AGR 101 - AGRICULTURE HERITAGE (AT A GLANCE)

Dr. Devina Seram, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor, LPU
UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE HERITAGE

 Book “A Text book on Agricultural Heritage of India” - authors D. Kumari and M. Veeral
 Book “AN INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE” – authors A.K. Vyas and Rishi Raj
 GIAHS - Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems
 GIAHS – Founded by FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) in 2002
 FAO headquarter in Rome, Italy (FAO under United Nations Organization, UNO)
 52 GIAHS sites in 21 countries – these 52 GIAHS sites are grouped into 5 main regions of
the world: 1) Africa (3 GIAHS sites)
2) Asia and the Pacific (36 GIAHS sites)
3) Europe and Central Asia (6 GIAHS sites)
4) Latin America and the Caribbean (3 GIAHS sites)
5) Near East and North Africa (9 GIAHS sites)

[GIAHS sites – number has been increased to 57 recently – still follow according to the lecture]
(http://www.fao.org/giahs/giahsaroundtheworld/en/)

 Some specific examples of GIAHS sites around the world:

1) Floating garden in Bangladesh (2015)
2) Saffron cultivation heritage in Kashmir, India (2011)
3) Traditional Agriculture System in Koraput, Odisha, India (2012)
4) Rice-fish culture in China (2005)
5) Andean Agriculture in Peru (2011)
6) Grapes production system in Jowzan valley, Iran (2018)

 In India – 3 GIAHS sites recognized:

1) Koraput, Odisha; 2) Pampore region, Kashmir Valley; 3) Kuttanad, Kerala
 History: Continuous record of past events
 Heritage: Inherited values carried from one generation to other generations
 Agriculture Heritage Sites (definition) - Food systems that have evolved over the millenia in
harsh and remote landscapes, mainly due to the traditional knowledge of indigenous people
 Agricultural Heritage (definition) - The values and traditional practices adopted in ancient
India, which are more relevant for present day system
 GIAHS (FAO definition) - Remarkable land use systems and landscapes which are rich in
globally significant biological diversity evolving from the co-adaptation of a community with
its environment and its needs and aspirations for sustainable development
 Objectives of studying Agriculture Heritage:
1) To increase awareness of the rich heritage of Indian agriculture - unique than any other
civilization
2) To implant a sense of pride amongst the people, particularly agricultural students as
agriculture has sustainable practices for generations
3) To stimulate scientific research based on traditional technologies
 Importance of GIAHS:
1) Preservation of outstanding landscapes of aesthetic beauty
2) Maintenance of globally significant agricultural biodiversities
3) Identification and conservation of resilient ecosystems and valuable cultural heritages
around the world
 ICAR – Indian Council of Agricultural Research
 WAHF – World Agricultural Heritage Foundation
 ITK – Indigenous Technical Knowledge
 TTK – Traditional Technical Knowledge
 SAU – State Agricultural University
 CAU – Central Agricultural University
 HYV – High Yielding Variety
 BCE – Before common era
 CE – Common era
 IPM – Integrated Pest Management
 INM – Integrated Nutrient Management
 IPR – Intellectual Property Rights – related to patents, copyrights, etc.
 CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity
 IIFCO (formed in 1967 – Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited – one of the oldest
and largest co-operative company – concerned with manufacture and marketing of
fertilizers
 Etymology - Study of the origin and meaning of the word
 Etymology of the word “Agriculture” – Latin; Ager – soil and cultura – cultivation
 Etymology of the word “Agronomy” - Greek; Agros – field and nomos – management
 Etymology of the word “Vedic” – Sanskrit; vid or veda – knowledge
 Etymology of the word “Aryan” – Sanskrit; arya – noble
 Etymology of the word “Arthasastra” – Sanskrit; meaning “science of politics” (but has
broader scope)
DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN CULTURE AND BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE
 Man evolved on earth about - 1.7 million years ago
 Modern man scientific name - Homo sapiens (Homo - Continuous, sapiens - learning habit)
 First pet animal - dog - used for hunting
 Three Eras of civilization (Archeological classification):
 Stone age
  Bronze age – also called Chalcolithic age
 Iron age
 Periods of stone age:
 Paleolithic period (old stone age) – first stone tools invented – Hunters, food gatherers
 Mesolithic age (Middle stone age) – tools, bows, arrows to hunt deer
 Mesolithic period - Transitional period between end of Paleolithic and beginning of
Neolithic period
 Neolithic age (New stone age) – the start of farming (agricultural revolutionary period)
- Also called “Early Food Producing Era”
 Microliths – ancient tools/implements made of stone (microliths – stone implements during
mesolithc period)
 Major achievement in Mesolithic period - domestication of dog
 First metal used during bronze age – Copper then bronze
 Agriculture in India started in – 9000 BCE
 Grand Anicut Dam built along the river – Caveri (during 100 – 200 CE) – one of the oldest dams
 Pioneers of cotton cultivation, ginning, weaving, etc. - People during Harappan civilization
(Indus valley civilization)
 First evidence of the presence of silk in India – during 4000 to 2000 years ago (ya)
 Greek and Romans traded with South India - pepper, cloth and sandal wood (2000-1500ya)
 2000 – 1500 years ago - Tank irrigation - developed and practiced widely
 Cholas maintained links with China, Myanmar and Campodia – Kingdoms of the South
during 1500 to 1000 years ago
 “Eri-variyam” – name given for tank irrigation supervision committee – responsible for
maintenance of village and regulated water supply (Kingdoms of the South)
 Alauddin Khilji destroyed agricultural prosperity - believed in keeping farmers poor

