MATH14 – ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Lecture Note

Lesson No. 1: Direct Products and Finitely Generated Abelian Groups

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. define direct products and finitely generated abelian groups
2. solve problems involving direct products and finitely generated abelian groups

In group theory, the fundamental building blocks of finite groups are simple groups. A
simple group is a group whose only normal subgroups are the trivial subgroup of order one
and the improper subgroup consisting of the entire original group.

Definition
Let G be a group. A subgroup N ≤G is called normal if gN=Ng for all g ∈G . If N is a
normal subgroup of G , we write N ◁ G .

Theorem
 Let N be a subgroup of G . The following are equivalent:
o N ◁G
o gN g−1 , ∀ g ∈G
o ∀ g ∈ G , ∀ n ∈ N , gng−1 ∈ N
 Let G be a group (not necessarily finite). If H is a subgroup such that |G : H|=2, then
H ◁ G.
 If G is abelian, then every subgroup H ≤G is normal.

Definition
n
Let G1 ,G2 , … ,G n be groups. For ( a 1 , a 2 , … , an ) and ( b 1 , b2 , … , bn ) in ∏ Gi, define to be
i=1
n
( a 1 b 1 , a2 b2 , … , an bn ). Then, ∏ Gi is the direct product group under the binary operation.
i=1

Example: Describe/discuss the following direct product groups.

a. Z2 × Z 3
Note that Z2 =\{ 0 , 1 \} , Z 3 =\{ 0 , 1 ,2 \} under addition modulo. So, it is necessary to find
a generator; that is, try every single Cartesian product to see if it generates the whole
group.
Let us try (1, 1).

( 1 ,1 ) =( 1 ,1 )
 ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) =( 0 , 2 )
( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) =( 0 ,2 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 )=( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 0 , 2 )=( 1 ,0 )
( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) =( 1, 0 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) =( 1, 1 ) ⋅ ( 1, 0 ) =( 0 , 2 ) ⋅ ( 0 , 2 )=( 0 ,1 )
( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 )= ( 0 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) =( 1, 1 ) ⋅ ( 0 ,1 ) =( 1, 0 ) ⋅ ( 0 , 2 )
( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 )= ( 0 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) =( 1, 1 ) ⋅ ( 0 ,1 ) =( 0 , 2 ) ⋅ ( 1 , 0 )
¿ ( 1,0 ) ⋅ ( 0,2 )=( 1 , 2 )
( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 ) ⋅ ( 1 ,1 )= (1 , 2 ) ⋅ (1 , 1 )=( 1 , 1 ) ⋅ ( 1 , 2 )=( 0 , 2 ) ⋅ ( 0 ,1 )
¿ ( 0,1 ) ⋅ ( 0,2 )=( 1,0 ) ⋅ ( 1,0 )=( 0 ,0 )

Z2 × Z 3=\{ ( 0,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 0,2 ) , ( 1,0 ) , ( 1,1 ) , ( 1,2 ) \} with order 6. Note that the order of the
direct product is equal to the product of the order of each group used to form the direct
product.

(Do not confuse the operation ⋅ as the usual multiplication. We only use it to simplify the
notation. We will still use the inherent binary operation of the groups involved in the
direct product.)

b. G 1 × G 2, where G 1=Z (under addition) and G2=\{ 1 ,−1 ,i ,−i \} (under ×)

Note that G 1=Z is infinite while G2=\{ 1 ,−1 ,i ,−i \} is finite (order 4); hence, the direct
product group G1 × G2 has an infinite order.

The direct product group is defined as G 1 × G 2=\{( x , y )∨x ∈ Z , y=± 1 ,± i \}.

First, we need to show that the elements generated by combining any two elements in
G1 × G 2 is in G1 × G 2. For instance, ( 1 ,−1 ) ⋅ ( 3 ,−i )=( 4 , i ) ∈ G.

For associativity, we need to show that for ∀ ( a , b ) , ( c , d ) , ( e , f ) ∈ G1 ×G2

[ ( a ,b ) ⋅ ( c , d ) ] ⋅ ( e , f )=( a , b ) ⋅[ ( c , d ) ⋅ ( e , f ) ]
Note that addition in G 1=Z is associative under addition and G2=\{ 1 ,−1 ,i ,−i \} is
associative under ×.

