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XIII
Coastal and Ocean
Engineering
87 Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering John B. Herbich
Wave Phenomena • Sediment Processes • Beach Profile • Longshore Sediment
Transport • Coastal Structures • Navigational Channels • Marine Foundations •
Oil Spills • Offshore Structures

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87
Shallow Water and Deep
Water Engineering

87.1 Wave Phenomena

Airy (Low Amplitude) • Cnoidal (Shallow Water, Long Waves)
• Stream Function • Stokian (Third Order)
87.2 Sediment Processes
87.3 Beach Profile
87.4 Longshore Sediment Transport
General Energy Flux Equation • Threshold of Sand Movement
by Waves
87.5 Coastal Structures
Seawalls • Breakwaters
87.6 Navigational Channels
John B. Herbich 87.7 Marine Foundations
Texas A & M University Consulting 87.8 Oil Spills
& Research Services, Inc. 87.9 Offshore Structures

Ocean engineering is a relatively new branch of engineering. The need for this new specialty was recognized
in the 1960s. Several universities, including Texas A&M, MIT, Florida Atlantic, the U.S. Coast Guard
Academy, and the U.S. Naval Academy, have established undergraduate degree programs in ocean engineer-
ing. Several universities have also developed programs at the graduate level specializing in ocean engineering.
Ocean and coastal engineering covers many topics, generally divided between shallow water (coastal
engineering) and deep water (ocean engineering), shown in Figure 87.1 and Figure 87.2.

87.1 Wave Phenomena

Wave phenomena are of great importance in coastal and ocean engineering. Waves determine the
composition and geometry of beaches. Since waves interact with human-made shore structures or
offshore structures, safe design of these structures depends to a large extent on the selected wave
characteristics. The structural stability criteria are often stated in terms of extreme environmental
conditions (wave heights, periods, water levels, astronomical tides, storm surges, tsunamis, and winds).
Waves in the ocean constantly change and are irregular in shape, particularly when under the influence
of wind; such waves are called seas. When waves are no longer under the influence of wind and are out
of the generating area, they are referred to as swells. Many wave theories have been developed, including
the Airy, cnoidal, solitary, stream function, Stokian, and so forth. Figure 87.3 describes the regions of
validity for various wave theories. Cnoidal and stream function theories apply principally to shallow

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87-2 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Wave Phenomena Sediment Processes Coastal Structures Marine Foundation

Characteristics Design Onshore- Littoral Seawalls Groins Breakwater Shallow Deep

Values Offshore

Shore Detached
Connected

Navigation Channels Ports & Harbors Oil Spills

Containment Removal

Design Construction Maintenance Contaminated Design Construction Maintenance Contaminated

Sediment Sediment
Removal Removal

Dredging Dredging Dredging Dredging Dredging Dredging

FIGURE 87.1 Coastal engineering (shallow water).

Wave Phenomena Offshore Structures Offshore Pipelines

Characteristics Design Values Floating Fixed Tension

Dynamic Naval Structural Pile Stability

Positioning Architecture Analysis Driving

FIGURE 87.2 Ocean engineering (deep water).

and transitional water, whereas Airy and Stokian theories apply to transitional and deep water (Airy
applies to low amplitude waves).

Airy (Low Amplitude)

Wavelength is given by the following equations.

Shallow water L = T gh = CT (87.1)

gT 2 Ê 2ph ˆ
Transitional water L= tanh Á ˜ (87.2)
2p Ë L ¯

gT 2
Deep water Lo = = C oT (87.3)
2p

where T = wave period; g = acceleration due to gravity; h = water depth; and C = wave celerity. Subscript
o denotes deep water conditions.

Cnoidal (Shallow Water, Long Waves)

The theory originally developed by Boussinesq [1877] has been studied and presented in more usable
form by several researchers. Wavelength is given by

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-3

d d
= 0.040 = 0.500
L L
d d
= 0.00155 = 0.0792
gT2 gT2
Shallow water Transitional water Deep water

H0 Stokes’ 4th order

= 0.14
L0
Stokes’ 3rd order
BREAKING
)
78
0.
=
H
d
ry
−
eo
th HB Stokes’ 2nd order
ve H=
wa 4
Stream Function V

ry
lita NONBREAKING
(So
it Stream
lim
g Function
kin
ea V L2H
Br ~
~ 26
d3

Croidal Theory

Linear (Airy) Theory

0.0004 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
d
gT2

FIGURE 87.3 Regions of validity for various wave theories (Source: Le Méhauté, B. 1969. An Introduction to Hydro-
dynamics and Water Waves, Report No. ERL 118-POL3-1&2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science
Services Administration, Washington, DC.)

16d3
L= kK (k ) (87.4)
3H

and wave period by

È ˘
Í ˙
g 16 y t h Í kK (k ) ˙
T = (87.5)
h 3H yt Í H Ê 1 E(k ) ˆ ˙
Í1 + Á - ˜˙
ÍÎ yt k 2 Ë 2 K (k )¯ ˙˚

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87-4 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

where yt = distance from the bottom to the wave trough; k = modulus of the elliptic integrals; K(k) =
complete elliptic integral of the first kind; and E(k) = complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Cnoidal waves are periodic and of permanent form; thus L = CT.

