Solid State Electronics (EN 125)

Energy Bands & Charge

Carriers in Semiconductors

By Dr. Yaseer A. Durrani

UET, Taxila

Forces b/w Atoms

❑ Electrical forces are responsible in binding the atoms & molecules giving
different solid structures. Magnetic forces have only weak effect in cohesion &
gravitational forces are negligible

❑ Attractive forces keep the atoms together & repulsive forces come into play
when the solid is compressed
– At equilibrium distance (d), attractive force equal to repulsive force
– If 2 atoms are brought closer, repulsive force will dominate, produces net
repulsive force b/w atoms
– If 2 atoms are brought further, attractive force will dominate, produces net
attractive force b/w atoms
❑ Potential or stored internal energy of a material is sum of individual energies of
the atoms plus their interaction energy

1
 Bonding in Solids
❑ Solids can be classified according to the nature of bonding b/w their atomic or
molecular components. Traditional classification are:

❑ Covalent bonding: Forms network covalent solids

❑ Ionic bonding: Forms ionic solids
❑ Metallic bonding: Forms metallic solids
❑ Weak intermolecular bonding: Forms molecular solids

❑ These classes have distinctive electron distributions, thermodynamic,

electronic, & mechanical properties
❑ Binding energies of these interactions vary widely
❑ Bonding in solids can be of mixed or intermediate kinds, however, not all solids
have typical properties of a particular class

Ionic Bonding
❑ In ionic bonding, electrons are completely transferred from one atom to
another
❑ In the process of either losing or gaining -vely charged electrons, the reacting
atoms form ions. The oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other by
electrostatic forces, which are the basis of ionic bond

❑ Na + Cl → Na+ + Cl− → NaCl

– Example: Salt, Sodium Chloride Na (Z=11) [Ne]3s1, Cl (Z=17) [Ne]3s1 3p5

_
Na+ Cl
Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1

Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1

Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1

Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1 Cl-1 Na+1

Ionic Bonding
4

2
 Metallic Bonding
❑ Metallic bonding is the electromagnetic interaction b/w delocalized electrons &
metallic nuclei within metals. In metal atom, outer electronic shell is partially
filled, usually by no more than three electrons. Electrons in outer electronic shell
of atoms are loosely bound & very easy to become free electrons

❑ Metallic solids are held together by high density of shared, delocalized electrons,
resulting in metallic bonding
❑ Metallic bonding has different physical characteristics, such as strength,
malleability, ductility, conduction of heat and electricity, opacity and lustre
❑ Example: Copper, Aluminum

Na+
_
e

Metallic Bonding 5

Covalent Bonding
❑ A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by sharing
of pairs of electrons b/w atoms, or b/w atoms & other covalent bonds. In short,
attraction-to-repulsion stability that forms b/w atoms when they share electrons
is known as covalent bonding

❑ Network covalent solid consists of atoms held together by a network of covalent

bonds (pairs of electrons shared b/w atoms of similar electronegativity), and
hence can be regarded as single, large molecule

❑ Compound semiconductor such as GaAs have mixed bonding, in which both

ionic & covalent bonding forces participate
– Example: Diamond, Silicon, Graphite

Diamond Lattices
6

3
 Silicon Covalent Bond Model

Near absolute zero, all bonds are Increasing temperature adds energy to
complete. Each Si atom contributes one the system and breaks bonds in the
electron to each of the four bond pairs. lattice, generating electron-hole pairs.