The identity element of G1 × G2 is ( 0 , 1 ). That is,

( x , y ) ⋅ ( 0,1 )=( x , y )=( 0,1 ) ⋅ ( x , y )

( x , y ) ⋅ ( 0,1 )=( x +0 , y × 1 )=( x , y )

( 0,1 ) ⋅ ( x , y )=( 0+ x , 1× y )=( x , y )

Every element ( x , y ) ∈G 1 ×G 2 has its inverse ( x−1 , y−1 ); that is,

( x , y ) ⋅ ( x−1 , y −1) =( 0,1 )=( x −1 , y−1 ) ⋅ ( x , y )

( x , y ) ⋅ ( x−1 , y −1) =( 0,1 ) ( x−1 , y−1 ) ⋅ ( x , y )=( 0,1 )

 ( x + x−1 , y × y −1 ) =( 0,1 ) ( x−1 + x , y −1 × y ) =( 0,1 )
−1
x + x =0 and y × y−1=1 −1
x + x=0 and y−1 × y=1
−1 1 −1 1
−1
x =−x y = −1
x =−x y =
y y

c. G= ( Z / 3 Z ) × ( Z / 5 Z ) × ( Z / 6 Z )
Let G=\{( x , y , z )∨x ∈ Z / 3 Z , y ∈ Z / 5 Z , z ∈ Z / 6 Z \} under additive modulo. Based on
group order (| Z / 3 Z∨¿ 3 ,∨Z / 5 Z∨¿ 5 ,∨Z / 6 Z ∨¿ 6), |G|=3 ×5 ×6=90 .
(Refer to the next lesson for the properties of factor groups involved in this direct product
group.)

Definition
A map ϕ of a group G into a group G ' is a homomorphism if ϕ ( ab )=ϕ ( a ) ϕ ( b ).
An isomorphism ϕ :G→ G ' is a homomorphism that is one to one and onto on G' . In symbols,
~
G −¿ G' ¿ .

'
Let ϕ :G→ G be a homomorphism of groups. The subgroup
Ker ϕ=\{ g ∈ G∨ϕ (g)=e ' \} is the kernel of ϕ .

Theorem
Let ϕ be a homomorphism of a group G into a group G ' .
 If e is the identity element in G , then ϕ ( e ) is the identity e ' G ' .
If a ∈ G, then ϕ ( a−1 )=ϕ ( a ) .
−1

 If H is a subgroup of G , then ϕ ( H ) is a subgroup G ' .

Example: Determine whether the given map f is a homomorphism.

a. f : Z → R under addition given by f ( x )=x
b. f : Z 9 → Z 2 be given by ϕ ( x )=¿ remainder of x when divided by 2, as in the division
algorithm

Solution:
a. f : Z → R under addition given by f ( x )=x
Note that f ( a+b ) =a+b=f ( a ) +f ( b ); hence, a homomorphism.

b. f : Z 9 → Z 2 be given by f ( x )=¿ remainder of x when divided by 2, as in the division

algorithm
The mapping can be expressed as

{
f ( x )= 0 if x iseven
1if x is odd
 To (dis)prove that f ( a+b ) =f ( a )+ f ( b ) is a homomorphism, look at this counterexamples.
f ( 4+6 ) ≠ f ( 4 ) + f ( 6 ) f ( 7+ 2 ) ≠ f ( 7 )+ f ( 2 )
f ( 1 ) ≠ f ( 4 ) +f ( 6 ) f ( 0 ) ≠ f ( 7 )+ f ( 2 )
1 ≠0+ 0 0 ≠ 1+ 0

Hence, it is not homomorphic.

On the other hand, isomorphism can be visualized as in the figure below.

G’
G

Theorems on Isomorphism
 (Cayley’s Theorem) Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutation.
 Any infinite cycle group G is isomorphic to the group Z under addition.
 The group Z m × Z n is isomorphic to Z mn if and only if m and n are relatively prime, that is
gcd(m , n) = 1.

