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Γ(s + 1) = s · Γ(s)
For 0 < s ∈ Z, this relation and induction show the connection to factorials,
From the functional equation, we get a meromorphic continuation of Γ(s) to the entire complex plane, except
for poles at non-positive integers −n. The poles are simple, with residue (−1)n /n! at −n.
The identity Z ∞
dt Γ(s)
ts e−ty = (for y > 0 and Re (s) > 0)
0 t ys
for y > 0 first follows for Re (s) > 0 by replacing t by t/y in the integral. Then
Z ∞
dt Γ(s)
ts e−tz = (for Re (z) > 0 and Re (s) > 0)
0 t zs
by complex analysis, since both sides are holomorphic in s and agree on the positive reals.
The latter identity allows non-obvious evaluation of a Fourier transform. Namely, let
α −x
x ·e (for x > 0)
f (x) =
0 (for x < 0)
For Re (α) > −1 this function is locally integrable at 0, and in any case is of rapid decay at infinity. We can
compute its Fourier transform:
Z Z ∞ Z ∞
dx dx Γ(α + 1)
e−2πiξx f (x) dx = e−2πiξx xα+1 e−x = xα+1 e−x(1+2πiξ) =
R 0 x 0 x (1 + 2πiξ)α+1
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
as claimed. ///
A similar sort of integral, with one more factor, is Euler’s integral representation for hypergeometric
functions, namely,
Z 1
1
F (α, β, γ; z) = xβ−1 (1 − x)γ−β−1 (1 − xz)−α dx
B(β, γ − β) 0
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
where the central character ω must be compatible with κ, in the sense that
−1 0
ω = eπiκ
0 −1
That is, the central character must have the same parity, as a character, as the weight κ has, as an integer.
Mellin transforms of holomorphic discrete series Whittaker functions are easy to evaluate, with the exponent
s − 21 rather than s, as usual, to have the functional equations s → 1 − s rather than s → −s. Namely,
regardless of the parity of κ,
Z Z ∞
κ s− 12 y 0 dy s− 21 y 0 dy
sgn(y) · |y| W = 2· |y| W
R× 0 1 |y| 0 0 1 y
Z ∞
1 κ dy 1 κ κ
= 2· |y|s− 2 + 2 e−2πy = 2 · (2π)−(s− 2 + 2 ) Γ(s − 1
2 + )
0 y 2
The archimedean integral arising in the Rankin-Selberg convolution L-function for two holomorphic cuspforms
of the same weight κ is similarly easy to evaluate explicitly:
Z ∞ Z ∞
y 0 y 0 dy dy
|y| s−1
W W = |y|s−1+κ e−4πy = (4π)−(s−1+κ) · Γ(s − 1 + κ)
0 0 1 0 1 y 0 y
For µ ∈ C, let Iµ be the µth (naively normalized) spherical principal series of G with trivial central character,
by definition consisting of the collection of all smooth functions f on G such that
a ∗
f (p · g) = χ(p) · f (g) (for χ(p) = |a/d|µ with p = ∈ P , and g ∈ G)
0 d
Computation of the Fourier expansion of Eisenstein series suggests presenting the Whittaker function as an
image under an intertwining operator from Iµ to the Whittaker space
1 x
Wh = {f on GL2 (R) : f (ng) = ψ(n) · f (g) for all n ∈ N, g ∈ G} (where ψ = e2πix )
0 1
Such an intertwining amounts to taking a Fourier transform, as follows. Let the spherical function be
y ∗ cos θ sin θ
ϕ( ) = |y|µ (for y > 0)
0 1 − sin θ cos θ
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