INDUC VALLEY CIVILIZATION, VEDIC CIVILIZATION, ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL PRACTCES

 1922 – discovery of Indus Valley Civilization - by archaeologists under direction of Sir John
Hubert Marshall – after excavations at Mohenjodara in Sind (Pakistan) and Harappa
(Punjab)
 Discovery of Great Granary for grain storage - Most important feature during Indus valley
civilization (Harappan civilization) [Granaries dimension – 50 x 20 feet]
 Wheeled carts - commonly used during Indus valley
 1500 BCE – Aryans migrated to India from Central Asia (Iron age) – Vedic civilization started
 Aryans – More prevalent during Vedic period (Early Vedic period – 1500 to 100 BCE)
 Land of the Aryans – Land of seven rivers – “Saptasindhava”
 Seven rivers - Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Indus and Saraswati
 Agricultural features during Vedic civilization:
1) Pastoralism / Pastoral Farming - A form of agriculture aimed at producing livestock,
rather than growing crops (raising + herding of livestock in farmlands)
2) Importance of off-season ploughing
3) Large and heavy plough used
4) Bullocks and ox-drawn ploughing
5) Irrigation system - kuccha wells
 Early Vedic period (1500 BCE) - no mention of rice and cotton
 Later Vedic period (1000 - 600 BCE) - agricultural implements improved - iron ploughshare
 Agricultural implements during Vedic period:
1) Langala – pointed with smooth handle during vedic period (vedic plough)
2) Sira – large and heavy plough during vedic period (vedic plough)
3) Sieve – for cleaning seeds
4) Sickle – for harvesting
 Ancient agricultural practices during Vedic period:
1) Nature friendly farming systems and practices
2) Crop rotation – crop after crop (eg. Rice -- Green gram)
3) Mixed farming – crops + livestocks (eg. Any crop + livestock rearing nearby)
4) Mixed cropping – crops + crops (eg. maize + groundnut + bean)
5) Monoculture – only one crop - not followed or accepted
 The Aryans or Vedic people - Pioneers of modern agricultural system in India
 Other examples of ancient agricultural practices:
1) Chinampas Wetland Farming (floating garden) – not in India – in Mexico –
Mesoamerican agriculture
2) Mixed cropping – also called as Polyculture, Inter-cropping, Co-cultivation
3) Growing three-sister crops - maize, beans and squash
Maize – Zea mays Beans- Phaseolus vulgaris Squash – Cucurbita maxima
(Always underline scientific names while writing; italics while typing)