Example: Describe all isomorphisms mapping ¿ and ⟨ G , ∘ ⟩ defined by

ρ0 =(1 2 3
1 2 3
, ρ1=) (
1 2 3
2 3 1
, ρ2=
1 2 3
3 1 2 ) ( )
Solution:
For ¿, the Cayley’s table representation is
+¿3 ¿ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
 2 2 0 1

For ⟨ G , ∘ ⟩ , The Cayley’s table representation is

∘ ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0
ρ2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1

In the isomorphism ϕ :¿, the following bijective relation occurs: 0 →

ϕ ρ0 , 1 ϕ ρ1, and 2 ϕ ρ2 and that
→ →

ϕ ( a+b )=ϕ ( a ) ϕ ( b ) . For instance (WLOG),

ϕ ( 1+2 )=ϕ ( 0 ) =ρ0=ρ1 ρ2=ϕ ( 1 ) ϕ ( 2 )
Example: Show that a Klein-four group and Z2 × Z 2 is isomorphic.

Solution:
Consider the Klein-four group shown in the table below.
e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e

The Cayley’s table for Z2 × Z 2 is shown below.

(0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, 0) (1, 1) (1, 0)
(1, 0) (1, 0) (1, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1)
(1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 0) (0, 1) (0, 0)

Note that the structure the two different groups are the same; hence, it is isomorphic.

Example: Show that Z6 and Z2 × Z 3 is isomorphic.

Solution:
The Cayley’s Table for Z6 is shown below.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
The Cayley’s table for Z2 × Z 3 is shown below.
(0, 0) (1, 2) (0, 1) (1, 0) (0, 2) (1, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 0) (1, 2) (0, 1) (1, 0) (0, 2) (1, 1)
(1, 2) (1, 2) (0, 1) (1, 0) (0, 2) (1, 1) (0, 0)
(0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 0) (0, 2) (1, 1) (0, 0) (1, 2)
(1, 0) (1, 0) (0, 2) (1, 1) (0, 0) (1, 2) (0, 1)
(0, 2) (0, 2) (1, 1) (0, 0) (1, 2) (0, 1) (1, 0)
(1, 1) (1, 1) (0, 0) (1, 2) (0, 1) (1, 0) (0, 2)

Note that the structure the two different groups are the same; hence, it is isomorphic.

Theorem
n
 The group ∏ Z m is cyclic and isomorphic to Z m m
i 1 2 ⋯ mn if and only if the numbers m i for
i=1
i=1 , … , n are such that the gcd of any two of them is 1.
n
 Let ( a 1 , a 2 , … , an ) ∈ ∏ Gi. If a i is of finite order r i in Gi , then the order of ( a 1 , a 2 , … , an ) in
i=1
n

∏ Gi is equal to the least common multiple of all the ri .

i=1

Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups

Let G be a finite abelian group of order n . Then,
G ≅ Zm × Z m × ⋯ × Z m
1 2 s

where s and the mi are unique integers satisfying s ≥1 , m i ≥ 2 for all i , and mi+1∨mi for
1 ≤i ≤ s−1. And, also
G ≅ Z p × ⋯ × Z p × ⋯ × Z q × ⋯ × Zq
β1 βt γ1 γu

For p , q and all other primes dividing n , again in a unique way, where ∑ β i is the exponent of
the greatest power of p dividing n , ∑ γ i is the exponent of the greatest power of q dividing n ,
and so on for all other primes dividing n .

Note that G ≅ Zm × Z m × ⋯ × Z m is called the invariant factor decomposition of G and mi are

1 2 s

called the invariant factors of G while G ≅ Z p × ⋯ × Z p × ⋯ × Z q × ⋯ × Zq is called the

β1 βt γ1 γu

elementary divisor decomposition of G and p β , q γ , and all other prime powers of n are called
i i

elementary divisors of G .

Example: Find all abelian groups, up to isomorphism, of the following order.

 a. 360
b. 720
c. 2160

Note: upto isomorphism signifies that any abelian group of order 360 should be structurally
identical (isomorphic) to one of the groups of order 360 exhibited.

Solution:
a. Let n=360=23 ×3 2 ×5 .
For the factor 23:
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 Z2 × Z 4 Z 8

For the factor 32:

Z3 × Z 3 Z9

For the factor 5:

Z5

The following are the elementary divisor decomposition and invariant factor
decomposition of the abelian group, up to isomorphism, of order 360.

