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Introduction to STS (Science, Definition:
Technology, and Society)
What is Science & Technology, and Society
(STS)?
Definition(s):
o The interactions between science
and technology and social, cultural,
political, and economic contexts
which shape and are shaped by
them; specific examples throughout
human history of scientific, and
technological developments.
(Commission on Higher Education,
CMO #20, 2013)
o Science, Technology, and Society
(STS) is an interdisciplinary field of
study that seeks to explore and
understand the many ways that
modern science and technology
shape modern culture, values, and
institutions, on one hand, and how
modern values shape science and
technology, on the other. (Mansour,
N., 2009)
The beginning of STS...
o In the 1970’s Elting E. Morison
founded the STS program at
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT)
o Science, technology and society
(STS), also referred to as science and
technology studies, is a branch or
offspring of science studies. It
considers how social, political, and
cultural values affect scientific
research and technological
innovation, and how these, in turn,
affect society, politics and culture.
Scientific Literacy
o (a) Knowledge of the substantive
content of science and the ability to
distinguish from non-science;
o (b) Understanding science and its
applications;
o (c) Knowledge of what counts as
science;
o (d) Independence in learning
science;
o (e) Ability to think scientifically;
o (f) Ability to use scientific knowledge
in problem solving;
o (g) Knowledge needed for intelligent
participation in science-based
issues;
o (h) Understanding the nature of
science, including its relationship
with culture;
o (i) Appreciation of and comfort with
science, including its wonder and
curiosity;
o (j) Knowledge of the risks and
benefits of science; and
o (k) Ability to think critically about
science and to deal with scientific
expertise.
Global Citizenship
Definition:
o Global citizenship refers to a sense
of belonging to a broader
community and common humanity.
It emphasizes political, economic,
social and cultural interdependency
and interconnectedness between
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the local, the national and the

global. (UNESCO, 2014). Global
citizenship education: Preparing
learners for the challenges of the
21st century)

UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals

1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation, and
Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible consumption and
Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong
Institutions
17. Partnership for the Goals
Historical Antecedents in the Course of
Relationship of STS with example Science and Technology
What is Historical Antecedent?

Antecedent:

o Latin ante-, "before" + cedere, "to

yield"

Historical Antecedents of S&T (McNamara,

Valverde, Beleno III, 2018)

 Chinese

o Silk, Tea Production

o The Great Wall of China, Gunpowder

 Roman

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o Newspaper, Codex
o Architecture and Numbers
 Greek
o Alarm Clock
o Water Mill
 Egyptian
o Papyrus, Ink, Hieroglyphics
o Cosmetics, Wig, Alarm Clock
(Clepsydra)
 Babylonian
o Hanging Gardens of Babylon
 Sumerian
o Cuneiform, Uruk City, The Great
Ziggurats of Ur
o Irrigation and Dikes, Sailboats,
Wheel, The Plow, Roads
Implications:
 Agrarian societies – food and basic
necessities (McNamara, et.al., p.3)
o “hunters and gatherers” migrated
with herds
o With development of agriculture,
some people moved where good
land for planting existed
o Other people began to move in
groups together and settle down in
one play to stay.
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 Growth of Religion
o People begin to believe in the same
god
o Cultures begin to diversify
o People begin to display regional
differences
 Growth of specialized occupations
o As people live together, not
everyone needs to do the same
thing
o People begin to do what they are
good at
o People do what they are able
themselves and trade for other
goods or service
 Birth of free market society
 Age of enlightenment
o Study the stars and chart their
movement
o Advanced math skills
 Applying science to design (McNamara,
et.al., engineering and architecture, p.4)
o Use of geometries to create
monumental buildings
o Building placement determined by
path of sun on specific days
o Ability to build monumental
structures with simple machines
 Civilizations in Contact
o There are studies that suggest the
Egyptians and Pre-Incans made
contact long before the Vikings
came to the Western hemisphere
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o Similar architecture o Tools

o Similar tools o Spoken Language

o Most importantly artifacts found in o Agriculture

Egypt made of materials that only
exist in South America  Ancient Times

Medieval/Middle Ages o Civilization arises in Mesopotamia

 Printing Press o Egypt of the Pharaohs

 Microscope o Ancient India & China
 Telescope
o Southern Ocean Trade
Modern Times
o Classical Greece and Rome
 Pasteurization
 Middle Ages
o Ancient
o Dark Ages in Europe
o Lazzarro Spallanzani (1768)
o Rise of Islam
o Louis Pasteur (1864)
o Maya Civilization
 Petroleum Refinery
o Ancient o Mongol Conquest
o Samuel Kier (1850s)
o Renaissance
 Telephone
o Alexander Graham Bell (1870s)  Modern Era
 Calculator
o Ancient o Conquest of the Americas
o Blaise Pascal (17th century)
o Liberal Revolutions
Philippine Inventions
o Industrialism
 Salamander/Amphibious Tricycle
o World War
 Salt Lamp
 Dr. Fe del Mundo/Medical Incubator o Space Age
 Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System
 EJeepney What is Civilization?