- maize grows first providing stalk for beans

- beans reach upward for sunlight providing shade
- squash grows near ground - shaded by beans and corn - controlling weed growth

4) Slash and Burn – also called Swidden / Shifting / Jhum agriculture - increases K
(potash) content in soil – ash from burnt vegetation contains potash (K)
5) Dairy farming – for source of milk and meat (meat easier to get than by hunting)
6) Animal domestication – “Millenia long process” - milk and meat, pulling ploughs, as
guardians and companions, for long distance travel, source of fats, etc.
7) Seed treatment – seeds stored in wood ash
8) Manuring – application of organic manures from animal wastes and plant residues
UNIT II

RELEVANCE OF HERITAGE TO PRESENT DAY AGRICULTURE

 Classical texts (ancient documents) related/relevant to agricultural science in India:

1) Kautilya's Arthashastra
2) Patanjali's Mahabhasya
3) Krishi-Parashara
4) Varahmihira‘s Brhat Samhita
5) Surapala's Vrikshayurveda
6) Sangam literature
 Arthasastra – a treatise written by Kautilya (Vishnugupta or Chanakya)
 Kautilya’s “Arthasastra” deals with - the management of available resources for agriculture
 “Sitadhakashya” - The post of head of agriculture – mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthasastra
 Varta - The science of agriculture, cattle breeding and trade - mentioned in Arthasastra
 Agricultural features mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthasastra relevant to present day agriculture:
1) Knowledgeable person as superintendent of agriculture
2) Anticipation of labours by land owners before sowing (or crop cultivation) – use of
labours
3) Timely sowing is very important for high yield particularly for rainfed agriculture
4) Appropriate or proper amount of rainfall / water essential for getting good yield (rainfed)
5) Optimum distribution of rainfall during crop growing season
6) Different labour requirement for various crop production
7) Soil requirement for different crop cultivation
8) Bio-control practices for pest and disease management
9) Proper harvesting time and methods, threshing methods
10) Economic policies – trade and marketing
 Specific mention in Kautilya’s Arthasastra:
 Crops which require more rainfall (rainfed crops like rice – transplanted or Sali and direct seeded
or virlu rice, millets, til) – sown at the commencement of rainy season
 Pulses and other crops which require intermediate rainfall – sown in middle of rainfall season
 Crops which require less rainfall (safflower, linseed, mustard, barley, wheat) – sown after rain
 Optimum time for sowing kharif crops – June to July
 Optimum time for sowing rabi crops – Last week of October to first week of November
 Rain guage – An instrument used for measuring rainfall – In ancient times, circular vessel used as
rain guage [1 mm rainfall in rain guage = 1 litre rainfall in a square metre area]
 Drona – a unit for rainfall measurement (1Drona = 40 - 50 mm rainfall)
 Adhaka (in terms of rainfall) – another unit for rainfall (1 Adhaka = 12 mm rainfall)
 Adhaka (in terms of grain measurement) – unit for grain measurement (1 Adhaka = 2.56 kg)
 1 Drona = 4 Adhaka = 2.56 kg x 4 = 10.24 kg (in terms of grain measurement)
 For rainfed agriculture – 16 Dronas of rainfall essential for good crop yield
 For rice cultivation = 4 Dronas of rainfall essential
 Sugarcane cultivation requires more labour and expenses than any other crop cultivation – since
it requires extra operations like wrapping, propping, tying, etc. in order to prevent lodging
(Labour requirement is highest in sugarcane cultivation compared to other crops)
 Less labour requirement in rice – intermediate labour requirement in vegetables
 Cucurbits – well suited for cultivation in river banks (ensures utilization of moisture available in
river banks – silty loam soil or alluvial soil – high soil fertility – most crops grow well in alluvial
 Loose smut of wheat – a seed borne disease – caused by fungus (Ustilago tritici)
 Biological control practices (ancient practices or ITK) for protection against diseases:
1) exposing seeds to mist and heat for seven nights
2) seed soaking in water to activate fungal mycelia
3) seed drying under hot sun to kill fungus (pathogen)