Elementary divisor decomposition Invariant factor decomposition

Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 3 × Z3 × Z 5 Z30 × Z 6 × Z 2
Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 9 × Z5 Z 90 × Z 2 × Z 2
Z2 × Z 4 × Z3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z60 × Z 6
Z2 × Z 4 × Z 9 × Z 5 Z180 ×Z 2
Z 8 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z5 Z120 ×Z 3
Z8× Z9× Z5 Z360

b. Let n=720=24 × 32 × 5.
For the factor 24 :
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 Z2 × Z 8 Z 4 × Z 4 Z16

For the factor 32:

Z3 × Z 3 Z9

For the factor 5:

Z5

The following are the elementary divisor decomposition and invariant factor
decomposition of the abelian group, up to isomorphism, of order 720.
 Elementary divisor decomposition Invariant factor decomposition
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 ×Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z30 × Z 6 × Z 2 × Z 2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 ×Z 9 × Z 5 Z 90 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z60 × Z 6 × Z 2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 × Z 9 × Z 5 Z180 ×Z 2 × Z 2
Z 2 × Z 8 × Z 3 × Z3 × Z 5 Z120 ×Z 6
Z 2 × Z 8 × Z 9 × Z5 Z360 ×Z 2
Z4× Z4 × Z3× Z3 × Z5 Z60 × Z 12
Z 4 × Z 4 × Z 9 × Z5 Z180 ×Z 4
Z16 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z240 × Z3
Z16 × Z 9 × Z 5 Z720

c. Let n=216 0=24 × 33 × 5.

For the factor 24 :
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 Z2 × Z 8 Z 4 × Z 4 Z16

For the factor 33 :

Z3 × Z 3 × Z 3 Z3 × Z 9 Z2 7
For the factor 5:
Z5

The following are the elementary divisor decomposition and invariant factor
decomposition of the abelian group, up to isomorphism, of order 2160.

Elementary divisor decomposition Invariant factor decomposition

Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 ×Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z30 × Z 6 × Z 6 × Z2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 ×Z 3 × Z 9 × Z 5 Z 90 × Z 6 × Z 2 ×Z 2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2 × Z 2 ×Z 27 × Z5 Z270 × Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z60 × Z 6 × Z 6
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 × Z 3 × Z 9 × Z5 Z180 ×Z 6 × Z 2
Z2 × Z 2 × Z 4 × Z 27 × Z 5 Z540 ×Z 2 × Z 2
Z 2 × Z 8 × Z 3 × Z3 × Z 3 × Z 5 Z120 ×Z 6 × Z 3
Z 2 × Z 8 × Z 3 × Z9 × Z 5 Z360 ×Z 6
Z2 × Z 8 × Z 27 × Z 5 Z1080 × Z 2
Z4× Z4 × Z3× Z3 × Z3× Z5 Z60 × Z 12 × Z 3
Z4× Z4 × Z3× Z9 × Z5 Z180 ×Z 12
Z 4 × Z 4 × Z 27 × Z 5 Z540 ×Z 4
 Elementary divisor decomposition Invariant factor decomposition
Z16 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z 3 × Z5 Z240 × Z3 × Z 3
Z16 × Z 3 × Z 9 ×Z 5 Z720 ×Z 3
Z16 × Z 27 × Z 5 Z2160

WORKSHEET NO. 4

Directions: Solve the following problems completely.

1. List all the elements of Z3 × Z 4. Find the order of each of the elements. Is this group cyclic?
Why or why not?

2. Find the order of the given element of the direct product.

a. (2, 3) in Z6 × Z 15
b. (3, 10, 9) in Z 4 × Z 12 × Z 15

3. What is the largest order among the orders of all cyclic subgroups of the following direct
products?
a. Z6 × Z 8
b. Z12 × Z15

4. Find all the proper nontrivial subgroups of Z2 × Z 2 × Z 2.

5. Find all abelian groups, up to isomorphism, of the given order. Give the elementary divisor
decomposition and invariant factor decomposition
a. 1089
b. 32
c. 33075

6. Determine whether the given mapping is a homomorphism.

a. ϕ : R → R under multiplication be given by ϕ ( x )=|x|
¿ ¿

b. ϕ :Z 6 → Z 2 be given by ϕ ( x )=¿ remainder of x when divided by 2, as in the division

algorithm

7. Determine a group that is isomorphic to the group

{( )| }
1 a
0 1
a∈Z .

8. Why is Z3 × Z 3 not isomorphic to Z 9?