Stream Function
Stream function was developed by Dean [1977] and is of analytical form with the wavelength L, coeffi-
cients X(n), and the value of stream function on the free surface yh determined numerically. The
expression for the stream function, y, for a wave system rendered stationary by a reference frame moving
with the speed of the wave, C, is

NN
ÊL ˆ 2p n ˘ Ê 2p nx ˆ
y = Á -U ˜ z +
ËT ¯ Â X(n)sinhÈÍÎ L
n=1
(h + z )˙ cosÁ
˚ Ë L ¯
˜ (87.6)

with the coordinate z referenced to the mean water level; U is a uniform current.
Stream function (Table 87.1) provides values of wavelength L¢ = L/ Lo, h¢c = hc/H (water surface elevation
above mean water), h¢t = ht/H (wave surface elevation below mean water), u¢c (horizontal dimensionless
velocity at the crest), w m¢ (maximum dimensionless vertical velocity), (F¢D)m (maximum dimensionless
drag force), and (F¢I)m (maximum dimensionless inertia force).

Stokian (Third Order)

Wavelength is given by

2
Ê 2ph ˆ ÏÔ Ê pH ˆ È 5 + 2 cosh(4ph / L) + 2 cosh (4ph / L ˘ ¸Ô
2
gT 2
L= tanh Á ˜Ì Á1 + ˜ Í 4 ˙˝ (87.7)
2p Ë L ¯Ô Ë L ¯ Î 8 sinh (2pd/L) ˚ ˛Ô
Ó

87.2 Sediment Processes

Along the coasts the ocean meets land. Waves, currents, tsunamis, and storms have been shaping the
beaches for many thousands of years. Beaches form the first defense against the waves and are constantly
moving on, off, and along the shore (littoral drift). Figure 87.4 provides a definition for terms describing
a typical beach profile. The shoreline behavior is very complex and difficult to understand; it cannot be
expressed by equations because many of the processes are site specific. Researchers have, however,
developed equations that should be summarized. There are two basic sediment movements:
1. On- and offshore
2. Parallel to the shore and at an angle to the shore.

87.3 Beach Profile

Information on beach profiles is essential in designing structural modifications (such as seawalls, revet-
ments, and breakwaters, both connected and detached, pipeline crossings, and beach replenishment.
Bruun [1954] indicated that many beach profiles (Figure 87.5) can be represented by

h(x) = Ax2/3

where h is the water depth at a distance x offshore, and A is a dimensional scale parameter.
Dean [1977] showed that Hb/wT is an important parameter distinguishing barred profiles from
nonbarred profiles (where Hb is breaking wave height, w is fall velocity of sediment in water, and T is
wave period). This parameter is consistent with the following beach profiles in nature:

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-5

TABLE 87.1 Selected Summary of Tabulated Dimensionless Stream Function Quantities

¢
p Dc
Case h/Lo H /L0 L¢ h¢c ht¢ u c¢ w m¢ * q(w m¢ ) * (FD¢ ) m (FI¢) *m q(FI¢) m* (Bottom)