 Mixture used for plastering cut ends of sugarcane setts for disease management
- (honey + ghee + cowdung) - honey has antimrobial property
- ghee prevents the loss of moisture
- cowdung contains beneficial microbes such as Bacillus
(bacterium), Saccharomyces (yeast) - prevents pathogenic build-up

 Panchakavya – mixture of five ingredients - cow dung, urine, milk (3 direct constituent)
– curd, ghee (2 derived products)
– mixed in proper ratio –> allow to ferment –> apply on plant – > promotes
growth, provides immunity to plants
 Harvesting should be done at proper time with proper methods – safe storage of grains
 Harvesting – with sickle and sword
 Threshing - Pulses and seed crops threshed with sticks
 Ambanam - A common vessel for measuring grain
 Safe moisture level for rice grains storage – 12 to 14 % (pulse seeds – 10-12 %; oilseeds – 7-9 %)
 In Kautilya’s Arthasastra – divided into private sector and public sector
– agriculture was a privately owned sector
 [Relevance topics/materials other than Kautilya’s Arthasastra – agricultural features
mentioned in Sangam literature (unit 3 crop production part) – can also be included]

PAST STATUS OF AGRICULTURE AND FARMERS IN THE SOCIETY (India)

 Different past (ancient) periods:

1) Harappan period (Indus civilization period) (associated with Mohenjo-daro) - Indus Civilization
had first farming cultures in South Asia - emerged in hills of Baluchistan (now)
- took place in fertile crescent (Western Asian hilly regions)
- Early Harappan period (3250 BCE - 2750 BCE) - development of farming communities
- Late Harappan period (2500 – 1500 BCE) - farming communities turned into urban centres
- 6 urban centers discovered - Harappa, Mohenjo Dar, Dicki in Pakistan
Gonorreala, Dokalingam and Mangalore in India
- 1052 cities and settlements discovered mainly in Ghaggar-Florence River and its tributaries
(covering Pakistan-India regions)
- Crops cultivated - peas, sesame, dates, cotton (devised ginning, spinning, weaving, etc)
2) Vedic period: (Late Vedic period – 1000 to 600 BCE) - [Early Vedic period, 1500 to 1000
BCE – refer previous lecture]
- Most important people during Vedic period (late) - Vaishnavas
- The Aryans during Early Vedic period
- Four vedas – Rig veda, Sama veda, Yajur veda, Atharva veda
- people who occupied the highest position (superior people) – Vaishnavas
- people who occupied the middle position - Shathriyas
- people who occupied the least position – Suthriyas (mostly farmers – under land lord)
3) Buddhist period (600 BCE) – food producing economy
- Agriculture practiced on a wide scale using iron implements
- More proprietorship in rural areas and no land lords
- Farmers worked in groups – self-sufficient villages – led simple lives
- Brahmans engaged in cow herding, goat keeping, trade, woodwork, weaving, etc.
- Hired labour (labourers) were assigned a low social rank
4) Magadhan period (400 BCE) - Formations of villages (with proper amenities)
- Plantation of bushes & trees
5) Mauryan period (300 – 180 BCE) - the economy was mainly Agrarian (majority of farmers
were agriculturists)
- “Gaha pathi” – term given for the head of the rich land owning family
6) Ashoka period - forestry and horticulture promoted - plantation of trees in gardens
7) 100 BCE to 200 CE Period – first plough agriculture introduced – replaced slash and burn
8) Sangam period (Tamil Nadu, South India) – agriculture was main occupation – thus high
position of farmers
- Agriculture Sangam developed in Madurai, TN
 - Farmers (plough man) – known by the term “Uzhavars” and “Kalmers”
- Land owners – Superior vellars
- Cultivators – Inferior vellars
- Farmers‘ status - determined by land holdings and animal populations
9) Thirukural period – Tamil poet and philosopher Thiruvalluvar – mentioned about the
importance of farmers in the society in the poem “Thirukural”
 Statements by Thiruvalluvar:
“Farmers alone live an independent life. Others worship them and are second to them.”
“If farmers stop cultivation, even Rishis (sages) cannot survive.”
10) Gupta period – period called as “Golden Age of India”
- “Amarasoka” – classical text containing information about village soil & irrigation
- Cultivators – known by the term “Krishihala” or “Kinars”
- Farmers with low social and economic life
11) Harshvardhana period - source of information on agriculture was the writings of Early Arab writers
- Cereals - wheat, rice and millets; fruits extensively grown
- 60-days and fragrant varieties of rice mentioned [refer lecture 2 – stages of
agriculture development in India
- Ginger, mustard, melons, pumpkin, onion, and garlic
- Persian wheel - used in Thanesar (Haryana)