Molecular Bonding
❑ Molecular solid consists of small, non-polar covalent molecules, & is held
together by London dispersion forces (van der Waals forces). These forces are
weak, resulting in pairwise inter-atomic binding energies on order of 1/100 those
of covalent, ionic, & metallic bonds
❑ Example: Paraffin wax

4
 Energy Bands
❑ To understand decreasing resistivity with increasing temperature as well as
other properties of semiconductors, a new theory known as band theory

❑ Energy bands consists of large number of closely spaced energy levels exist in
crystalline materials. Bands can be the collection of individual energy levels of
electrons surrounding each atom

❑ Electronic band structure of solid describes those ranges of energy, called

energy bands, that an electron within the solid may have ("allowed bands"), and
ranges of energy called band gaps ("forbidden bands"), which it may not have

Energy Bands
❑ Forbidden band small for semiconductors. Less energy required for electron to
move from valence to conduction band. A vacancy (hole) remains when an
electron leaves the valence band. Hole acts as a positive charge carrier

10

10

5
 Valence & Conduction Band
❑ Valence Band: Highest range of electron energies in which electrons are
normally present at absolute zero temperature
❑ Conduction Band: Range of electron energies enough to free an electron from
binding with its atom to move freely within the atomic lattice of the material as
'delocalised electron'

❑ In insulators: conduction band is higher than valence band, so it takes in

feasibly high energies to delocalise their valence electrons. They are said to
have a non-zero band gap
❑ In conductors: many free electrons under normal circumstances, conduction
band overlaps with valence band--there is no band gap
❑ In semiconductors: band gap is small. Little energy make semiconductors
electrons to delocalise and conduct electricity

11

11

Metals, Semiconductors & Insulators

❑ For electrons to experience acceleration in an applied electric field, they must
be able to move into new energy states. This implies there must be empty
states (allowed energy states which are not already occupied by electrons)
available to the electrons

❑ In diamond structure, valence band is completely filled with electrons at 0ºK &
conduction band is empty. There can be no charge transport within the valence
band, since no empty states are available into which electrons can move

12

12

6
 Si/Ge Energy Bands
❑ At finite temperatures, some electrons reaches conduction band & contribute to
current can be modeled by Fermi function. That current is small compared to
that in doped semiconductors under same conditions

Si Energy Bands Germanium Energy Bands

13

13

Energy Bands
❑ Pauli exclusion principle does not allow the electron energy levels to be the
same so that one obtains a set of closely spaced energy levels, forming an
energy band
❑ Electrons of a single isolated atom occupy atomic orbitals, which form discrete
set of energy levels. If several atoms are brought together into a molecule, their
atomic orbitals split into separate molecular orbitals each with different energy.
This is due to Pauli exclusion principle:
❑ Electrons that are close together must have different sets of quantum
numbers (energy). This produces a number of molecular orbitals
proportional to number of valence electrons. When a large number of atoms
(of order ×1020 or more) are brought together to form a solid, number of
orbitals becomes exceedingly large. Consequently, difference in energy b/w
them becomes very small. Thus, in solids the levels form continuous bands
of energy rather than discrete energy levels of atoms in isolation. However,
some intervals of energy contain no orbitals, no matter how many atoms are
aggregated, forming band gaps

14

14

7
 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals
❑ As atoms come close by, the electron wave functions overlap, and energy level
splits to accommodate the electrons & satisfy Pauli’s exclusion principle

8 separate atoms
Bond together
Single Energy level split into 8 15

15

Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals

❑ For N separate interacting atoms, each energy level in an isolated atom will split
into N levels. If N is very large number, then N levels will form an energy band

N*
Bond together
Note: Each energy state for an
isolated atom gives rise to bands

16

16

8
 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals
❑ Vibrating strings or waves  
n=3 nodes = 2
❑ Wave function: Eψ = h2d2ψ/2mdx2 + v(x)ψ

n=2 nodes = 1

n=1 nodes = 0

❑ Electrons & atomic wave functions

❑ 3-D in a spherical potential → energies & probabilities of finding an electron
with given energy, orbitals
❑ s, p, d, f Atomic Orbitals (AOs)
❑ n = 1, no nodes, lowest energy, s orbital
❑ n = 2, one node, higher energy, p orbital