1-A 0.002 0.00039 0.120 0.910 -0.090 49.68 13.31 10˚ 2574.0 815.6 10˚ 1.57
1-B 0.002 0.00078 0.128 0.938 -0.062 47.32 15.57 10˚ 2774.6 1027.0 10˚ 1.45
1-C 0.002 0.00117 0.137 0.951 -0.049 43.64 14.98 10˚ 2861.0 1043.5 10˚ 1.35
1-D 0.002 0.00156 0.146 0.959 -0.041 40.02 13.63 10˚ 2985.6 1001.7 10˚ 1.29
2-A 0.005 0.00097 0.187 0.857 -0.143 29.82 8.70 20˚ 907.0 327.1 20˚ 1.46
2-B 0.005 0.00195 0.199 0.904 -0.096 29.08 9.29 10˚ 1007.9 407.1 10˚ 1.36
2-C 0.005 0.00293 0.211 0.927 -0.073 26.71 9.85 10˚ 1060.7 465.7 10˚ 1.23
2-D 0.005 0.00388 0.223 0.944 -0.056 23.98 9.47 10˚ 1128.4 465.2 10˚ 1.11
3-A 0.01 0.00195 0.260 0.799 -0.201 19.83 6.22 30˚ 390.3 162.1 30˚ 1.34
3-B 0.01 0.00389 0.276 0.865 -0.135 19.87 7.34 20˚ 457.3 209.0 20˚ 1.28
3-C 0.01 0.00582 0.292 0.898 -0.102 18.47 6.98 20˚ 494.7 225.6 10˚ 1.16
3-D 0.01 0.00775 0.308 0.922 -0.078 16.46 6.22 10˚ 535.4 242.4 10˚ 1.04
4-A 0.02 0.00390 0.359 0.722 -0.278 12.82 4.50 30˚ 156.3 82.2 30˚ 1.18
4-B 0.02 0.00777 0.380 0.810 -0.190 13.35 5.38 30˚ 197.6 103.4 20˚ 1.16
4-C 0.02 0.01168 0.401 0.858 -0.142 12.58 5.29 20˚ 222.9 116.1 20˚ 1.06
4-D 0.02 0.01555 0.422 0.889 -0.111 11.29 4.99 20˚ 242.4 113.5 20˚ 0.97
5-A 0.05 0.00975 0.541 0.623 -0.377 7.20 3.44 50˚ 44.3 37.6 50˚ 0.93
5-B 0.05 0.01951 0.566 0.716 -0.284 7.66 3.69 50˚ 59.1 38.5 50˚ 0.94
5-C 0.05 0.02916 0.597 0.784 -0.216 7.41 3.63 30˚ 72.0 47.1 30˚ 0.88
5-D 0.05 0.03900 0.627 0.839 -0.161 6.47 3.16 30˚ 85.5 45.1 20˚ 0.76
6-A 0.10 0.0183 0.718 0.571 -0.429 4.88 3.16 75˚ 17.12 22.62 75˚ 0.73
6-B 0.10 0.0366 0.744 0.642 -0.358 5.09 3.07 50˚ 22.37 23.67 50˚ 0.73
6-C 0.10 0.0549 0.783 0.713 -0.287 5.00 2.98 50˚ 28.79 23.64 30˚ 0.70
6-D 0.10 0.0730 0.824 0.782 -0.218 4.43 2.44 50˚ 36.48 22.43 30˚ 0.62
7-A 0.20 0.0313 0.899 0.544 -0.456 3.63 3.05 75˚ 6.69 13.86 75˚ 0.46
7-B 0.20 0.0625 0.931 0.593 -0.407 3.64 2.93 75˚ 8.60 13.61 75˚ 0.47
7-C 0.20 0.0938 0.981 0.653 -0.347 3.54 2.49 50˚ 11.31 13.31 50˚ 0.47
7-D 0.20 0.1245 1.035 0.724 -0.276 3.16 2.14 50˚ 15.16 11.68 50˚ 0.44
8-A 0.50 0.0420 1.013 0.534 -0.466 3.11 2.99 75˚ 2.09 6.20 75˚ 0.090
8-B 0.50 0.0840 1.059 0.570 -0.430 3.01 2.85 75˚ 2.71 6.21 75˚ 0.101
8-C 0.50 0.1260 1.125 0.611 -0.389 2.86 2.62 75˚ 3.53 5.96 75˚ 0.116
8-D 0.50 0.1681 1.194 0.677 -0.323 2.57 1.94 50˚ 4.96 5.36 50˚ 0.120
9-A 1.00 0.0427 1.017 0.534 -0.466 3.09 2.99 75˚ 1.025 3.116 75˚ 0.004
9-B 1.00 0.0852 1.065 0.569 -0.431 2.98 2.85 75˚ 1.329 3.126 75˚ 0.005
9-C 1.00 0.1280 1.133 0.609 -0.391 2.83 2.62 75˚ 1.720 3.011 75˚ 0.008
9-D 1.00 0.1697 1.211 0.661 -0.339 2.60 1.99 75˚ 2.303 2.836 50˚ 0.009
10-A 2.00 0.0426 1.018 0.533 -0.467 3.09 2.99 75˚ 0.513 1.558 75˚ -0.001
10-B 2.00 0.0852 1.065 0.569 -0.431 2.98 2.85 75˚ 0.664 1.563 75˚ 0.000
10-C 2.00 0.1275 1.134 0.608 -0.392 2.83 2.63 75˚ 0.860 1.510 75˚ -0.001
10-D 2.00 0.1704 1.222 0.657 -0.343 2.62 2.04 75˚ 1.137 1.479 50˚ 0.0000

Notes: (1) Except where obvious or noted otherwise, dimensionless quantities are presented for mean water elevation. (2)
The maximum dimensionless drag and inertial forces apply for a piling extending through the entire water column. (3)
Subscripts m, c, and t denote “maximum,” “crest,” and “trough,” respectively.
Source: Dean, R. G. 1991. Beach profiles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf,
Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.

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87-6 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

ÏHigh waves
ÔÔ
Milder slope profiles ÌShort periods
Ô
ÔÓSmall sediment diameter

ÏLow waves
ÔÔ
Steeper profiles ÌLong periods
Ô
ÔÓLarge sediment diameter

Hb
When > 0.85 , one can expect bar formation. (87.8a)
wT

Hb
When < 0.85 , a monotonic profile can be expected. (87.8b)
wT

Later, on the basis of large laboratory data, Kriebel et al. [1986] found the value of 2.3 rather than 0.85
in Equation (87.8a) and Equation (87.8b).

87.4 Longshore Sediment Transport

The longshore transport (Q) is the volumetric rate of sand movement parallel to the shoreline. Much
longshore transport occurs in the surf zone and is caused by the approach of waves at an angle to the
shoreline.

Coastal area

Coast Beach or shore Nearshore zone

(defines area of nearshore currents)

Backshore Foreshore Inshore or shoreface Offshore

(extends through breaker zone)
luff
or Surf Zone
scarpment Berms

Beach scarp Breakers

High water level
Crest of berm

Ordinary low water level

Plunge point
Bottom

FIGURE 87.4 Visual definition of terms describing a typical beach profile. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987.
Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-7

SEDIMENT SCALE PARAMETER, A(m1/3)

1.0
Suggested Empirical
Relationship
From Hughes’
Field Results From Individual Field Profiles
Where a Range of Sand Sizes
Was Given
0.10

From Swart’s Laboratory

Results

0.01
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
SEDIMENT SIZE, D (mm)

FIGURE 87.5 Beach profile scale factor, A, versus sediment diameter, D, in relationship h = Ax2/3. (Source: Dean, R.
G. 1991. Beach profiles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston.
Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

Longshore transport rate (Q, given in unit volume per second) is assumed to depend upon the
longshore component of wave energy flux, Pls (Department of the Army, 1984):

K
Q= P (87.9)
(r s - r)ga ls

where K = dimensionless empirical coefficient (based on field measurements) = 0.39; rs = density of

sand; r = density of water; g = acceleration due to gravity; and a = ratio of the volume of solids to total
volume, accounting for sand porosity = 0.6.