 Civilization:

Four Eras of History o Latin words “civis” which refers to

one who is inhabitants of a city and
 Prehistory “civets” which refers to the urban
community in which one dwells.
o The Big Bang
Conclusion:
o Emergence of Humans
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 The history of science is the history of  Translation (as a historical force)

civilization
o Process of Transfer and the Creation
 The history of scientific cultures is the of New Texts
history of world civilization
 Historical Continuity in Science
 Ancient Sumer to Renaissance Europe
o Scientific Revolution
o Advancement in science and
technology  Science and Religion

o Political and legal institutions o Science and Religion cannot be

separated
o Economy
 The Idea of Order
o Religious coherence
o Mathematics in nearly all Scientific
o Social mores Cultures

o Literacy and artistic traditions  The Libraries

Scientific Culture o The Great Collections

 What is Scientific Culture?  Crossroads and Travelers

o The collective knowledge and o Knowledge is a mobile form of
explorations of nature and its culture
materials developed by a particular
people in response to the specific  Science and Art
demands and opportunities of their
o What, How, Why, When, and When
society (Montgomery and Kumar,
of Images
2016)
 The Science and the “Classic”
 What is Culture?
o Canonical Works
o Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning
tilling, or cultivating or refining and  The Needham Question
worship
o Why did modern science develop
o Culture is the socially transmitted only in the Western world?
knowledge and behavior shared by
some group of people (Peoples and  The history of Science is still a young field
Bailey, 1998)
o Concentration of scholarship in
Themes in the World History of Scientific Cultures Europe

 Influence  Science has always been International

o Growth of Scientific and o Science was a diverse pluriculturall

Technological Influences endeavor

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The Methods of Science
Key Concept:
 Science is based on Facts.
o Inductivism
 Inductivism
o Inductivism proposes and rests on a
common understanding of the laws
of the universe; there are laws of
nature, uniformities that govern
these laws.
o Facts are observable, and that
theories should be derived from
these facts by observation.
 Observation using the
senses.
 Seeing is believing.
o Observable facts are objective.
 Hypothetico-deductivism
o Rejects the context of discovery.
o Hypothetico-deductivism asserts
that “facts” are not always
observable.
 Facts have come to scientists
not by observation but
rather by accident, through
dreams, visions and
preexisting theories.
“Normal Science” versus “Revolutionary Science”
o Rejects the notion that facts are
neutral and objective.
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o Theories are confirmed, not proven,
yet every instance that lends
support corroborates the theory.
 Falsificationism
o Also rejects the context of discovery.
o Confirmation of hypothesis is not
enough.
 No specific number of
confirmations will make any
hypothesis true.
o A body of science must be
falsifiable.
o The notion of scientific progress for
the falsificationist rests on the
premise that scientific theories are
tentative.
 Conjecture and Refutation
o Science must continue to progress
through an open quest to put
existing theories to the test,
allowing preconceived notions of
“facts,” whatever they may be, up to
scientific criticism and refutation.
 Thomas Kuhn famously
published The Structures of
Scientific Revolutions in
1962, a publication that
brought previous theories in
the history and philosophy of
science into a whole new
context.
 Coined the term “paradigm.”
 It is in this period of revolutionary science
that theories are checked, previously held
formulations are re-analyzed and possible
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refutations are generated, for a new
paradigm, or paradigm shift to occur.
 Solving problems is scientific progress.
 A Timeline of Methods used
in Natural Science and Social Science
 of inquiry – in which empirically grounded
Intellectual Revolutions
What is Intellectual Revolution?
Definition:
• The term is used to refer to Greek
speculation about the “nature” in
the period before Socrates (~600 to
400 BCE).
• “pre-Socratic” or “non-theological”
or “first philosophy”
• It has more to do with physics of
logic.
The conception of “nature” before and after the
origin of science in the 1600’s:
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BEFORE 1600’s
• Nature was merely a manifestation of a
super-nature – the supernatural and
unobservable – the world of religion.
AFTER 1600’s
• Nature is what is observable in the world.
• Nature is thought about, described, and
explained through experiments and theory
and scientific paradigms.
What are the features of Speculation?
• The world is a natural whole (supernatural
forces do not make things happen)
• There is a natural order (laws of nature)
• Humans can discover those laws
How did we discover those laws?
Scientific Method
• Is a methodological approach to the process
theory of nature is constructed and verified.
What is the origin of the modern scientific
method? In Europe...
• There is a chain of research events from
Copernicus to Newton, which resulted
• in the gravitational model of the solar
system, and
• the theory of Newtonian physics to express
the model.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
• Copernicus (a theoretician) proposed a
theoretical model which could be
experimentally tested against another
model of Ptolemy (an ancient theoretician).
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601)
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• But existing astronomical measurements of
annual planetary motions were not
accurate enough to determine which model
more exactly fit the data, and Brahe (an
experimentalist) constructed larger
astronomical measuring instruments to
obtain more accurate data.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
• Brahe hired Kepler (a mathematician) to
analyze his measurements to determine if
they fit a Copernican model; and Kepler
found that an analytical pattern of elliptical
planetary orbits did exactly fit the data.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
• Galileo (an experimentalist and
theoretician) experimented with motion of
physical bodies and induced three laws of
motion (theories) giving mechanical
behavior.
Renes Descartes (1596–1765)
• Descartes (a mathematician) invented new
mathematics, analytical geometry, to
extend Euclidian geometry.
Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
• Newton (a mathematician and theoretician
and experimenter) invented differential
calculus to extend analytical geometry to
apply this to the description of spatial
motion and also discovered the quantitative
form of the gravitation force and applied all
this to derive the Copernican solar model in
the physical framework of Galileo’s laws of
motion.
• After Newton’s grand synthesis of
mechanical theory, the new scientfic
disciplines of physics and chemistry were
begun, describing material behavior in the
new Newtonian mechanics.
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• The development of the disciplines of
science, physics, chemistry, and biology did
begin after Newton’s synthesis of
mechancial theory.
The Critical Component Parts of Scientific Method
1. Observation and Experimentation
2. Instrumentation and Instrumental
Techniques
3. Theoretical Analysis and Model Building
4. Theory Construction and Validation
5. Paradigm Development and Integration.
The steps of the Scientific Method (in the light of
the Copernican Revolution)
• Copernicus
• A scientific model that could be
verified by observation
• Brahe
• Precise instrumental observations to
verify the model
• Kepler
• Theoretical analysis of experimental
data
• Galileo
• Scientific laws generalized from
experiment
• Descartes and Newton
• Mathematics to quantitatively
express theoretical ideas
• Newton
• Theoretical derivation of an
experimentally verifiable model
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What is Vienna Circle’s Logical Positivism The Scientific Conception of the World: The
Vienna Circle
• Two positions:
1. Experiment is the foundation (base, ground)
• That all objects in science must be of knowledge.
observable, and
2. Regularity in the world (logical order) must
• Scientific theory is merely logically be discovered and not presupposed
induced from experiment. philosophically (metaphysically).
“Wiener Kreis” 3. Theory is constructed directly by induction
• Philipp Frank from experiment.