12) Muslim rule – improved land revenue system

- “Taguai loans” - given to cultivators in distressed circumstances for purchase
of seed & cattle

PRESENT STATUS OF FARMERS IN THE SOCIETY:

 60 % of the farmers in India – either Small or Marginal farmers – land with < four acres
 Main source of income for farmers – 79 % from agriculture
 Present farming practices in India:
1) Cropping pattern – 60 % farmers follows “rice-wheat cropping pattern” – at an area of
about 11 million hectare – mostly in the Indo-Gangetic plains – comprising UP, Punjab,
Haryana, Bihar, WB, MP
2) Major crops grown – rice (41 %) - wheat (21 %) - bajra, maize, gram, sugarcane,
soybean, cotton - other crops (fruits, vegetables, etc.)
3) Seed types used – 70 %farmers use local/traditional seeds – mostly in Central, Eastern,
Northern India (other seed types used – hybrids, GM seeds)
 4) Fertilizers used – 40 % farmers use both chemical (synthetically manufactured substances)
and organic (organic manures and wastes) fertilizers (Eastern – chemicals; Southern –
organic)
5) Pesticides used – 30 % farmers use pesticides only when required (others – either use
regularly, occasionally or never use pesticides)
6) Irrigation facility – available for 40 % farmers - Most common sources - private pumps,
bore wells/boring and tube wells (Govt. tube wells)
7) Electricity usage - Irrigation facilities largely dependent on availability of electricity – North
and Central India – lack of electricity
 Major problems faced by present Indian farmers:
1) Natural calamity - one of the biggest problems - all over India - flood, drought (climate)
2) Low productivity - South and West India mostly
3) Lack of irrigation facilities - East and Central India mostly
4) Labour related issues - North India mostly
5) Low income from crop cultivation
6) Low farm price
7) Inflation - increased price in agricultural commodity
8) Depressed economy - a severe and prolonged downturn in economic activity (measured by
GDP) [agriculture contribution to India’s GDP = 16-17 % (2017-18)]
9) Crop destruction by different agents

 Crop destruction (Reasons) - drought, flood, pest attack, more or less rainfall, animal/bird
attack, lack of irrigation facility, hailstorm, unseasonal rain, others

 Farmers’ suicide: (Reasons) - due to domestic problems

- inability to repay loans (govt./ private)
- crop failure/destruction
 MGNREGA - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 – functioning in
all 28 Indian states – provides 100 days employment and wages to unemployed youths - 85 %
farmers in Central and South India aware of this government scheme
 JRY – Jawahar Rojgar Yojana – another government scheme/programme – providing employment

 Malabar coast (coastal plain of Karnataka and Kerala) - home of spices

 Hills of Assam: Tea grown extensively
 1965 – Green Revolution in India started – with the adoption/introduction of high yielding
varieties (HYVs) seeds, disease resistant wheat varieties – in combination with use of chemical
fertilizers and better farming
 Father of Green Revolution in India - MS Swaminathan
 Father of Green Revolution (world) – Norman Borlaugh
UNIT III

PLANT PRODUCTION IN ANCIENT INDIA THROUGH ITK

 In Sangam literature – mention of agricultural practices in two poems named “Tholkappiyam”

and “Thirukural”
 “Tholkappiyam” – written by poet Tholkapier
 “Thirukural” – written by poet Thiruvalluvar (Thirukural period)
 Agricultural features (crop production) mentioned in “Tholkappiyam”:
1) Land classification – 4 types
mullai - forest
Kurinji - hills
marudham - cultivable lands
neithal - coastal areas