General Energy Flux Equation

The energy flux per unit length of wave crest or, equivalently, the rate at which wave energy is transmitted
across a plane of unit width perpendicular to the direction of wave advance, is

P = ECg (87.10)

where E is wave energy density and Cg is wave group speed. The wave energy density is calculated by

rgH 2
E= (87.11)
8

where r is mass density of water, g is acceleration of gravity, and H is wave height.

If the wave crests make an angle a with the shoreline, the energy flux in the direction of wave advance
per unit length of beach is

rgH 2
P cos a = C g cos a (87.12)
8

The longshore component of wave energy flux is

rgH 2
Pl = P cos a sin a = C g cos a sin a (87.13)
8

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87-8 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

4
Bagnold
2 Theoretical curve Goddet
Manohar Theoretical curves
Empirical formula
10−1 Rance & Warren
τ*c 8
6 0
D =5 100
4 d 0/
Shields 200
Laminar
Turbulent
2 50
100
200
10−2
1 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 102 2 4 6 8 103 2 4 6 8 104 2 4
Dν∗

FIGURE 87.6 Threshold of sand movement by waves with Shields, Sleath, and Tsuchiya empirical curves, as well
as the theoretical curve. (Source: Tsuchiya, Y. 1991. Threshold of sand movement. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston.
Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

or

rg 2
Pl = H C g sin 2a (87.14)
16

Threshold of Sand Movement by Waves

The threshold of sand movement by wave action has been investigated by a number of researchers [e.g.,
Tsuchiya, 1991]. Figure 87.6 shows the modified Shields diagram, where t*c = 1/eyi(Dv*), and yi(Dv*) is
a function of sediment-fluid number only, plotted as a function of Dv*.
The empirical formula shown by dashed lines is as follows:

t *c = 0.20 for Dv * £ 1

= 0.20Dv-*23/ for 1 £ Dv * £ 20
(87.15)
= 0.010D13
/
v* for 20 £ Dv * £ 125

= 0.050 for 125 £ Dv *

87.5 Coastal Structures

Wave forces act on coastal and offshore structures; the forces may be classified as due to non-breaking,
breaking, and broken waves. Fixed coastal structures include:

1. Wall-type structures such as seawalls, bulkheads, revetments, and certain types of breakwaters
2. Pile-supported structures such as piers and offshore platforms
3. Rubble structures such as breakwaters, groins, and revetments

Seawalls
Forces due to nonbreaking waves may be calculated using Sainflou or Miche–Rundgren formulas.
Employing the Miche–Rundgren formula, the pressure distribution is

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-9

Crest of Clapotis at Wall Trough of Clapotis of Wall

h0
SWL SWL

Hydrostatic Pressure
Actual Pressure
Distribution
Distribution

d Hydrostatic Pressure
Distribution
Actual Pressure
Fc F1 Distribution
A A

p1
γh p1 γh

FIGURE 87.7 Pressure distributions for nonbreaking waves. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection
Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)

Ê 1+ cˆ g Hi
p1 = Á ˜ (87.16)
Ë 2 ¯ cosh(2ph / L)

where c = wave reflection coefficient; g = unit weight of water; Hi = incident wave height; h = water
depth; and L = wavelength.
Figure 87.7 shows the pressure distribution at a vertical wall at the crest and trough of a clapotis.
Forces due to breaking waves may be estimated by Minikin and Goda methods. The Minikin method
described by the Department of the Army [1984] estimates the maximum pressure (assumed to act on
the SWL) to be:

H b ds
pm = 101g (D + ds ) (87.17)
LD D

where pm is the maximum dynamic pressure, Hb is the breaker height, ds is the depth at the toe of the
wall, D is the depth one wavelength in front of the wall, and LD is the wavelength in water depth D. The
distribution of dynamic pressure is shown in Figure 87.8. The pressure decreases parabolically from pm
at the WL to zero at a distance of Hb/2 above and below the SWL. The force represented by the area
under the dynamic pressure distribution is

pm H b
Rm = (87.18)
3

Goda’s method [1985] assumes a trapezoidal pressure distribution (Figure 87.9). The pressure extends
to a point measured from SWL at a distance given by h*:

h* = 0.75(1 + cos b)Hmax (87.19)

in which b denotes the angle between the direction of wave approach and a line normal to the breakwater.
The wave pressure at the wall is given by

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87-10 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

pm

SWL
Hb
Dynamic Component
Hydrostatic Component
ds

Combined Total

Hb
γ (ds + )
2

FIGURE 87.8 Minikin wave pressure diagram. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual,
vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)

p1

η*
hc
Buoyancy
d h′
h
pu

p2
p3

FIGURE 87.9 Distribution of wave pressure on an upright section of a vertical breakwater. (Source: Goda, Y. 1990.
Random wave interaction with structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich.
Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

1
p1 = (1 + cos b)(a 1 + a 2 cos 2 b)gH max (87.20)
2

p1
p2 = (87.21)
cosh(2p h / L)

p3 = a 3 p1 (87.22)

in which

2
È 4p h / L ˘
a 1 = 0.6 + 0.5Í ˙ (87.23)
Î sinh(4p h / L)˚

È h - d Ê H ˆ 2 2d ˘
a 2 = min Í b Á
max
˜ , ˙ (87.24)
ÍÎ 3hb Ë d ¯ H max ˙˚

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-11

Crest Width
Breakwater Crest

Max. Design SWL

W
SWL (Minimum) SWL (Minimum)
W/10
3r
W/10 W/200 to W/4000
2r −1.3 H

Recommended Three-layer Section

FIGURE 87.10 Rubble-mound section for wave exposure on both sides with moderate overtopping conditions.
(Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)

h¢ È 1 ˘
a3 = 1 - 1- (87.25)
h ÍÎ cosh(2p h / L)˙˚

Breakwaters
Rubble-mound breakwaters are the oldest form of breakwaters, dating back to Roman times. The rubble
mound is protected by larger rocks or artificial concrete units. This protective layer is usually referred to
as armor or cover layer.

