research questions and its conclusions. It guides the investigator in the process
of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations and is a logical model of proof that allows the
researcher to draw inferences and also defines the domain of generalizability. It addresses at least four
problems i.e. what question to study, what data is relevant, what data to collect and how to analyze
the data and results.

Designing case studies

There is no standard reference of design elements or approaches in case study. The five components
of case study research design are (i) the study’s question; (ii) propositions (purpose); (iii) units of
analysis; (iv) the logic linking the data to propositions; and (v) the criteria for interpreting the findings.
The study questions involve how and why questions, substance of the question, well stated,
unambiguous and clear questions. For example, research on housing for urban poor could include
research questions such as why urban poor are hit most by housing shortage and how may their access
to housing be improved. The propositions on the other hand defines or helps define the scope of study.
It provided tentative answer to the question and gives directions to the study. In case of exploratory
case study, however, the statement of purpose is done instead of propositions. The unit of analysis
fundamentally defines the case and tells whether single or multiple cases are required. The logic
linking of proposition establishes the criteria for interpreting the findings through pattern matching,
matching data to proposed patterns or two patterns as rival patterns thus determining how close are
the match or how great a contrast is conclusive. These five points of research design combine to force
construction of preliminary theory related to the topic as case- study research demands theory
development prior to data collection as without theory, the scope of data collection remains
unidentified. Also, the theory has to link the context and the event (phenomena).

Before data collection in case study, preparation is necessary where learning and practicing skills of
investigation is important and hence, training for specific case study can be done, protocols can be
developed for investigation and pilot case study can be conducted if there are multiple case study in
the study. The case study protocol has instruments, procedures and general rules and is useful in
clarifying the nature of case study to investigator, increase reliability of case study and avoid
disastrous outcomes. A protocol documents may be sectioned into an overview of the case study, field
procedures, case study questions and a guide for the case study report. The field procedures provided
are for collecting data from existing people and institutions in a real- life context and not in controlled
confined laboratory or structured questionnaires. Similarly, the case study questions are posed to
researcher and not to respondents and hence, investigator must keep in mind the questions while
collecting the data. There are three principles of data collection and they are maintaining a chain of
evidences, creating a case study data base, and using multiple source of evidences.
Analyzing case study evidence is done in case study strategy through pattern matching, explanation
building, time series analysis and program logic models. The data analysis consists of examining,
categorizing, tabulating or otherwise combining the evidence to address the initial propositions of a
study.