• Hans Hahn What is Inference?

• Otto Neurath • Inference is a proper form for making valid

arguments from premises.
Other members of the Vienna Circle
• Philosophically, there are two directions for
• Morris Schlick – Ernst Mach Society inference:

• Gustav Bergmann • Inductive reasoning – in which

statements of particular facts are
• Rudolf Carnap generalized into general ideas about
the facts,
• Herbert Feigl
• Deductive reasoning – in which
• Kurt Fodel
particular statements of facts are
• Tscha Hung deduced from general statements of
theory.
• Victor Draft
• Construction of Newtonian theory of
• Karl Menger mechanics from the perspective of
logical analysis – induction and
• Richard von Mises
deduction
• Marcel

• Natkin

• Theodor Rdakovi

• Rose Rand

• Moritz Schlick

• Friedrich Waismann

• Wittgenstein
Logical Approaches
• Karl Popper
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• Inductive Logical Approach
• Brahe developed instruments and
made more precise measurements
to verify the model
• Kepler made a theoretical analysis of
experimental data, developing a
phenomenological law about
planetary motion
• Galileo performed physical
experiments and formulated
scientific laws generalized from the
experiments
• Newton formulated a
phenomenological law of gravitation
as a force varying inversely with the
square of the distance
• Deductive Logical Approach
• Copernicus provided a scientific
model that could be verifIed by
observation
• Descartes integrated geometry and
algebra and Newton created
differential calculus to provide new
mathematics for describing and
modeling physical events
• Newton theoretically derived
Copernicus’s solar model as a
consequence of his newly
formulated mechanics
Measurement and Theory of Solar System
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UNIT 4: Technology’s Four Historical
Transitions
Technology’s Four Historical Transitions
Science and Technology
 It makes difficult and complicated tasks
easier.
 Developments in this field are not just
products of one time thought process.
 Brought about by gradual
improvements to earlier works from
different time periods.
Human Revolution (Human Origin)
 The Human Revolution is a term that
refers to the remarkable and sudden
emergence of language, consciousness
and culture in our species.
 Historians call the early period of
human history the Stone Age.
 The earliest part of this period was the
Paleolithic Age.
 In Greek, paleolithic means "old stone."
 The Paleolithic Age is also called the Old
Stone Age.
 The Paleolithic Age began about 2.5
million years ago and lasted until
around 8000 B.C.
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Surviving in the Paleolithic Age
 Paleolithic people often moved around in
search of food.
 They were nomads or people who regularly
move from place to place to survive.
 They traveled in groups, or bands, of about
20 or 30 members.
 Paleolithic people survived by hunting and
gathering.
 Paleolithic people hunted buffalo, bison,
wild goats, reindeer, and other animals,
depending on where they lived.
 Along coastal areas, they fished.
 These early people also gathered wild nuts,
berries, fruits, wild grains, and green plants.
 Current research indicates that two-thirds
of the energy was derived from animal
foods.
 The fat content of the diet was believed to
be similar to that of the present day.
 Paleolithic men and women performed
different tasks within the group.
 Men not women hunted large animals
 Over time, Paleolithic people developed
tools and weapons to help them hunt.
 The traps and spears they made increased
their chances of killing their prey.
 Women stayed close to the camp, which
was often located near a stream or other
body of water.
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 They looked after the children and searched
nearby woods and meadows for berries,
nuts, and grains.
 Everyone worked to find food, because it
was the key to the group's survival.
 Some scientists believe that an equal
relationship existed between Paleolithic
men and women.
 Some evidence suggests that some men
and women may have hunted in
monogamous pairs.
 This means that a man and a woman
worked together to find food for
themselves and their children.
 Such groupings became the first families.
The Invention of Tools During the Paleolithic
Age
 Technology tools and methods to perform
tasks were first used by Paleolithic people.
 Before this time, sticks, stones, and tree
branches served as tools.
 Later, people made devices from a hard
stone called flint (hard, sedimentary
crystalline form of the mineral quartz)
o Hammerstone from Majuangou,
China
o Stone Tools From Lokalalei, Kenya
 Paleolithic people learned that by hitting
flint with another hard stone, the flint
would flake into pieces.
 These pieces had very sharp edges that
could be used for cutting.
 Flint technology was a major breakthrough
for early peoples.
o Hand axe – a large piece of flint tied
to wooden pole
 Over time, paleolithic people made better,
more complex tools.
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 Spears and bows and arrows made killing
large animals easier.
 Spears with sharp points, and fishhooks
increased the number of fish caught.
 Early humans used sharp-edged tools to cut
up plants and dig roots.
 They used scraping tools to clean animal
hides, which they used for clothing and
shelter.
 BONE NEEDLE
o By the end of the Paleolithic Age,
people were making smaller and
sharper tools.
o They crafted needles from animal
bones to make nets and baskets and
to sew hides together for clothing.
Changes in the Paleolithic Age
 Paleolithic humans learned to make their
own shelters.
 People constructed tents and huts of animal
skins, brush, and wood.
 In very cold climates, some people made
shelters from ice and snow.
 Many lived in caves.
 Paleolithic Architecture
o TENTS
 Skirts weighed down with
pebbles
 Paved interiors
 Open air hearths
 Wooden posts driven into
earth covered with skins
 At a later stage, were
secured by reindeer antlers
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The Use Fire of During the Paleolithic Age
 Archaeologists believe early humans
produced fire by friction.
 They learned that by rubbing two pieces of
wood together, the wood became heated
and charred.
 Fire provided warmth in cold caves.
 Cooked food, they discovered, tasted better
and was easier to chew and digest.
 Meat that was smoked by fire could be
stored.
 IRON PYRITE
o They also discovered that a certain
stone, iron pyrite, gave off sparks
when struck against another rock
Communication and Arts During the Paleolithic
Age
 Development of spoken language.
 The spoken language of early people was
constantly growing and changing.
 Paleolithic cave paintings have been found
all around the world.
 Early artists crushed yellow, black, and red
rocks and combined them with animal fat to
make their paints.
 They used twigs and their fingertips to
apply these paints to the rock walls.
Neolithic Revolution
 The Neolithic Revolution or First
