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Origin, DeveI pment, and Design

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of K-Factor Transformers

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I n 1987, t h e University of Wisconsin-

Milwaukee held a seminar in Scottsdale, Ariz.,
where I was one of the speakers covering,
among other things, the effect of transients and
surges on the primary windings of transformers of
Solid-state ballasts were then described as being
greatly improved with an appreciable increase in
efficiency. There was one slight drawback: an in-
crease in harmonic content. Incandescent light-
ning, with its almost negligible harmonic content,
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medium voltage ratings, 5 KV to 15 KV. has been largely supplanted by better and more I
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Vacuum switches and vacuum contactors had economical lighting in buildings, with the result- I
made it important that dry type transformers have ing increase in harmonic content. I
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the same BIL rating as liquid-filled transformers, The variable-speed drive manufacturers ex- I
namely 95KV BIL at 15 KV, even though the plained how their equipment improved the effi-- I
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ANSIiIEEE Standard requires only 60 KV BIL for ciency of motors by permitting them to run at I
dry type transformers. At the 5 KV level, a BIL of lower speeds to match the requirements of the ap- I
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60 is recommended, even though the dry type stan- plication. They advised that the six-pulse devices I
dard requires only 30 KV BIL. 5 KV. Solid-state produced fifth and seventh and 1l t h and 1 3th har- I
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medium-voltage arrestors at the terminals of the monics, and the 12-pulse devices produced 1l t h I
transformer are also very important to specify. and 13th and 23rd and 25th harmonics. I
Fax machines and copy machines were also de- I
During one of the breaks after my discussion on I
BIL ratings, several ofthe electrical engineers in at- scribed as harmonic producers. As a matter of fact, I
tendance asked me, ‘yerry, what have dry type i t was mentioned t h a t there are very few I
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transformer manufacturers done in recent years to loads-with the exception of resistors and induc- I
cheapen their product? Formerly when we bought tion motors-that are still linear, and this article I
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a 45 KVA or 75 KVA dry type transformer, we will also show that induction motors are linear only I
could put it on the wall and forget about it for 20 or if the voltage to the motor i s not distorted. I
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25 years. Now, they are running hot and are noisy Another speaker at the seminar had written a pa- I
and burning out in a year or two.” per, “Double the Neutral or Else,” that described I
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I replied that there was nothing that I knew of how the third harmonic being a zero sequence com- I
that transformer manufacturers did to cheapen ponent could cause the neutral current to be appre- I
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their standard line of transformers. ciably greater than the phase current, even if the I
As the seminar resumed, I listened to various phase currents were balanced. In addition to the ex- I
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speakers as to how they improved their products. cessive heating of an undersized neutral, an under- I
For example, the computer manufacturers for- sized neutral can cause a high neutral-to-ground I
voltage at the receptacle and a few volts differential I
merly built what was known as a “linear power sup- I
ply.” This device had a heavy 60 H z input can cause errors to occur in some computers. I
transformer, and was large and expensive to manu- After a speaker from the Electric Power Re- I
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facture. They improved this device to eliminate the search Institute (EPRI) indicated that the load at I
60 H z input transformer, made it lighter, smaller, that time on the utilities was already 15% nonlin- I
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and less expensive, and added a high frequency out- ear and that the prediction was that by the year I
put transformer. This they called a rapid mode I
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switching power supply. The only disadvantage I
was that it increased the harmonics produced by This article appeared in its original form at a Denver I
the rapid mode switching power supply, primarily
I A S meeting in January 1994. The author, an IAS I
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in the third harmonic. Member and an IEEE Fellow, is U consultant for Olsun I
Electrics Corp. I
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1077-2618/97/$10.0001997 IEEE /€Elndustry Applirations Magazine * September/O[tober I 997