with trivial central character. This spherical function gets mapped to the Whittaker space by an intertwining
Z
Wµnf (g) = e−2πix ϕ(wo nx g) dx
R
y 0
For diagonal elements my = , we can explicitly determine the Iwasawa decomposition of wo nx my ,
0 1
namely (see the appendix)
y/r ∗ y/r x/r p
wo nx my = wo (where r = x2 + y 2 )
0 r −x/r y/r
Therefore, Z
y 0 −2πix y/r ∗ y/r x/r
Wµnf = e ϕ( wo ) dx
0 1 R 0 r −x/r y/r
The spherical-ness is simply right K-invariance, and we are assuming trivial central character, so this
simplifies to µ
|y|
Z
y 0
Wµnf = e−2πix dx (for Re (µ) > 21 )
0 1 R y 2 + x2
Replace x by xy to obtain the useful integral representation
Z
y 0 1
Wµnf = |y|1−µ e−2πixy dx (for Re (µ) > 12 )
0 1 R (1 + x2 )µ
It is awkward that Re (µ) > 12 is necessary for absolute convergence, since the unitary principal series have
Re (µ) = 12 , in the naive normalization. However, we can rearrange the integral to a form that shows the
meromorphic continuation, and explains the normalization constant at the same time. Namely, using the
identity involving Γ(s),
Z Z ∞
|y|1−µ
Z
−2πixy 1 2 dt
|y| 1−µ
e dx = e−2πixy tµ e−t(1+x ) dx
R (1 + x2 )µ Γ(µ) R 0 t
√
Replace x by x · √π to obtain
t
√ ∞ √
π |y|1−µ
Z Z
−2πixy· √πt 1 2 dt
e tµ− 2 e−t e−πx dx
Γ(µ) 0 R t
nf
Iµ = Iµ+ 1
2
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
And a less naive normalization of the Whittaker function not only shifts µ, but also gets rid of the Γ(µ) and
π µ , by taking
Γ(µ + 21 ) nf
Wµ = · Wµ+ 1
πµ 2
That is,
µ+ 21 Z ∞
Γ(µ + 12 )
|y|
Z
y 0 −2πix 1 dt
Wµ = e dx = |y|1/2
e−π|y|( t +t) tµ
0 1 πµ R x 2 + y2
0 t
where Wµnf is the Whittaker function of the µth (naively normalized) spherical principal series Iµnf . As with
holomorphic discrete series, we will later renormalize the exponent of y to s − 12 , as a global normalization
to give L-functions functional equation s → 1 − s rather than s → −s. The integral representation obtained
above by consideration of an intertwining operator from Iµnf to the Whittaker space gives us what we need:
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z µ
s y 0 dy −2πix y dy
y Wµnf = y s
e dx
0 0 1 y 0 R x2 + y 2 y
The obvious thing to do is to interchange the order of integration, and apply the gamma identity, obtaining
Z Z ∞ µ Z ∞Z Z ∞
1 dy 1 2 2 dy dt
e−2πix y s+µ 2 + y2
dx = e−2πix y s+µ tµ e−t(x +y ) dx
R 0 x y Γ(µ) 0 R 0 y t
√
Replace y by y/ t Z ∞Z Z ∞
1 µ−s 2 2 dy dt
e−2πix y s+µ t 2 e−tx e−y dx
Γ(µ) 0 R 0 y t
√
Replace y by y
∞ ∞
Γ( s+µ
2 )
∞
Z Z Z Z Z
1 −2πix s+µ µ−s
−tx2 −y dy dt µ−s 2 dt
e y 2 t 2 e e dx = e−2πix t 2 e−tx dx
2 Γ(µ) 0 R 0 y t 2 Γ(µ) 0 R t
√
Then replace x by x · √π and take the Fourier transform of the Gaussian
t
√ √
π Γ( s+µ
2 )
∞ √
π Γ( s+µ
2 )
∞
Z Z Z
−2πix· √πt µ−s−1
−πx2 dt π µ−s−1 dt
e t 2 e dx = e−π· t t 2
2 Γ(µ) 0 R t 2 Γ(µ) 0 t
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
Γ(µ + 12 ) nf
Wµ = 1 · Wµ+ 1
π µ+ 2 2
This gives Z ∞
1 y 0 dy
|y|s− 2 Wµ = 1
2 · π −s Γ( s+µ s−µ
2 ) · Γ( 2 )
0 0 1 y
Note the nature of the product of gammas, specifically, the symmetry in ±µ.