Agricultural Revolution.
 The wide-scale transition from a lifestyle
of hunting and gathering to one of
agriculture and settlement.
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 The Neolithic was a period in the
development of human technology
 (10200 BC and ending between 4500 and
2000 BC).
 These settled communities permitted
humans to observe and experiment with
plants to learn how they grew and
developed.
 This new knowledge led to the
domestication of plants.
Neolithic Society
 During the Neolithic age, people lived in
small tribes composed of families.
 The domestication of large animals resulted
in a dramatic increase in social inequality.
 Headed by a charismatic leader of tribal
groups.
 Reconstructed House of Neolithic Age
o The growth of agriculture made
permanent houses possible.
o Mud brick houses and stilt-houses
settlements were also common.
 The clothing of the Neolithic humans were
made of animal skins.
 Reliance upon the foods produced from
cultivated lands.
 Encouraged the growth of settlements.
 Production of surplus crop yields.
The Introduction of Agriculture
 Surpluses could be stored and traded.
 Agricultural life afforded securities.
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 Sedentary farming populations grew faster
than nomadic.
Technology
 The polished stone tools were characteristic
of Neolithic technology.
 Neolithic people were skilled farmers.
o Neolithic Grinding Stone
o Neolithic Sickle
o Irish Neolithic Pottery
 They were also skilled manufacturers of a
range of other types of stone tools and
ornaments, including projectile points,
beads, and statues.
 The polished stone axe allowed forest
clearance in a large scale.
Industrial Revolution
 The Industrial Revolution (1870-1900)
 Period of time when the face of industry
changed dramatically.
 Lasting impact on the economies of the
world and the lives of the person.
 Introduction of inventions that made the
life of people easier.
Textile
 The advancement of the textile industry
was a key development in the Industrial
Revolution.
 The cotton increased productivity of
removing seed from cotton gin by a factor
of 50.
o Assembly line in the textile industry
o Large gains in productivity also
occurred in spinning and weaving of
textile
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o The first that employed the factory
system.
o The use of machines and an
"assembly-line" approach.
Steam Engine
 A steam engine is a heat engine that
performs mechanical work using steam as
its working fluid.
 The steam engine uses the expansion
principle of chemistry, where heat applied
to water transforms the water to steam and
then pushes a piston (cylinder).
 This pushing force is typically transformed,
by way of a connecting rod and flywheel,
into rotational force for work.
 James Watt created the first truly reliable
steam engine in 1775.
 This invention made locomotives and many
of the textile machines possible.
Mining
 Following the invention of the steam
engine, demand for coal increased.
 Coal mining is the process of extracting coal
from the ground.
 Coal is valued for its energy content
 Industrialization increased the demand
significantly.
Iron-making
 The substitution of coal for charcoal
greatly lowered the fuel cost of iron
production.
 The steam engine began being used to
power blast air in the mid 1750s,
enabling a large increase in iron
production.
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Invention of Machine Tools
 The first machine tools were invented
during the industrial revolution.
 These included the screw cutting lathe,
cylinder boring machine and the milling
machine.
 Machine tools made the economical
manufacture of precision metal parts
possible.
Chemicals
 The large-scale production of chemicals was
an important development during the
Industrial Revolution.
 Production sulphuric acid by the lead
chamber process invented by the
Englishman John Roebuck in 1746.
 Germany took world leadership in the
chemical industry during the industrial
industry.
 Aspiring chemists flocked to German
universities during the period.
Cement
 In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer
turned builder, patented a chemical process
for making portland cement.
 This process involves sintering a mixture of
clay and limestone to about 1,400 °C (2,552
°F), then grinding it into a fine powder
which is then mixed with water, sand and
gravel to produce concrete.
Agriculture
 Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of
1730 was the first commercially successful
iron plough.
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 The threshing machine, invented by Andrew
Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing
with a flail, a laborious job that took about
one-quarter of agricultural labor.
Tin Can
 The humble tin can was patented by a
British merchant Peter Durand in 1810.
 It would have an incalculable impact on
food preservation and transportation right
up to the present day.
 John Hall and Bryan Dorkin would open the
very first commercial canning factory in
England in 1813.
Internal Combustion Engine
 Jean Lenoir invented the internal
combustion engine in 1858.
 Internal Combustion Engine is a heat engine
where the combustion of a fuel occurs with
an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber that is an integral part of the
working fluid flow circuit.
 Eventually this engine was used in mass
transportation.
Electricity
 The development of electricity as a source
of power had been done by an international
collection of scientists including Benjamin
Franklin of Pennsylvania, Alessandro Volta
of the University of Pavia, Italy, and Michael
Faraday of Britain.
 It was the latter who had demonstrated the
nature of the elusive relationship between
electricity and magnetism in 1831.
 In particular, French, German, Belgian, and
Swiss engineers evolved the most
satisfactory forms of armature (the coil of
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wire) and produced the dynamo, which
made the large-scale generation of
electricity commercially feasible.
Automobile
 Henry Ford was by far one of the most
imperative inventors of the Industrial
Revolution.
 It enabled people to go wherever they
wanted whenever they wanted.
 The automobile modernize the
transportation industry entirely.
Telephone
 Alexander Graham Bell created the
telephone in 1876.
 The telephone further improved
communications and eventually led to the
various communications devices used
today.
Camera
 Beginning in 1814, Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce the first person to ever take a
photograph.
 In 1827 he successfully produced the first,
long-lasting image using a plate coated with
bitumen.
 This was then washed in a solvent and
placed over a box of iodine to produce a
plate with light and dark qualities.
Phonograph
 Thomas Edison created the phonograph in
1877.
 Prior to the creation of the phonograph the
only option for entertainment was for live
musicians or actors to perform.
Bello, ANP. 1ELS2
 16