2) Season – 6 types - early spring, late spring, cloudy, rainy, early winter and late winter
3) Crops cultivated – rice (rainfed), millets, sugarcane (ratoon), banana (ratoon), cardamom,
pepper, cotton, sesamum, coconut, nut
[Ratooning - It is an ancient method of propagation in sugarcane, banana where
subterranean buds (the part of cane/sucker left underground after harvesting) give rise to
new crop stand, which is usually referred to as 'ratoon crop' or 'stubble crop']
4) Seed type - selected from matured earheads (part of the plant where grains are borne) –
stored for sowing in the next season
5) Crop rotation – (rice  black gram) practiced
6) Mixed cropping - foxtail millet + lablab or cotton (for balanced diet - starch from rice
and millets; and protein from lablab)
7) Intercropping – ginger, turmeric grown as intercrops in coconut, jack fruit plantations
8) Harvesting, threshing and marketing (exchange by weight basis)
 Agricultural implements used during ancient India (mentioned in Sangam literature):

Implements Uses
Senyam A tool for harvesting and threshing rice
Parambu A labour saving tool used for levelling paddy fields
Amiry, keilar, yettam Tools used to lift water from wells, tanks and rivers
Thattai kavan Tools used for scaring birds in millet fields
Traps Tools used to catch wild boars in millet fields

 Deep ploughing considered superior to shallow ploughing

 Buffaloes - used for ploughing with wooden plough
 Kharif crops – maize, rice, sugarcane, sorghum, etc.

PLANT PROTECTION (from pests and diseases) IN ANCIENT INDIA THROUGH ITK

 The names of all the pests during ancient period were written in – “Sanskrit”

Sanskrit names for pests Present name of pests

Gandhi (offensive odour) Gandhi bug (Leptocorisa acuta) in rice
 Shankhi Snail (Pila sp.)
Pandarmundi white head (typical symptom of rice stem borer attack
(Scirpophaga incertulus)
Dhuli Powdery mildew disease (powdery mildew of wheat,
barley) (Erysiphe graminis tritici)
Shringari Rust diseases (Puccinia graminis tritici)
- something adorned with red colour

 Ancient times – indigenous people considered similar physiology between plants and humans
 Plant diseases divided into two categories:
1) Internal diseases - caused by “vata”, “pitta” and “kafa” (thought to be)
2) External diseases - caused by insects, birds, weather
At present:
1) Internal - bacteria, viruses, nematodes (actual causal agent)
2) External - insects, non-insect pests, frost, waterlogging, drought, etc.

 Information related to internal disorders observed in trees mentioned in - Surapala’s “Vrikshayurveda”

Cause Symptoms Cause elaborated Possible cause
Vata hard fruits (less juicy Arid land on account of leaf-galling insects; root-
and sweet); flower and excessive supply of dry infecting fungi or
fruit drop; nematodes; viruses,
saline or alkaline soil
Pitta Leaf yellowing; Appear in summer end if trees Viral disease; salinity in
premature fruit drop; are excessively watered with irrigation water;
bitter, sour, salty materials fungal/bacterial
infections
Kapha Tasteless fruits, oozing Appear in winter and spring if Fungal gummosis / rot;
without wounds trees are excessively watered nutrient deficiencies,
with sweet, oily, sour or cold excessive watering
materials

 Seed treatment - considered as an important component in IPM (in present agriculture)

 Seed treatment (already practiced during ancient times) through ITK - seeds treated with milk,
mustard, sesame-ash, cowdung - for better germination and protection against insect pests
 Fumigation through ITK – (for disease management) - Smoking bones of cow and dog mixed
with cat excreta
 Field application through ITK - Sprinkling aqueous suspension and hand-dusting of various
materials - for control of insect pests (following insect pests):

Insect causes Remedy/ITK methods used

a) Insects infesting Removed by smoking mixture of white mustard + black pepper +
trees asafoetida + vidanga (Embelia ribes) + vaca (Zingiber zerumbet)
+ water mixed with beef, buffalo horn, pigeon flesh and powder
of bhillata (Semecarpus anacardium)
b) Insects infesting Controlled by sprinkling water mixed with oilcake
 creepers
c)Leaf-eating insects Destroyed by dusting cowdung + ash + brick-dust