∞ ∞Z s+1−µ−ν
π µ+ν−s
Z
1 (tτ ) 2 ν− 21 −τ dt dτ
= Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 ) tµ− 2 e−t s+1−µ−ν τ e
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) 0 0 (t + τ ) 2 t τ
Z ∞Z ∞
π µ+ν−s s+µ−ν 1 s+ν−µ dt dτ
= Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 ) t 2 e−t s+1−µ−ν τ
2 e−τ
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) 0 0 (t + τ ) 2 t τ
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
Replace t by tτ
∞ ∞
π µ+ν−s
Z Z
s+µ−ν 1 dt dτ
= Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 ) t 2 e−tτ s+1−µ−ν τ s e−τ
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) 0 0 (tτ + τ ) 2 t τ
∞ ∞
π µ+ν−s
Z Z
s+µ−ν 1 s−1+µ+ν dt dτ
= Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 ) t 2 e−(t+1)τ s+1−µ−ν τ 2
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) 0 0 (t + 1) 2 t τ
Replace τ by τ /(t + 1):
∞ ∞
π µ+ν−s
Z Z
s+µ−ν 1 s−1+µ+ν dt dτ
= Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 ) t 2 e−τ τ 2
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) 0 0 (t + 1)s t τ
∞
π µ+ν−s
Z
s+µ−ν 1 dt
= Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 )Γ( s−1+µ+ν
2 ) t 2
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) 0 (t + 1)s t
As usual, Z ∞ Z ∞Z ∞
1
s+µ−ν dt 1 s+µ−ν dt dx
t 2
s t
= t 2 xs e−x(1+t)
0 (t + 1) Γ(s) 0 0 t x
Γ( s+µ−ν ) Γ( s−µ+ν
Z ∞Z ∞
1 s+µ−ν s−µ+ν dt dx )
= t 2 x 2 e−x e−t = 2 2
Γ(s) 0 0 t x Γ(s)
Thus, the whole is
π µ+ν−s Γ( s+µ−ν
2 ) Γ( s−µ+ν
2 ) Γ( s+1−µ−ν
2 ) Γ( s−1+µ+ν
2 )
·
2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) Γ(s)
That is, with the naive normalization,
∞
π µ+ν−s Γ( s+µ−ν ) Γ( s−µ+ν ) Γ( s+1−µ−ν ) Γ( s−1+µ+ν
)
Z
y 0 y 0 dy
y s−1 Wµnf Wνnf = · 2 2 2 2
0 0 1 0 1 y 2 Γ(µ) Γ(ν) Γ(s)
1
For the less naive normalization, replace µ by µ + 2 and ν by ν + 12 , and recall the renormalization
Γ(µ + 21 ) nf
Wµ = 1 · Wµ+ 1
π µ+ 2 2
Note the pleasing symmetry in the parameters ±µ and ±ν. The extra 2 in the denominator can be
rationalized away in several different ways.
where the W ’s are Whittaker functions for irreducibles of GL2 (R) or GL2 (C), with ψ(x) = e2πix as usual,
and where we have made the simplest useful choice 1/(1 + x2 )w/2 of archimedean data. By Diaconu’s
computations, these integrals are not generally elementary, except for holomorphic discrete series of GL2 (R),
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
where we can evaluate them as follows. For holomorphic discrete series with lowest weights both equal to κ,
the local moment integral is
Z ∞Z ∞
dy dy 0
Z
κ/2 0 dx
y it y 0−it y κ/2 e−2πy y 0 e−2πy ψ((y − y 0 ) · x)
0 0 R (1 + x2 )w/2 y y 0
∞ ∞
dy dy 0
Z Z Z
κ −it+ κ 0 dx
= y it+ 2 y 0 2 −(2π+2πix)y −(2π−2πix)y
e e
0 0 R (1 + x2 )w/2 y y 0
Using the gamma identity in both y and y 0 , this gives
Z
κ κ 1 1 dx
(2π)−(1+κ) Γ(it + ) Γ(−it + ) it+ κ ·
−it+ κ ·
2 2 R (1 + ix) 2 (1 − ix) 2 (1 + x2 )w/2
This is the inner product on R of two functions whose Fourier transforms we essentially know from the
gamma identity. That is, we know
Z α −x
1 1 x ·e (for x > 0)
e2πiξx dξ = ·
R (1 + 2πiξ)α+1 Γ(α + 1) 0 (for x < 0)
2−(α+β+1) Γ(α + β + 1)
Z Z
1 1 1 α −x β −x
α+1 (1 − 2πix)β+1
dx = x e · x e dx =
R (1 + 2πix) Γ(α + 1) Γ(β + 1) R Γ(α + 1) Γ(β + 1)
κ κ 2−(κ+w) Γ(κ + w)
(2π)−κ Γ(it + ) Γ(−it + )
2 2 Γ(it + κ2 + w2 ) Γ(−it + κ2 + w
2)
Thus, for weight κ holomorphic discrete series on GL2 (R), and with the simplest choice of data,
Γ(s) 1
= s−a · (1 + O( )) (for a fixed)
Γ(s + a) |s|
1
for fixed w and for s = 2 + it this moment integral has simple asymptotics, namely
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
to rewrite
κ+w √ κ+w κ+w+1
Γ(κ + w) = Γ(2 · ) = 2κ+w−1 · π · Γ( ) · Γ( )·
2 2 2
Thus, the exponential depending on w disappears, and
√
π Γ(it + κ2 ) Γ(−it + κ2 ) Γ( κ2 + w2 ) · Γ( κ2 + w2 + 21 )·
(moment integral) = (2π)−κ · ·