 This allowed people to listen to music  It deposited radionuclides – atoms with

anywhere. excess nuclear energy across a wide area.

Airplane  Since 1952, more explosive thermonuclear

weapons have been tested.
 Brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright created
the first airplane in 1903. Fossil Fuels

 Ability to fly had long been a dream of the  The products of burning fossil fuels mark
human race. Anthropocene age.

 Within a few decades planes had changed  Current rates of carbon emission are
the face of personal and business travel and thought to be higher than at any time in the
had dramatically altered warfare. last 65 million years.

Rise of the Human Empire (Anthropocene)  The concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere has risen sharply since 1850.
 This is the time in which human activity has
been the dominant influence on climate
and the environment.

 The period during which human activity has

been the dominant influence on climate
and the environment.

 Scientists in the Soviet Union appear to

have used the term "anthropocene" as
early as the 1960s to refer to the
Quaternary, the most recent geological
period.

 The term was widely popularized in 2000 by

atmospheric chemist Paul J. Crutzen, who
regards the influence of human behavior on
Earth's atmosphere in recent centuries as
so significant as to constitute a new
geological time.

Issues that have identified the Anthropocene

period:

Nuclear Weapons

 War efforts have left their mark on geology.

 When the first nuclear weapon was

detonated on 16 July 1945 in New Mexico

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 17

Changed Geology
 Every time we destroy a patch of
rainforest, this changes the future of
Earth’s geology.
 We have transformed more than 50
percent of Earth’s land area for our own
purposes.
 Deforestation, farming, drilling, mining,
landfills, dam-building and coastal
reclamation are all having widespread
Plastics effects on sedimentary processes.
 Disrupting how layers of rock are laid
 Plastics, initially developed in the 1900s, down, which will be detectable
have grown rapidly since the 1950s, and we thousands of years in the future.
now produce 500 million tons a year.
Fertilizers
 Sediments containing plastics will be a clear
sign of the Anthropocene.  Our attempts to feed an increasing
population will leave clear indicators, too.

 Levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in soils

have doubled in the last century because of
our increased use of fertilizers.

 We produce 23.5 million tons of

phosphorus a year.

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 18

 Human activity had the biggest impact on Technology in the Dangerous World
the nitrogen cycle for 2.5 billion years.
Technology in the Dangerous World
Global Warming
 Human Flourishing in Science and
 Global warming is the unusually rapid Technology (Ch. 4)
increase in Earth’s average surface
temperature over the past century primarily  Human Flourishing as Reflected in Progress
due to the greenhouse gases released as and Development (Ch. 5)
people burn fossil fuels.
 The Good Life (Ch. 6)
 The global average surface temperature
 When Technology and Humanity Cross (Ch.
rose 0.6 to 0.9 degrees Celsius (1.1 to 1.6°
7)
F) between 1906 and 2005, and the rate of
temperature increase has nearly doubled in The Question of Technology (Heidegger,
the last 50 years.
1977)
 Temperatures are certain to go up further.
 Technology is a means to an end

 Technology is a human activity

 Technology is a contrivance

 Technology is aletheia, poisesis and techne

(p.54, McNamara, et.al.)