17

17

Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals

❑ Molecular Orbitals (MOs)
– Covalent bonds result from overlap (combinations) of atomic orbitals to produce
molecular orbitals
– Molecular orbitals result from Linear Combinations of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
– LCAO → wave mechanics of MO’s
– φ = atomic wave function
– ψ = molecular wave function
– For molecule A—B: ψ = φA  φB
– Bonding when:
– Appreciable overlap of atomic orbitals
– Energies of atomic orbitals are ~ equal
– Same symmetry
– Hydrogen : H2 H:H
– LCAO of two AO’s → two MO’s
– ψ2 = φA - φB antibonding σ* (one node)
• •

• •
– ψ1 = φA + φB bonding σ (no nodes)

18

18

9
 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals
❑ When individual atoms are very close together, s & p-orbitals in adjacent atoms
overlap so much that they can form hybridized orbitals. For example: 1s & 3p
orbitals can mix to give sp3 hybridized orbitals

+ve wave function everywhere +ve & -ve wave function Directed wave function due to combination

19

19

Formation of Energy Bands in Si

❑ As distance reduces the bands first mix among themselves, then hybridize (mix),
and then for even lower distance splits into conduction & valence bands

Begin sp3 hybridization

Conduction Band

Valence Band

20

20

10
 Direct & Indirect Semiconductors
❑ Direct Semiconductors: Electrons can make a smallest-energy (bandgap)
transition from conduction band to valence band without a change in k value,
i.e. without change in momentum. Such direct transitions give rise to particles
called Photons

❑ Indirect Semiconductors: Electrons cannot make the smallest-energy transition

from conduction band to valence band without a change in k value
– Electrons must undergo a change of k value first. Change of k value will
result from either losing or gaining energy from lattice vibrations or Phonons
– Since two particles are needed for such transition, probability is very low.
Hence, probability of photon emission, i.e. light efficiency, will be very low
– Electron-hole pairs in indirect bandgap material recombine through other
processes to create more lattice vibrations or heat

❑ Both energy & momentum needs to be conserved during transitions. If transition

is vertical there is no momentum change, but if it is not vertical, then there is a
momentum change which needs to be accounted for

21

21

Direct & Indirect Semiconductors

❑ Single electron is assumed to travel through a perfectly periodic lattice
❑ Wave function of electron is assumed to be in the form of a plane wave moving
 k ( x) = U (k x , x)e jk xx

– x : Direction of propagation
– k : Propagation constant / Wave vector
–  : Space-dependent wave function for electron
– U(kx,x): Function that modulates wave function according to periodically of lattice
❑ Periodicity of most lattice is different in various directions, (E,k) diagram must
be plotted for various crystal directions, & full relationship b/w E & k is a
complex surface which should be visualized in there dimensions
E
E

ΔE=Photon
Eg Eg=hν Energy
Et Ħk=phonon momentum
k k

Direct Bandgap Indirect Bandgap 22

22

11
 Example
Assuming that U is constant in  k ( x) = U ( k x , x)e x
jk x
❑ for an essentially
free electron, show that the x-component of the electron momentum in the
crystal is given by  P = h k
x x

 h  jk x x

−
U 2 e − jk x x
j x
(e )dx
 Px = 

−
U 2 dx

h k x  U 2 dx
= 
−
= h kx
 −
U 2 dx
❑ Result implies that (E,k) diagrams can be considered plots of electron energy
vs. momentum with a scaling factor ħ

23

23

Variation of Energy Bands with Alloy Composition

x < 0.38 AlxGa1-xAs is a direct semiconductor
x >= 0.38 AlxGa1-xAs is an indirect semiconductor
x <0.45 GaAs1-xPx is a direct semiconductor
x >= 0.45 GaAs1-xPx is an indirect semiconductor

Variation of direct & indirect conduction bands in AlGaAs as function of composition

(a). (E-K) diagram for GaAs, showing 3-minima in conduction band
(b). AlAs band diagram
(c). Positions of 3 conduction band minima in AlxGa1-xAs as x varies over range of composition
From GaAs (x=0) to AlAs (x=1)
24