2 Γ(it + κ2 + w2 ) Γ(−it + κ2 + w2 )
For compatibility with global normalizations, take additive character and norm on C to be
1 x
ψ = e2πi(x+x) |α|C = |α · α|
0 1
where the norm on the right-hand side is the usual norm on R. For µ ∈ C, let Iµ be the µth (naively
normalized) spherical principal series of G with trivial central character, by definition consisting of the
collection of all smooth functions f on G such that
µ a ∗
f (p · g) = χ(p) · f (g) (for χ(p) = |a/d|C with p = ∈ P , and g ∈ G)
0 d
As over R, computation of the Fourier expansion of Eisenstein series suggests presenting the Whittaker
function as an image under an intertwining operator from Iµ to the Whittaker space
Such an intertwining amounts to taking a Fourier transform, as follows. Let the spherical function be
y ∗
ϕ( · k) = |y|µC = y 2µ (for y > 0, k ∈ U (2))
0 1
with trivial central character. This spherical function gets mapped to the Whittaker space by an intertwining
Z
Wµnf (g) = ψ(x) ϕ(wo nx g) dx
C
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
Therefore, Z
y 0 y/r ∗ y/r x/r
Wµnf = ψ(x) ϕ( wo ) dx
0 1 C 0 r −x/r y/r
The spherical-ness is right U (2)-invariance, and we are assuming trivial central character, so this simplifies
to
Z 2µ Z 2µ
nf y 0 −2πi(x+x)
y −2πi(x+x)
y
Wµ = e dx = e dx (for Re (µ) > 12 )
0 1 C
y 2 + xx
C
y 2 + xx
where we reverted to the usual absolute value on R, causing the exponent µ to effectively double. Replace
x by xy to obtain a useful integral representation, valid for y ∈ C× ,
Z
nf y 0 1−µ 1
Wµ = |y|C ψ(x · y) dx (for Re (µ) > 12 )
0 1 C (1 + xx)2µ
As in the case of GL2 (R), the integral can be rearranged to show the meromorphic continuation, and explain
subsequent renormalization. Namely, using the identity involving Γ(s), for y > 0,
Z Z ∞
y 2−2µ
Z
1 dt
y 2−2µ e−2πi(x+x)y 2µ
dx = e−2πi(x+x)y t2µ e−t(1+xx) dx
C (1 + xx) Γ(2µ) C 0 t
√
Replace x by x · √π to obtain
t
∞ √
π |y|1−µ
Z Z
−2πi(x+x)y· √πt dt
e t2µ−1 e−t e−πxx dx
Γ(µ) 0 C t
A less naive normalization of the parametrization of the principal series Iµnf replaces µ by µ + 21 , taking
nf
Iµ = Iµ+ 1
2
Γ(2µ + 1) nf
Wµ = · Wµ+ 1
π 2µ+1 2
That is,
2µ+1 Z ∞
|y|
Z
y 0 Γ(2µ + 1) −2πi(x+x) 1 dt
Wµ = e dx = |y| e−π|y|( t +t) t2µ
0 1 π 2µ+1 C xx + y 2
0 t
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
where Wµnf is the Whittaker function of the µth (naively normalized) spherical principal series Iµnf . As for
s− 1
GL2 (R), later we will rewrite this with |y|sC replaced by |y|C 2 , in order to give L-functions functional
equation s → 1 − s rather than s → −s. To compute this integral in terms of gamma functions, use the
integral representation obtained above from an intertwining operator from Iµnf to the Whittaker space:
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z 2µ
2s y 0 dy y dy
y Wµnf = y 2s
ψ(x) dx
0 0 1 y 0 C xx + y 2 y
As over R, the obvious thing to do is to interchange the order of integration, and apply the gamma identity,
obtaining
Z Z ∞ 2µ Z ∞ Z Z ∞
1 dy 1 2 dy dt
ψ(x) y 2s+2µ dx = ψ(x) y 2s+2µ t2µ e−t(xx+y )
dx
C 0 xx + y 2 y Γ(2µ) 0 C 0 y t
√
Replace y by y/ t Z ∞ Z Z ∞
1 2 dy dt
ψ(x) y 2s+2µ tµ−s e−txx e−y dx
Γ(2µ) 0 C 0 y t
√
Replace y by y
Z ∞ Z Z ∞ Z ∞ Z
1 s+µ µ−s −txx −y dy dt Γ(s + µ) dt
ψ(x) y t e e dx = ψ(x) tµ−s e−txx dx
2 Γ(2µ) 0 C 0 y t 2 Γ(2µ) 0 C t
√
Then replace x by x · √π and take the Fourier transform of the Gaussian
t
∞ √
π Γ(s + µ) ∞ −π· π µ−s−1 dt
Z Z Z
π Γ(s + µ) π dt
ψ x· √ tµ−s−1 e−πxx dx = e t t
2 Γ(2µ) 0 C t t 2 Γ(2µ) 0 t
Γ(2µ + 1) nf
Wµ = · Wµ+ 1
π 2µ+1 2
In this normalization, the Mellin transform of the spherical GL2 (C) Whittaker function is
Z ∞
s− 1 y 0 dy
|y|C 2 Wµ = 12 · π −2s Γ(s + µ) · Γ(s − µ)
0 0 1 y
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
As usual, note the nature of the product of gammas, especially, the symmetry in ±µ.