 Calculative mind versus meditative mind

 “But where the danger is, grows the saving

power also”
 Average global sea levels are higher than at  “Essence of technology is nothing
any point in the past 115,000 years and are
technological”
rising rapidly, which may also be detectable
in future.
 “Everywhere we remain unfree and chained
Mass Extinction to technology, whether we passionately
affirm or deny it”
 The moment of extinction is generally
considered to be the death of the last  The four causes why technological devices
individual of the species. affect us
 Mass extinctions sparked by massive global o Causa materialis
changes mark the Anthropocene period.
o Causa formalis
 It is expected that three-quarters of species
set to be wiped out in the coming centuries. o Causa finalis
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 19

o Causa efficiens

UNIT 5: The Living Condition

Unique Chemical Organization Capable of Growth

Definite Form and Size Range

Constant Energy Requirement

Cellular Organization

Life Span

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 20

Capacity to Reproduce

The RNA Codon table

Capable of Response
Critical Relationship with the Environment

UNIT 6: Anthropology of Biology

Central Dogma of Biology

The 20 Amino Acids

– Amino acids play central roles both as

building blocks of proteins and as
intermediates in metabolism.

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Evolutionary Thinking Before Darwin
UNIT 7: Evolution and Society
What is Evolution?
 Darwinian Evolution
Evolution and its Core Principles
o The Importance of Evolution as a
Concept
o Central Concepts provide model to
understand natural diversity
 Common descent with
modifications
 Natural selection
o Charles Darwin and the Theory of
Evolution
12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882
 Provided evidence
supporting hypothesis of
common descent with
modification
 Described the principle of
natural selection
21
 Charles Lyell
14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875
o Charles Lyell and Principles of
Geology
o Surface of earth is not static
 Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829
o Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and
Evolution
o Inheritance of acquired
characteristics
 Georges Cuvier
23 August 1769 – 13 May 1832
o Georges Cuvier and Extinction
o Fossil evidences
 The Evidence for Evolution (study these)
 Radiometric Dating
 The Placement of Fossils
 Comparative Morphology and Embryology
 Evidence from Molecular Biology
 Microevolution
 What is it that evolves?
 Genes are the raw material of evolution
 Five agents of microevolution
 Three modes of natural selection
 What is it that evolves?
 The essential unit that does so is a
population, which can be defined as
members of a species that occupy the same
geographic region.
 Genes are the raw material of evolution
 Gene pool
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– All the alleles that exist in a
population
Five agents of microevolution
 Mutations
 Gene Flow
 Genetic Drift
 Nonrandom Mating
 Natural Selection
Mutations: Alterations in the makeup of DNA
 Mutation is any permanent alteration in an
organism’s DNA.
Gene Flow: When one population joins another
 Gene flow is the movement of genes from
one population to another.
o Migration is the movement of
individuals from one population into
the territory of another.
Genetic Drift: The instability of small populations
 Genetic drift is the chance alteration of
allele frequencies in a small population.
o Bottleneck effect
22
o Founder effect
Nonrandom Mating: When mating is uneven
across a population
 Nonrandom mating is simply mating in
which a given member of a population is
not equally likely to mate with any other
given member.
o Assortative mating occurs when
males and females that share a
particular characteristic tend to
mate with one another.
Natural Selection: Evolution’s Adaptive
Mechanism
 Adaptation is modification in the structure
or behavior of organisms over generations
in response to environmental change.
Three modes of natural selection
 Directional selection
 Diversifying selection
 Stabilizing selection
Macroevolution
 What is a species?
 How do new species arise?
 Reproductive isolating mechanisms
 Six intrinsic reproductive isolating
mechanisms
 When is speciation likely to occur?
 The categorization of Earth’s living things
 Constructing evolutionary histories:
Classical taxonomy and cladistics
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 23

What is a species? Temporal isolation

 Species are groups of actually or potentially  Even if the come in contact, they can’t
interbreeding natural populations which are mate if they breed at different times.
reproductively isolated from such other
groups. Behavioral isolation

How do new species arise?  Even if they breed at the same time,
they will not mate if they are not
 Two modes of speciation attracted to one another.

o Cladogenesis – branching evolution Mechanical isolation

o Anagenesis – nonbranching  Even if they attract one another, they

evolution cannot mate if they are not physically
compatible.
 Speciation occurs when populations cease
to interbreed Gamete isolation

 The role of geographic isolation: Allopatric  Even if they are physically compatible,
speciation an embryo will not form if the egg and
sperm do not fuse properly.
Reproductive isolating mechanisms
Hybrid inviability or infertility
 Reproductive isolating mechanisms prevent
interbreeding between individuals of the  Even if fertilization occurs successfully,
same species or of closely related species. the offspring may not survive, or if it
survives, may not reproduce.
o Extrinsic
When is speciation likely to occur?
o Intrinsic
 Specialists
Six intrinsic reproductive isolating mechanisms
 Generalists
 Ecological isolation
The categorization of Earth’s living things
 Temporal isolation
 Binomial nomenclature
 Behavioral isolation
Constructing evolutionary histories: Classical
 Mechanical isolation taxonomy and cladistics
 Gamete isolation  Convergent evolution
 Hybrid inviability or infertility o Homologies
Ecological isolation o Analogies
 Even if they live in the same place, they  Cladistics
can’t mate if they don’t come in contact
with one another.
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 24

A Guide to Plant Taxonomy

Outline of the Lecture

 Definition of Taxonomy
A Guide to Animal Taxonomy
 Kingdom Monera

 Kingdom Protista

 Kingdom Plantae

 Kingdom Fungi

 Kingdom Animalia

o The Animal Phylogenic Tree

Taxonomy

 Is the field of biology that classifies

organisms according to the presence or
absence of shared characteristics in an
effort to discover evolutionary
relationships among species.

o Taxon – is a category that

organisms are placed into and
can be any of the levels of the
hierarchy.