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C57.110 has two problems that in my opinion
I When transformers are derated, the should be corrected in the next revision. They give
I a procedure for derating a transformer exposed to
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nameplate is usually not chunged, nonlinear loads. However, when you derate for
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and the next person coming along does use with a nonlinear load you are violating the
I not know that the trunsformer was old UL1561 Green Book listing, and in doing so
I you also violate the National Electrical Code,
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derated due t o harmonics. which requires UL-listed devices to be used
I within their listing.
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I When transformers are derated, the nameplate
I is usually not changed, and the next person coming
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2000 it would be 50% nonlinear, the thought along does not know that the transformer was der-
I came to me that these harmonics could be the ated due EO harmonics. He is likely to consider that
I source of the excessive heating problems of the
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the transformer is lightly loaded and will increase
I transformers. While the present concern was for the load back toward the KVA on the nameplate.
I dry type transformers, it would eventually be a The derated transformer has a higher core loss than
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I problem for liquid transformers as well as for mo- necessary for its load.
I tors, which have some characteristics very similar Another important fact is that a properly de-
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I to transformers. signed K-rated transformer is designed at a lower
I Having had previous design and marketing flux density than a run-of-the-mill transformer,
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I experience on transformers and motors, and based due to the fact that the third harmonic in the secon-
I on the worries of these electrical engineers at the dary winding causes a third harmonic current to
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I seminar, I considered it reasonable that a need ex- circulate in the primary delta winding, increasing
I isted for equipment that could tolerate these har- the flux density in the core. Unless additional core
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I monics and still operate within their temperature stack is added to the core, the core loss will be
I limitations. higher. There is the possibility that a high line
I I contacted Mr. Ben-Ezra, president of the In-
I voltage could drive the core into saturation, a
I ternational Transformer Company of Montebello, highly undesirable effect. The additional core ma-
I Calif., to determine just how much data was avail-
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terial in a K-rated transformer will make the trans-
I able to cope with these harmonics. former quieter. A good grade of core steel, like
I Large rectifier transformers, because of the har- M-6, is also desirable.
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I monics, always had to be specially designed to cope A K-rated transformer has an electrostatic
I with the additional heating. But at that time there shield between the primary and secondary wind-
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I was no market or demand for 480 Delta-208Yi120 ings that serves as a safety barrier between 480 and
I volt transformers to cope with the harmonic prob- 120 volts. In addition, the shield gives some com-
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I lem. Many people were aware of the problems with mon and transverse mode noise attentuation, al-
I overheating but did not know the cause. In addi- though there are no ANSUIEEE standards to my
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I tion, average read.ing ammeters read too low when knowledge, as yet, for measuring the degree of
I harmonic currents flowed in the neutral, and it noise attentuation.
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I took true R.M.S. meters to give accurate results. The second problem with C57-110, and a can-
I The problem was how to quantify the heating didate for revision, is the example on page 10,
I effect of harmonics. I came across ANSMEEE
I which should include a third harmonic; it is one of
I C57.110, a guide for determining the heating ef- the most frequently encountered and most trouble-
I fects of nonlinear loads. This guide developed an
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some of the harmonics.
I equation for calculating the heating effects. By A transformer has a core loss (consisting of an
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squaring the frequency and the per-unit current eddy current and hysteresis loss in the iron), an I R
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I and multiplying them together, the guide arrived loss in the windings, and an eddy current and stray
I at a number without any designation. I originally loss in the winding conductors. A D C current flows
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I was going to call this number C for “constant,”but uniformly through the entire cross section of a con-
I decided against it because of possible confusion ductor. As the frequency increases, due to skin ef-
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I with “centigrade.” The letter K for “Konstant” fect, the eddy current component increases and it is
I seemed reasonable to use, and Underwriters Labo- very difficult to separate the eddy from the stray in
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I ratory accepted this designation in our’ original the conductor. The K-factor of the load, deter-
I submission of a low voltage dry type transformer. mined from the C57.110 calculation, multiplies
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I K since became the standard measure of the ability the eddy current loss of the windings. When it is
I of a transformer to withstand nonlinear loads. used to multiply the combined eddy and stray loss,
I UL had to develop a new UL 1561 for K-factor
I since they are difficult to separate, you have in-
I transformers, since the old UL 1561 listing in the creased the factor of safety of the application.
I UL Green Book limits the old UL 1561 to linear Eddy current losses in transformers can be re-
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I loads with a harmonic content of less than 0.05. duced by using multiple insulated conductors
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/€Elndustry Applications Magozine m Sepfember/October 1997
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rather than a single larger conductor. Strip wind- I
ings often are used. The purpose is to get as much I
I t is desiruble to keep the impedunce I
skin as possible. Other techniques include inter- I
leaving windings and transposing conductors. of the transformer as low us possible, I
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The windings of all transformers have resis- but still large enough thut the I
tances, inductances, and capacitances. While the I
voltage received from the utility has less than 1%
primuvy prorection will tuke the unit I
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voltage distortion, the output voltage of the trans- o f f the line in the event of ufuult. I
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former becomes increasingly distorted as currents I
flow through the windings to the load. The greater I
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the impedance, the greater the voltage discortion. I
Voltage distortion, measured with a nonlinear load UL1561 listed transformers be used on low- I
voltage transformer applications and K-4 on UL I
bank, was found to be appreciably dependent on I
the transformer design. 1562 listed medium-voltage units. If on low- I
voltage transformers, the cost of down time is very I
As mentioned earlier, a distorted voltage to an I
induction motor will cause nonlinear currents to high or dependability very important, then K-30 I
flow in the motor windings, adding to the motor’s would be my recommendarion for low voltage and I
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heating. K-13for medium-voltage transformers. I
In my opinion, it is desirable to keep the imped- In summary, dry type and liquid-filled rrans- I
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ance of the transformer as low as possible, but still formers can be designed to give many years of satis- I
large enough that the primary protection will take factory operation even when exposed to the I
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the unit off the line in the event of a fault. Coordi- ever-increasing nonlinear load environment. They I
nation must be maintained with the protection de- can have all of the desirable features, like copper or I
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vices. The lower the impedance, the higher the aluminum windings, lower than normal full load I
short-circuit current and vice versa. It is good prac- temperature rises, and indoor or outdoor enclo- I
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tice to specify the minimum impedance the appli- sures. As more installations are completed and har- I
cation can stand. monic measurements taken, we will be in a better I
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Since on a new design, the load profile may not position to specify appropriate K-factor transform- I
be known, it is my recommendation that K-13, ers for nonlinear load applications. I
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/E€€ lndustry App/icutionsMogozine I September/October I997