Of course, once asserted, this can be verified by direct computation. However, instead, we should see how
the decomposition could be found in the first place.
Over either R or C, the maximal compact K can be defined as
K = {g : g ∗ g = 12 } = {g : g · g ∗ = 12 } (where g ∗ is g-conjugate-transpose)
Of course, over R the conjugation does nothing. Assuming that g = pk with p upper triangular and k in K,
Then
∗ 1 0 1 −x 1 −x
gg = =
−x y 0 y x y 2 + xx
From an equality ∗
a2 + bb bd a b a b 1 −x
= =
bd d2 0 d 0 d x y 2 + xx
immediately d = r, and b = −x/d = −x/r, and then
y 2 + xx − xx y2
a2 = 1 − bb = 1 − xx/r2 = =
r2 r2
from which a = y/r. Thus,
y/r −x/r
g = wo nx my wo−1 = ·k
0 r
for some k ∈ K. Then
−1 r/y x/ry r/y − xx/ry x/ry y/r x/ry
k = p g = = =
0 1/r −x/r y/r −x/r y/r
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
by replacing v by uv. Replacing u by u/(1 + v) (another instance of the basic gamma identity) and noting
that Γ(1) = 1 gives Z ∞ −s
v
dv
0 1 +v
Replace the path from 0 to ∞ by the Hankel contour Hε described as follows. Far to the right on the real
line, start with the branch of v −s given by (e2πi v)−s = e−2πis v −s , integrate from +∞ to ε > 0 along the
real axis, clockwise around a circle of radius ε at 0, then back out to +∞, now with the standard branch of
v −s . For Re (−s) > −1 the integral around the little circle goes to 0 as ε → 0. Thus,
∞
v −s v −s
Z Z
1
dv = lim dv
0 1+v ε→0 1 − e−2πis Hε 1+v
The integral of this integrand over a large circle goes to 0 as the radius goes to +∞, for Re (−s) < 0. Thus,
this integral is equal to the limit as R → +∞ and ε → 0 of the integral
from R to ε
from ε clockwise back to ε
from ε to R
from R counterclockwise to R
This integral is 2πi times the sum of the residues inside it, namely, that at v = −1 = eπi . Thus,
Z ∞ −s
v 2πi 2πi π
Γ(s) · Γ(1 − s) = dv = −2πis
· (eπi )−s = πis −πis
=
0 1 + v 1 − e e − e sin πs
√
11. Appendix: Duplication: Γ(s) · Γ(s + 21 ) = 21−2s · π · Γ(2s)
From the Eulerian integral definition,
Z ∞ Z ∞
dt 1 du
Γ(s) · Γ(s + 12 ) = e−t ts · e−u us+ 2
0 t 0 u
Replacing t by t/u Z ∞ Z ∞
t 1 du dt
e−( u +u) ts u 2
0 0 u t
In the Fourier transform identity Z
2 2
e−πξ = e−2πix·ξ e−πx dx
R
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Paul Garrett: Standard archimedean integrals for GL(2) (February 26, 2015)
√ √ √
let ξ = t/ u and replace x by x/ π:
Z √
t 1 −2πix· √u√t 2
e−π u = √ e π e−x dx
π R
√
Z ∞ √ √
Z ∞ √
Z ∞ √
dt dt dt
Γ(s)·Γ(s+ 12 ) = π e−2 t s
t = 2 π e−2t t2s = 21−2s π e−t t2s = π 21−2s Γ(2s)
0 t 0 t 0 t
14