 Application of cow dung for different uses (using ITK): (which were also mentioned in Kautilya’s
Arthasastra)
1) dressing wounds, dressing seeds
2) plastering cut ends of sugarcane (or other vegetative propagating units)
3) applying on soil
4) sprinkling diluted suspension on plants
 In present agriculture, scientists are not recommending the use of cowdung except for
manuring due to the harmful effects caused through cattle farming (produces methane gas
– one of the important Green House Gases, GHG; and burning cowdung could cause
arsenic poisoning)
 In Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda – identified and recommended botanicals and other materials
having biocidal properties
[Biocidal compounds - chemical substances or microorganism intended to destroy, deter, render
harmless, or exert a controlling effect on any harmful organism]
 In Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda – “Panchamula” - roots of five plants
– have antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, antifeedant properties
 Mustard - used for all kinds of diseases caused by “kafa”
- antifungal, nematicidal, antibiosis (effect on the biology) in insects
- contains allyl isothiocyanate, glucosinolate (Sulphur compounds responsible for pungency)
 “kunapa”- term given for liquid manures (ancient times)
 Honey has antimicrobial property – honeybee peptide “apidaecin” is antibacterial
 Cowdung – is antiseptic when mixed with cow urine – beneficial to Rhizobium (symbiotic N-fixing
bacterium) and Azotobacter (free-living N-fixing bacterium)
 Fish meal (concentrated organic manure) – rich in protein – releases proline (amino acid) –
responsible for inducing resistance in plants
 Indigenous / native crops – crops already grown from ancient times, not introduced from any
country (to India) – eg. rice, mungbean, mango, sugarcane, etc. [other egs - refer lecture notes]
 Introduced crops – crops which were introduced from other countries (to India) – eg. French
bean, groundnut, potato, cashew nut, etc. [other egs - refer lecture notes]
[know the scientific names of some of the common crops]
 Most of the crops introduced in India were from the United Kingdom (by The Bristish), then The
Portuguese - from West and Central Asia by Mughals or Arabs -China - South-East Asia
and Pacific Islands - Latin America - Spain --US - Australia - New Zealand
 Traditional Knowledge (definition) - The knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and
local communities around the world
 - TTK developed from experience, gained over the centuries and adapted to local culture and
environment
- Traditional knowledge - means knowledge that has ancient roots - often informal and oral
 Traditional knowledge is transmitted/transferred from one generation to another generation –
through speech (Orally)
 Traditional knowledge (TTK) is a broader category than indigenous knowledge (ITK comes under
TTK)
 Distinction between traditional knowledge and indigenous knowledge - relates to holders rather
than knowledge itself
 Traditional knowledge – it is non-patentable
 CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity
- recognized the value of traditional knowledge in protecting species in 1992
 Importance of traditional technical knowledge (TTK):
1) It helps shape and define their very existence and provides foundation for their beliefs and
traditional practices
2) Indigenous knowledge provides basis for problem-solving strategies for local communities,
especially the poor
3) It represents an important component of global knowledge on development issues
 Advantages of Indigenous technology:
1) Developing such technology provides learning environment - uses awareness and knowledge
to meet the needs of society
2) Leads to greater encouragement for focused research - gains learning experience that
becomes starting point for newer innovations (in future)
3) Helps in technological progress of developing countries - brings about economic growth in
such nations
4) Indigenous technology is much cheaper than imported technology - the not so economically
well off people can enjoy comfort of modern amenities also
5) Uses community resources - this reduces necessity of importing goods and technical know
how
6) Creates new employment opportunities - design of tool, process, manufacture of facility are
all done, within the country by people of that region
7) Can help to find best solution for local problems - used to meet specific needs of people of a
region - will have positive impact on quality of life and living standards of people
8) Local knowledge and resources are used – so it is affordable, sustainable and
environmentally friendly