g rH3
W= (87.26)
K D (S r - 1)3 cot q

where W = weight in newtons or pounds of an individual armor unit in the primary cover layer; gr =
unit weight (saturated surface dry) of armor unit in N/m3 or lb/ft3; Sr = specific gravity of armor unit,
relative to the water at the structure (Sr = wr/ww); gw = unit weight of water: freshwater = 9800 N/m3 (62.4
lb/ft3); seawater = 10,047 N/m3 (64.0 lb/ft3); q = angle of structure slope measured from horizontal in
degrees; and KD = stability coefficient that varies primarily with the shape of the armor units, roughness
of the armor unit surface, sharpness of edges, and degree of interlocking obtained in placement.
Figure 87.10 presents the recommended three-layer section of a rubble-mound breakwater. Note that
underlayer units are given in terms of W, the weight of armor units.
Automated coastal engineering system (ACES) describes the computer programs available for the
design of breakwaters using Hudson and related equations.
Van der Meer [1987] developed stability formulas for plunging (breaking) waves and for surging
(nonbreaking) waves. For plunging waves,

H s / DDn50 * x z = 6.2P 0.18(S / N 0.2 ) (87.27)

For surging waves,

H s / DDn50 = 1.0P -0.13(S / N 0.2 ) cot ax zp (87.28)

where
Hs = significant wave height at the toe of the structure

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87-12 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

8
PLUNGING WAVES SURGING WAVES

cot α = 6
Wave height Hs (m)
6

cot α = 4
4 cot α = 3 cot α = 2

cot α = 1.5
3

2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ξz = cot α/ Hs /Lz
Dn50 = 1 m ∆ = 1.6 S=5 P = 0.5 N = 3000

FIGURE 87.11 Influence of slope angle. (Source: Van der Meer, J. W. 1990. Rubble mounds — Recent modifications.
In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston, TX. Copyright 1990 by
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

tan a
xz = surf similarity parameter, x z
2pH s / gTz2
Tz = zero up-crossing wave period
a = slope angle
D = relative mass density of the stone, D = ra/(r - 1)
ra = mass density of the stone
r = mass density of water
Dn50 = nominal diameter of the stone, Dn50 = (W50/ra)1/3
W50 = 50% value (median) of the mass distribution curve
P = permeability coefficient of the structure
S = damage level, S = A / Dn250
A = erosion area in a cross-section
N = number of waves (storm duration)
Influence of breakwater slope angle is depicted in Figure 87.11.

87.6 Navigational Channels

The development of very large commercial craft (VLCC) and ultralarge commercial craft (ULCC) forced
many government planners and port managers to evaluate existing channels. Navigational channels allow
large vessels to reach harbors. Of paramount design consideration is the safety of vessels in a channel,
particularly when passing [Herbich, 1992].
Vessel behavior in channels is a function of bottom suction, bank suction, interference of passing ships,
waves, winds, and currents. Most major maritime countries have criteria regarding the depth and width
of channels. The international commission ICORELS (sponsored by the Permanent International Asso-
ciation of Navigation Congresses — PIANC) recommends that general criteria for gross underkeel
clearances can be given for drawing up preliminary plans:

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-13

TABLE 87.2 General Criteria for Channel Widths

Minimum Channel Width in Percent of Beam
Vessel Controllability Channels with
Location Very Good Good Poor Yawing Forces

Maneuvering lane, straight channel 160 180 200 Judgmenta

Bend, 26˚ turn 325 370 415 Judgmenta
Bend, 40˚ turn 385 440 490 Judgmenta
Ship clearance 80 80 80 100 but not less
than 100 ft
Bank clearance 60 60 plus 60 plus 150
a Judgment will have to be based on local conditions at each project.
Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Engineering Manual: Hydraulic Design of Deep
Draft Navigation Projects, EM 1110-2-1613. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.

• Open sea area. When exposed to strong and long stern or quarter swells where speed may be high,
the gross underkeel clearance should be about 20% of the maximum draft of the large ships to
be received.
• Waiting area. When exposed to strong or long swells, the gross underkeel clearance should be
about 15% of the draft.
• Channel. For sections exposed to long swells, the gross underkeel clearance should be about 15%
of the draft.
The Engineering Manual [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1983] provides guidance for the layout and
design of deep-draft navigation channels. Table 87.2 provides the general criteria for channel widths.

87.7 Marine Foundations

Design of marine foundations is an integral part of any design of marine structures. The design criteria
require a thorough understanding of marine geology; geotechnical properties of sediments at a given
location; and wind, wave, currents, tides, and surges during maximum storm conditions. In the arctic
areas information on fast ice and pack ice is required for the design of offshore structures (on artificial
islands) and offshore pipelines.
A number of soil engineering parameters are required, as shown in Table 87.3. Many of the properties
may be obtained employing standard geotechnical methods. Geotechnical surveys and mapping of seabed
characteristics have reached a high degree of sophistication. High-resolution geophysical surveys deter-
mine water depth, seafloor imagery, and vertical profiles. Bottom-mapping systems include multibeam
bathymetry, sea beam, side-scan sonars, and subbottom profilers (including shallow, medium, and deep
penetration types).
The geotechnical investigation is designed to include sediment stratigraphy; sediment types; and
sediment properties, including density, strength, and deformational characteristics. Deployment systems
employed for sampling in situ include self-contained units, drilling rigs, and submersibles. (Figure 87.12
shows the deployment systems.)
There are many in situ testing devices; these include the vane shear test, cone penetrometer test, pressure
meter, shear vane velocity tools, temperature probes, natural gamma logger, and so forth [Young, 1991].