Levels of Classification

 Kingdom
 Phylum
 Class
 Order
 Family
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 Genus
o Species
o The current system of classification is a five-
kingdom system that divides all the
organisms of the planet into one of five
kingdoms:
o Monera (Eubacteria and
Archaebacteria)
o Protista
o Plantae
o Fungi
o Animalia
Kingdom Monera
 The members of this kingdom are
prokaryotes: single-celled organisms that
have no nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles.
o Nutritional class
o Reactivity with Oxygen
o Archaebacteria versus Eubacteria
 Nutritional class
o Monerans can be classified as either
autotrophs or heterotrophs.
o Autotrophs are the producers of the
world.
 Photoautotrophs – photosynthetic
autotrophs that produce energy from light.
 Chemoautotrophs – produce energy from
inorganic substances.
o Heterotrophs are the consumers of
the world.
 Reactivity with Oxygen
 Obligate aerobes – require oxygen
for respiration
 Obligate anaerobes – must avoid
oxygen
 Facultative anaerobes
25
 Archaebacteria versus Eubacteria
o Archaebacteria tend to live in
extreme environments
 Extreme halophiles – salt lovers
 Methanogens – bacteria that produce
methane as a by-product
 Thermoacidophiles – bacteria that love hot,
acidic environments.
 Eubacteria
o Proteobacteria
o Gram-positive bacteria
o Cyanobacteria
o Spirochetes
o Chlamydias
o Chemosynthetic bacteria
o Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
 Three basic shapes of bacteria
 Rod-shaped bacteria
o also known as bacilli
 Spiral-shaped bacteria
o also known as spirilla
 Sphere-shaped bacteria
o also known as cocci
 Kingdom Protista
 Protists are usually unicellular or colonial.
This is why they are not considered plants,
animals, and fungi.
o Plantlike protists – also called algae
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 26

o Animal-like protists – also called Kingdom Plantae

protozoans
 Classification of plants is very similar to
o Funguslike protists – also called classification of the animal kingdom, except
absorptive protists that plants are divided into divisions instead
of phyla.
 Plantlike protists
o Chlorophytes – are green algae.
o This division includes protists that They are the common ancestors of
are mostly photosynthetic. land plants.
 Dinoflagellata  Bryophytes
 Golden algae  Seedless Vascular Plants
 Diatoms  Seed Plants (Gymnosperms
 Green algae and Angiosperms)

 Brown algae

 Red algae  Bryophytes

 Animal-like protists o Were the first land plants to evolve

from chlorophytes. They include
o This division includes protists that mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
ingest foods – as do animals.
o Are also known as nonvascular
 Rhizopoda plants.

 Foraminifera o Two evolutionary adaptations:

 Actinopoda  A waxy cuticle cover to

protect against water loss.
 Apicomplexa
 The packaging of gametes in
 Zooflagellates structures known as
gametangia.
 Ciliophora
 Seedless Vascular Plants
 Funguslike protists
o The first vascular plants (also
o This division includes protists that
referred to as tracheophytes) to
resemble fungi.
evolve did not have seeds.
 Myxomycota
 Xylem
 Acrasiomycota
 Phloem
 Oomycota
o Two major evolutionary changes:

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1. The switch from the
gametophyte to the
sporophyte generation of the
life cycle.
2. The development of
branched sporophytes,
increasing the number of
spores produced.
■ Seed Plants (Gymnosperms)
 Three major evolutionary changes:
1. Further decline in the
prominence of the
gametophyte generation of
the life cycle.
2. The birth of pollination.
3. The evolution of the seed.
 A seed is a package containing the
embryo and the food to feed the
developing embryo that is
surrounded by a nice protective
shell.
■ Seed Plants (Angiosperms)
 There are more angiosperm around
than any other kind of plant.
 There are two major classes of
angiosperms:
1. Monocotyledons
2. Discotyledons
 Flowers are the main tools for
angiosperm reproduction.
3. Stamen (anther), Carpel
(ovary, style, stigma), Petals
■ Evolutionary Trends in Plants
27
 Dominant gametophyte to dominant
sporophyte generation
 Nonvascular to vascular
 Seedless to seeds
 Motile sperms to pollen
 Naked seeds to seeds in flowers
Kingdom Fungi
 Nearly all fungi are multicellular.
o Hyphae – filamentous structures.
o Mycelium – branching filaments of a
hyphae.
o Septae – divide the hyphae filaments
into different compartments.
 Fungi that do not contain septae are called
coenocytic fungi.
 List of fungus-related organisms:
o Zygomycota
o Basidiomycota
o Ascomycota
o Lichens
o Molds
o Yeasts
Kingdom Animalia
 Animals lack cell walls.
 Sexual reproduction is the norm.
 The diploid stage is usually the dominant
generation in the life cycle.
 Most animals are mobile.
 Animals are multicellular heterotrophs.
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 Animals store carbohydrates as glycogen,
not starch as seen in plants.
 Most animals undergo a process in which
specialized tissue layers (endoderm,
mesoderm, ectoderm) form during a
process known as gastrulation.
 Animals have specialized nervous and
muscle tissue.
 Animal cells contain tight junctions and gap
junctions.
The Animal Phylogenetic Tree
 Many people believe that the original
common ancestor that started the whole
process of animal evolution was most likely
the choanoflagellate.
The 1st Major Branchpoint
 Choanoflagellates
o Parazoa – these organisms have no
true tissues
 Sponges
o Eumetazoa – all other animals with
true tissues
The 2nd Major Branchpoint
 Eumetazoa (on the basis of body
symmetry)
1. Radiata – those that have radial
symmetry, which means that they
have a single orientation.
o Jellyfish, Corals, Hydras
2. Bilateria – those that have bilateral
symmetry, which means that they
have a top and a bottom as well as a
head and a tail.
28
The 3rd Major Branchpoint
 The next major split in the phylogenic tree
for animal development involved the split
of bilateral organisms into two further
branches.
1. Acoeleomates – animals with no
vascular system.
2. Animals with a vascular system and
a body cavity.
a. Pseudocoelomates
b. Coelomates
The 4th Major Branchpoint
 The final major branchpoint comes off from
the coelomates.
1. Protostomes – a bilateral animal
whose first embryonic indentation
eventually develops into a mouth.
o Annelids, Arthropods, and
Mollusks
2. Deuterostomes – a branch that
includes chordates and echinoderms.
The first indentation of their
embryos eventually develops into
the anus.
■ Evolutionary Development
1. Embryonic developmental stage
o Mouth for the protostomes
o Anus for the deuterostomes
2. Angle of cleavages that occur during
the early cleavage division of the
embryo
3. The tissue from which the coelom
divide.
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■ Members of the various branches
1. Porifera – sponges
2. Cnidaria – sea anemones, jellyfish
3. Platyhelminthes – flatworms
■ Flukes, Planarians,
Tapeworms
4. Rotifera
5. Nematoda – roundworms
6. Mollusca – snails, slugs, octopuses,
squids
7. Annelida – earthworms, leeches
8. Arthropoda
9. Echinodermata – sea stars
10. Chordata – invertebrates and
vertebrates
■ Vertebrates – fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds,
mammals
■ Dorsal hollow nerve
cord
■ Notochord
■ Pharyngeal gill slits
■ Tail
29
UNIT 8: Mendelian Genetics
Cell Division
Basic Concepts
 Inheritance is governed by information
stored in discrete factors called genes.
 Genes are transmitted from generation
to generation on vehicles called
chromosomes.
 Chromosomes, which exist in pairs,
provide the basis of biparental
inheritance.
Continued
 During gamete formation, chromosomes
are distributed according to postulates first
described by Gregor Mendel, based on his
nineteenth-century research with the
garden pea.
 Mendelian postulates prescribe that
homologous chromosomes segregate from
one another and assort independently with
other segregating homologs during gamete
formation.
 Genetic ratios, expressed as probabilities,
are subject to chance deviation and may be
evaluated statistically.
 The analysis of pedigrees allows predictions
involving the genetic nature of human
traits.
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Gregor Johann Mendel
20 July 1822 – 6 January 1884
 Studied philosophy
 In 1843, he was admitted to the
Augustinian Monastery of St. Thomas in
Brno
 From 1851 to 1853, he studied physics and
botany at the University of Vienna
 In 1856, Mendel performed his first set of
hybridization experiments with the garden
pea
 In 1884, Mendel died of a kidney disorder
Mendel Used a Model Experimental Approach to
Study Patterns of Inheritance
The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is
Transmitted from Generation to Generation
 Parental Generation (P)
 First Filial Generation 1 (F1)
 Second Filial Generation 2 (F2)
Mendel’s First Three Postulates
1. Unit Factors in Pairs
o Genetic characters are controlled by unit
factors that exist in pairs in individual
organisms.
30
2. Dominance/Recessiveness
o When two unlike unit factors
responsible for a single character are
present in a single individual, one unit
factor is dominant to the other, which is
said to be recessive.
3. Segregation
o During the formation of gametes, the
paired unit factors separate or
segregate randomly so that each
gamete receives one or the other with
equal likelihood.
Modern Genetic Terminology
 The physical appearance of a trait is the
phenotype
 units of inheritance called genes
 alternative forms of a single gene called
alleles
 When alleles are written in pairs to
represent the two unit factors present in
any individual (DD, Dd, or dd), these
symbols are called the genotype
 When both alleles are the same (DD or dd),
the individual is homozygous or a
homozygote
 when the alleles are different (Dd), we use
the term heterozygous or a heterozygote
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Reginald Crundall Punnett
20 June 1875 – 3 January 1967
The Testcross: One Character
Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross Generated a Unique F2
Ratio
 A cross involving two pairs of contrasting
traits, is a dihybrid cross or two-factor cross.
31
Dihybrid Cross
Mendel’s Fourth Postulate: Independent
Assortment
 product law of probabilities
o When two independent events occur
simultaneously, the combined
probability of the two outcomes is
equal to the product of their
individual probabilities of occurrence
 independent assortment
o During gamete formation,
segregating pairs of unit factors
assort independently of each other
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 32

The Forked-Line Method

 The Forked-Line Method branch diagram.

 Relies on the simple application of the laws

of probability established for the dihybrid
cross. Each gene pair is assumed to behave
independently during gamete formation.

Charles Robert Darwin

12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882

Alfred Russel Wallace

8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913

Walther Flemming
21 April 1843 – 4 August 1905

The Trihybrid Cross Demonstrates That Mendel’s  discovery of chromosomes in the nuclei of
Principles Apply to Inheritance of Multiple Traits salamander cells

 In 1879, Flemming described the behavior

of these threadlike structures during cell
division

Unit Factors, Genes, and Homologous

Chromosomes

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 33

Conventions in Human Pedigrees

Pedigrees Reveal Patterns of Inheritance of

Human Traits

 a family tree is called a pedigree

Pedigree Chart Questions

 Do unaffected parents have affected

offspring?

o YES? – Recessive

o NO? – Dominant

 Are both sexes affected?

o YES? – Autosomal

o No? – Sex Linked

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 34

 Do affected males have affected sons?

o YES? – Y-linked

o No? – X-linked

Autosomal Recessive Trait

Autosomal Dominant Trait

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