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Lecture7ws PDF
Lecture7ws PDF
Permutation Groups
“.” ()
147
148 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
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149
Notation
( )
( )123
132
Combining Permutations
( )( ) ( )
123
213
123
132
= 123
231
It’s a composition, so
this permutation first!
123 →132→231
152 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
A permutation is a
bijection!
• Non abelian (the two permutations of the previous slide do
not commute for example!)
1 2 n-1 n
n n-1
2 choices 1 choice
choices choices
|Sn| =n!
153
Example 27. If n = 2, then X = {1, 2}, and we have only two permutations:
σ1 : 1 7→ 1, 2 7→ 2
and
σ2 : 1 7→ 2, 2 7→ 1,
and S2 = {σ1 , σ2 }. The Cayley table of S2 is
σ1 σ2
σ1 σ1 σ2 .
σ2 σ2 σ1
Let us introduce the cycle notation. We write (12) to mean that 1 is sent to
2, and 2 is sent to 1. With this notation, we write
S2 = {(), (12)} .
The permutation
1 2 3
σ=
1 3 2
of Example 25 in the cycle notation is written as (23). We can combine two
such permutations:
(12)(23)
which means that we first permute 2 and 3: 1 2 3 7→ 1 3 2 and then we
permute 1 and 2: 1 3 2 7→ 2 3 1. Let us look next at the group S3 .
154 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
• |X| =2 , X={ 1, 2}
σ1 σ2
σ1 σ1 σ2
σ2 σ2 σ1
Cycle Notation
( )
123 2→3
(23) 3→2
132
thus 123 → 132
2→3
( )( )
123
213
123
132
(12)(23) 3→2
thus 123 → 132
1→2
2→1
thus 132→231
155
1 2 3
1 A B C ()
r C A B (213)
2
r B C A (123)
m A C B (23)
rm B A C (12)
2
r m C B A (13)
and we see that to each symmetry corresponds a permutation. For example,
r sends ABC to CAB and thus we have (132).
156 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
• |X|=3, X={1 2 3}
• σ1 :123 →123 (), σ2 :123 →213 (12) ,σ3 :123→321 (13) ,
σ4 :123 →132 (23) , σ5: 123→231 (123) , σ6 : 123→312 (132) .
• S2 ?
since | S2 |=2, it is the cyclic group C2!
• S3 ?
S3 vs D3
() (12) (23) (13) (123) (132) 1 r r2 m rm r2 m
() () (1,2) (2,3) (1,3) (123) (132) 1 1 r r2 m rm r2m
(1,2) (1,2) () (123) (132) (2,3) (1,3) r r r2 1 rm r2m m
(2,3) (2,3) (132) () (123) (1,3) (1,2) r2 r2 1 r r2m m rm
(1,3) (1,3) (123) (132) () (1,2) (2,3) m m r2m rm 1 r2 r
(123) (123) (1,3) (1,2) (2,3) (132) () rm rm m r2m r 1 r2
(132) (132) (2,3) (1,3) (1,2) () (123) r2m r2m rm m r2 r 1
D3 revisited
2 • Fix 3 locations on the plane: 1, 2, 3
B
• Call A,B,C the 3 triangle vertices
A
1 1 2 3
C 1 A B C ()
r C A B (213)
3 r2 B C A (123)
m A C B (23)
rm B A C (12)
r2m C B A (13)
where the kth row of the binary matrix is given by eTσ(k) = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
where 1 is at location σ(k). Now e1 , . . . , en are a set of orthogonal vectors,
that is, satisfying
T 0 if k 6= s
ek es = hek , es i = δks = , (7.1)
1 if k = s
[ ][ ]=[ ]
10 0
0 01
0 10
1
2
3
1
3
2
…
(0…0 1 0…0) 0 10 n σ(n)
Pσ PσT =
[ ][ ]=[ ]
p1
p1T … pn T
1
…
pn 1
and so on. From this process, it is clear that at every stage we have either
a matrix of exchange in which two rows of the identity are exchanged, or if
the output happens to have the next value in its designated place an identity
matrix. The process will necessarily terminate after n steps and will yield
the permutation σ as desired.
162 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
Transpositions
[ ]
0100
1000
0010
0001
i=σ(1)
1st row, 1 at
[ ][ ]=[ ]
ith position 0..010..0 1 σ(1)
…
…
…
ith row, 1 at i 1
10 … 0
…
1st position n
Place similarly σ(2) at the 2nd position, σ(3) at the 3rd position etc, this
process stops at most after n steps! (since at every step, either two rows
are exchanged, or we have an identity matrix if nothing needs to be
changed).
163
Pσ = En En−1 · · · E1
and
det Pσ = det En det En−1 · · · det E1 = (−1)# of exchanges .
164 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
Example
[
[ [ ]→[ ]
00 1
0 10
100
1
2
3
3
1
2
σ(1)=3
[
[ [ ]→[ ]
10 0
0 01
010
3
2
1
3
1
2
σ(2)=1
En …E2E1
Pσ
[ ]=[ ]
1
n
σ(1)
σ(n)
Parity of a Permutation
Example
(132) : 123 →312
123 → 312 thus (13) : 123 →321 sign(132)=(-1)2=1.
321 →312 thus (12)(13) : 123 →321→312 Same result from the
matrix approach!
This shows that A4 and D6 cannot be isomorphic! We thus just found our
first example, to show that there is more than cyclic and dihedral groups!
168 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
Example: A3
() (12) (23) (13) (123) (132)
() () (1,2) (2,3) (1,3) (123) (132)
(1,2) (1,2) () (123) (132) (2,3) (1,3)
(2,3) (2,3) (132) () (123) (1,3) (1,2)
(1,3) (1,3) (123) (132) () (1,2) (2,3)
(123) (123) (1,3) (1,2) (2,3) (132) ()
(132) (132) (2,3) (1,3) (1,2) () (123)
() (123) (132)
() () (123) (132) It is the cyclic group
(123) (123) (132) () of order 3!
(132) (132) () (123)
Order of An
Examples.
• A2 is of order 1 this is {1}.
• A3 is of order 3!/2=6/2=3 this is C3.
• A4 is of order 4!/2 =24/2=12 ?
169
Order of Elements in A4
http://kristin-williams.blogspot.com/2009/09/yeah.html
170 CHAPTER 7. PERMUTATION GROUPS
Exercise 37. 1. Show that any permutation of the form (ijk) is always
contained in the alternating group An , n ≥ 3.
Exercise 39. In the lecture, we gave the main steps to show that the group
D6 cannot be isomorphic to the group A4 , though both of them are of order
12 and non-abelian. This exercise is about filling some of the missing details.