87.8 Oil Spills

The best method of controlling oil pollution is to prevent oil spills in the first place. This may include
such techniques as rapid removal of oil from stricken tankers, continuous monitoring of oil wells, killing
wild wells at sea, and containing oil spills under the water surface. Spilled oil, being lighter than water,
floats on the water surface and spreads laterally. As oil is spilled, several regimes are generally assumed:

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87-14
TABLE 87.3 Soil Engineering Parameters Normally Required for Categories of Geotechnical Engineering Applications
Strength Properties Common Properties
Soil Grain Atterberg Clay Sand Clay Sand Subbottom Depth
Application Classification Size Limits Su, St c, f ¢ f¢ f or Su Cv, k Cc Cc of Survey

Shallow foundation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1.5 to 2 ¥ foundation width
Deadweight anchors Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No 1.5 to 2 ¥ anchor width
Deep pile foundations Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No 1 to 1.5 ¥ pile group width, below
individual pile tips
Pile anchors Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No To depth of pile anchor
Direct-embedment anchors Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No To expected penetration of anchor,
maximum 33 to 50 ft clay; 13 to 33 ft sand
Drag anchors Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No 33 to 50 ft clay; 10 to 16 12 ft sand for large
anchors

The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Penetration Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No No No 33 to 50 ft clay; 13 to 33 ft sand
Breakout Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No 1 ¥ object width plus embedment depth
Scour Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No 3.3 to 16 12 ft; related to object size and
water motion
Slope stability Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No 33 to 100 ft; more on rare occasions

Note: Su = udrained shear strength; St = sensitivity; c = drained cohesion intercept; f¢ = drained friction angle; f = undrained friction angle for sands rapidly sheared; Cv =
coefficient of consolidation; k = permeability; Cc = compression index.
Source: Marine Board, National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier — Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-15

DRILLING RIG

SELF-CONTAINED UNIT

Small Vessel Drill Ship

Drill String
Single
Umbilical Umbilical

SUBMERSIBLE

Fixed Carrier Stabilizing

Thrusting
Tool Mass
Platform
In Situ Tool/Sampler
Testrod
Sensor

In Situ
Tool/Sampler

FIGURE 87.12 Deployment systems used for sampling, in situ, and experimental testings. (Source: Marine Board,
National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier — Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washing-
ton, DC.)

gravity-inertial, gravity-viscous, and surface tension. In the early stage, generally less than 1 h, the gravity-
inertial regime, or inertial spread, dominates and is described by

R = k 4 (DgLt 2 )1/4 (87.29)

where R = radius of the oil slick; k4 = nondimensional coefficient experimentally determined to be 1.14;
D = the ratio of the absolute difference between the densities of sea water and the oil to that of seawater;
g = force of gravity; L = original volume of oil spilled; and t = time.
When the oil film thickness becomes equal to the viscous layer in the water, a transition occurs from
the gravity-inertial regime to the gravity-viscous regime. This viscous spreading is described by

16
/
Ê DgL2t 3/2 ˆ
Radius of oil slock = R = k5 Á ˜ (87.30)
Ë v 1/2 ¯

where k5 is the nondimensional coefficient determined to be about 1.45, v is the kinematic viscosity of
water, D is the ratio of the difference between density of seawater and oil, L is the original volume of
spilled oil, and t is the time.

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87-16 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

The last phase, the surface tension regime, occurs when the oil film thickness drops below a critical
level, which is a function of the net surface tension, the mass densities of the oil and the water, and the
force of gravity. The surface tension spread is described by

1/4
Ê s 2t 3 ˆ
R = k6 Á 2 ˜ (87.31)
Ërv¯

where k6 = 2.30, experimentally determined; s = surface tension; and r = density of water.

For large spills, on the order of 10,000 tons, inertial and viscous spreading will dominate for about
the first week, with the surface tension spread controlling thereafter.
Although the exact mechanisms that cause the termination of spreading are unknown, the terminal
areas of several oil slicks have been observed and used to determine an analytical relationship for the
maximum area of a given oil spill based on the properties of the oil. This is described by

18
/
Ê s 2V 6 ˆ
AT = K a Á 2 3 6 ˜ (87.32)
Ë r vD s ¯

where Ka = undetermined constant or order unit; V = volume of oil that can be dissolved in this layer;
D = diffusivity; and s = solubility of the significant oil fractions in the water.
In addition, the area covered by the oil slick is not allowed to exceed AT ; therefore, spreading is
terminated at the time

12
/ 14
/ 23
/
Ê Vr ˆ Ê v ˆ Ê K ˆ
t = Á ˜ Á ˜ Á a2 ˜ (87.33)
Ë ss ¯ Ë D ¯ Ë p k 6 ¯

Oil may be set up by wind and current against a barrier; any containment device must take the setup
estimates into account. There are a number of containment devices (barriers) that prevent oil from
spreading. Most mechanical-type oil containment barriers fail in wave heights greater than 2 ft, when
the wave steepness ratio is greater than 0.08, and in currents normal to the barrier greater than about
0.7 knots.
Oil may also be removed from the water surface by skimming devices. Most mechanical skimming
devices have only been able to work in waves less than 2 to 3 ft in height, in moderate currents.

87.9 Offshore Structures

Many types of offshore structures have been developed since 1947, when the first steel structure was
installed in 18 feet of water. Since that time over 4100 template-platforms have been constructed on the
U.S. continental shelf in water depths less than 600 feet (Figure 87.13).
Deep-water marine structures include gravity platforms, fixed platforms, guyed tower, tension-leg
platform, and a buoyant compliant tower (Figure 87.14).
Wave forces on certain types of offshore platforms are computed by the Morrison equation, which is
written as the sum of two individual forces, inertia and drag. The equation may be written as

p 1
f (t ) = C M r D 2u˙(t ) + C D rD u(t ) u(t ) (87.34)
4 2

The force, f, as a function of time, t, is written as a function of the horizontal water particle velocity,
u(t), and the horizontal water particle acceleration, u˙(t ), at the axis of the cylinder, and is dependent on

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-17

12–Well Structure

El. +5 m
1:7 Batter
Pile Loads
Ult. Axial Capacity
18 mn 8 Main Piles
Design Lat. Load –1.2 m diameter
1 mn –Welded at top
–91.5 m penet.

4 Skirt Piles
–grouted in
sleeves

El. − 85 m

Template Weight 19.5 mn

FIGURE 87.13 Template-type pile foundation structure. (Source: Young, A. G. 1991. Marine foundation studies.
In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

GRAVITY FIXED GUYED TENSION-LEG BUOYANT

PLATFORM PLATFORM TOWER PLATFORM COMPLIANT TOWER

700–2000 FEET 1000–3000 FEET 1000–2500 FEET

WATER (200–600 METERS) (300–900 METERS) (300–750 METERS)
DEPTH 0–700 FEET 0–1000 FEET
(0–200 METERS) (0–300 METERS)
FEET METERS

2000 600

FLOATING
500 PLATFORM
1500
400

GUY-LINES
TETHERS
1000 300

200
500 SEABED
ANCHOR
100 PILES

0 0

FIGURE 87.14 Range of water depths for various types of deep-water marine structures. (Source: Marine Board,
National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier — Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washing-
ton, DC.)

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87-18 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

the water density, r. The quantities CM and CD are defined as the inertia (or mass) coefficient and the
drag coefficient, respectively.
The design and dynamic analysis of offshore platforms, which include jacket structures, topside
structures, pile foundations, and dynamic analysis, may be found in Hsu [1991]; discussion of wave
forces is given in Chakrabarti [1991].

Defining Terms
Armor unit — A relatively large quarry stone or concrete shape that is selected to fit specified geometric
characteristics and density. It is usually of nearly uniform size and usually large enough to
require individual placement. In normal cases it is used as primary wave protection and is
placed in thicknesses of at least two units.
Artificial nourishment — The process of replenishing a beach with material (usually sand) obtained
from another location.
Attenuation — (1) A lessening of the amplitude of a wave with distance from the origin. (2) The decrease
of water-particle motion with increasing depth. Particle motion resulting from surface oscilla-
tory waves attenuates rapidly with depth and practically disappears at a depth equal to a surface
wavelength.
Bar — A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material built on
the sea floor in shallow water by waves and currents.
Diffraction — The phenomenon by which energy is transmitted laterally along a wave crest. When a
part of a train of waves is interrupted by a barrier, such as a breakwater, the effect of diffraction
is manifested by propagation of waves into the sheltered region within the barrier’s geometric
shadow.
Dunes — (1) Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand. (2) Bed forms smaller than
bars but larger than ripples that are out of phase with any water-surface gravity waves associated
with them.
Ebb current — The tidal current away from shore or down a tidal stream, usually associated with the
decrease in height of the tide.
Fetch — The area in which seas are generated by a wind having a fairly constant direction and speed.
Sometimes used synonymously with fetch length or generating area.
Flood current — The tidal current toward shore or up a tidal stream, usually associated with an increase
in the height of the tide.
Groin — A shore protection structure built (usually perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap littoral drift
or retard erosion of the shore.
Harbor oscillation (harbor surging) — The nontidal vertical water movement in a harbor or bay. The
vertical motions are usually low, but when oscillations are excited by a tsunami or storm surge,
they may be quite large. Variable winds, air oscillations, or surf beat also may cause oscillations.
See seiche.
Hurricane — An intense tropical cyclone in which winds tend to spiral inward toward a core of low
pressure, with maximum surface wind velocities that equal or exceed 33.5 meters per second
(75 mph or 65 knots) for several minutes or longer at some points. Tropical storm is the term
applied if maximum winds are less than 33.5 meters per second.
Mean high water (MHW) — The average height of the high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter
periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the
results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
Probable maximum water level — A hypothetical water level (exclusive of wave run-up from normal
wind-generated waves) that might result from the most severe combination of hydrometeoro-
logical, geoseismic, and other geophysical factors and that is considered reasonably possible in
the region involved, with each of these factors considered as affecting the locality in a maximum
manner. This level represents the physical response of a body of water to maximum applied

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-19

phenomena such as hurricanes, moving squall lines, other cyclonic meteorological events,
tsunamis, and astronomical tide, combined with maximum probable ambient hydrological
conditions such as wave setup, rainfall, runoff, and river flow. It is a water level with virtually
no risk of being exceeded.
Refraction — (1) The process by which the direction of a wave moving in shallow water at an angle to
the contours is changed. The part of the wave advancing in shallower water moves more slowly
than that part still advancing in deeper water, causing the wave crest to bend toward alignment
with the underwater contours. (2) The bending of wave crests by currents.
Scour — Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially at the base or toe of a shore
structure.
Seawall — A structure separating land and water areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion and other
damage due to wave action.
Seiche — (1) A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed water body that continues, pendulum fashion,
after the cessation of the originating force, which may have been either seismic or atmospheric.
(2) An oscillation of a fluid body in response to a disturbing force having the same frequency
as the natural frequency of the fluid system. Tides are now considered to be seiches induced
primarily by the periodic forces caused by the sun and moon.
Significant wave — A statistical term relating to the one-third highest waves of a given wave group and
defined by the average of their heights and periods. The composition of the higher waves
depends upon the extent to which the lower wave are considered.
Wave spectrum — In ocean wave studies, a graph, table, or mathematical equation showing the distri-
bution of wave energy as a function of wave frequency. The spectrum may be based on obser-
vations or theoretical considerations. Several forms of graphical display are widely used.

References
Boussinesq, J. 1877. Essai sur la theorie des eaux courantes, Mem. divers Savants a L’Academie des Science,
No. 32:56.
Bruun, P. 1954. Coast Erosion and the Development of Beach Profiles, Tech. Memo. No. 44, 1954. Beach
Erosion Board, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Chakrabarti, S. K. 1991. Wave forces on offshore structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineer-
ing, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Dean, R. G. 1977. Equilibrium Beach Profiles: U.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, Ocean Engineering T.R. No.
12. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE.
Dean, R. G. 1990. Stream function wave theory and applications. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Dean, R. G. 1991. Beach profiles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B.
Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Department of the Army. 1992. Automated Coastal Engineering System, Department of the Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Goda, Y. 1985. Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures, Tokyo University Press, Tokyo,
Goda, Y. 1990. Random wave interaction with structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Herbich, J. B. (Ed.) 1990 (vol. 1), 1991 (vol. 2), 1992 (vol. 3). Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Hsu, T. H. 1991. Design and dynamic analysis of offshore platforms. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Kriebel, D. L., Dally, W. R., and Dean, R. G. 1986. Undistorted Froude Number for Surf Zone Sediment
Transport, Proc. 20th Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE. pp. 1296–1310.

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87-20 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Le Méhauté, B. 1969. An Introduction to Hydrodynamics and Water Waves, Report No. ERL 118-POL3-
1&2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration, Washington,
DC.
Tsuchiya, Y. 1991. Threshold of sand movement. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume
2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Engineering Manual: Hydraulic Design of Deep Draft Navigation
Projects, EM 1110-2-1613. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.
Van der Meer, J. W. 1987. Stability of breakwater armor layers — Design formula. J. Coastal Engin.
11(3):219–239.
Van der Meer, J. W. 1990. Rubble mounds — Recent modifications. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Young, A. G. 1991. Marine foundation studies. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume
2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX.

Further Information
ASCE Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering: Published bimonthly by the American
Society of Civil Engineers. Reports advances in coastal and ocean engineering.
ASCE specialty conference proceedings: Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Report
advances in coastal and ocean engineering.
PIANC Bulletin: Published quarterly by the Permanent International Association of Navigation Con-
gresses, Brussels, Belgium. Reports case studies.
Coastal Engineering Research Center (Technical reports, contract reports, miscellaneous papers): Pub-
lished by the Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Sea Technology: Published monthly by Compass Publications, Inc., Arlington, VA.
IEEE proceedings of ocean conferences: Published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Report advances in ocean engineering.
Offshore Technology Conference Preprints: Published by the Offshore Technology Conference, Dallas,
TX. Report annually on topics in ocean engineering.
Marine Board, National Research Council reports: Published by the National Academy Press, Washington,
DC.
American Gas Association project reports: Published by the American Gas Association, Arlington, VA.
American Petroleum Institute standards: Published by the American Petroleum Institute, Dallas.
Marine Technology Society conference proceedings: Published by the Marine Technology Society, Hous-
ton.
World Dredging, Mining & Construction: Published monthly by Wodcon Association, Irvine, CA.
Terra et Aqua: Published by the International Association of Dredging Companies, The Hague, the
Netherlands.
Center for Dredging Studies abstracts: Published by the Center for Dredging Studies, Texas A&M Univer-
sity, College Station, TX.
Komar, P. D. 1983. Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. A series of
papers on coastal processes, beach erosion, and replenishment.
Bruun, P. 1989–90. Port Engineering, vols. 1 and 2, 4th ed. Gulf, Houston. A comprehensive treatment
on port and harbor design.
International Dredging Review: Bimonthly, Fort Collins, CO.
Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan, 1980: Published by the Overseas Coastal Area
Development Institute of Japan, 3-2-4 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Herbich, J. B., Schiller, R. E., Jr., Watanabe, R. K., and Dunlap, W. A. 1987. Seafloor Scour. Marcel Dekker,
New York. Design guidelines for ocean-founded structures.
Grace, R. A. 1978. Marine Outfalls Systems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. A comprehensive treat-
ment of marine outfalls.

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Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-21

Herbich, J. B. 1981. Offshore Pipelines Design Elements, Marcel Dekker, New York. Information relating
to design of offshore pipelines.
Herbich, J. B. 1992. Handbook of Dredging Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York. A comprehensive treatise
on the subject of dredging engineering.

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