24

12
 Electrons & Holes
❑ As temperature of semiconductor is raised from 0K, some electrons in valence
band receive enough thermal energy to be excited across band gap to
conduction band
❑ Empty state in valence band is referred to holes
❑ If conduction band electron & hole are created by excitation of valence band to
conduction band called electron-hole pair
❑ An empty conduction band or a filled valence band will not conduct electricity

25

25

Electrons in Valence Band

❑ Analog: Water in a Bottle
❑ Electrons: Water Droplets, Holes: Air Bubbles
❑ Both empty bottle & filled bottle, when tilted will not displace water. However,
partially filled bottle when tilted will movement of water
❑ In valence band all states are filled (lowest energy level). Electron at j is
matched by one at j’ (no current flows unless one is removed by excitation into
conduction band)
❑ Hole energy increases downward since holes have charges opposite to those of
electrons. Primary reason why Holes are found in Valence Band

26

26

13
 Motion of Electrons in Electric Field
❑ Under applied electric field, the entire band structure shifts or equivalently the
electron gains a kinetic energy of eEΔd
❑ Hole energy increases downward since a hole has opposite charge of an
electron
❑ ΔEPotential=eΔV=eEΔd

Electron energies increase going up, while hole energies increase going down. Similarly electron &
hole wave vectors point in opposite directions & these charge carriers move opposite to each other
27

27

Effective Mass
❑ In crystal, electron may behave as if it had mass different from free electron
mass m0. There are crystals in which effective mass of the carriers is much
larger or much smaller than m0
❑ Electron in periodic potential is accelerated relative to lattice in an applied
electric or magnetic field as if its mass is equal to an effective mass

❑ Electrons in a crystal are not completely free, but instead interact with periodic
potential of lattice. Their wave-particle motion cannot be expected to be the
same for electrons in free space. Thus, in applying the usual equations of
electrodynamics to charge carriers in a solid, we must use altered values of
particle mass called Effective Mass

❑ Effective mass has important effects on the properties of a solid, including

everything from efficiency of a solar cell to the speed of an integrated circuit

28

28

14
 Free Electron
❑ If electron is free then E represents kinetic energy only. It is related to the wave
vector k & momentum p:

❑ Quantum mechanical & classical free particles exhibit precisely the same
energy-momentum relationship

29

29

Example
❑ Find (E,k) relationship for a free electron and relate it to electron mass?

30

30

15
 Effective Mass
Ge Si GaAs
*
m n
0.55m0 1.1m0 0.067m0
*
0.37m0
m p
0.56m0 0.48m0
† m0 is the free electron rest mass

31

31

Charge Carrier
❑ Charge carrier is a particle free to move, carrying an electric charge, especially
the particles that carry electric currents in electrical conductors E.g. electrons,
ions, holes

32

32

16
 Intrinsic Material
❑ Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor/undoped semiconductor/i-type semiconductor, is
a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant (impurities) species
present
❑ Number of charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of material
itself instead of amount of impurities
❑ In intrinsic semiconductors the number of excited electrons & number of holes
are equal: n = p = ni
❑ In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in conduction band is
equal to number of holes in valence band
❑ Recombination gi occurs when electron in conduction band makes a transition
to empty state (hole) in valence bands

g i ( EHP ) ri ( EHP ) ri = g i
cm3 s cm3 s
Generation rate Recombination rate:
Generation rate Temperature dependent: g i (T )
At any T, we predict recombination rate of electrons n0 &
concentration of holes p0: r =  n p =  n 2 = gi
i r 0 0 r i

Electron-hole pairs (EHP) in Constant: depends on particular mechanism

covalent bonding model of Si by which recombination takes place
33

33

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

❑ The density of carriers in a semiconductor as a function of temperature and
material properties is:
 E 
n i2 = BT 3 exp− G  cm-6
 kT 
❑ EG = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volts)
❑ k = Boltzmann’s constant, 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K
❑ T = absolute termperature, K
❑

B = material-dependent parameter, 1.08 x 1031 K-3 cm-6 for Si
❑ Bandgap energy is the minimum energy needed to free an electron by
breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal.

34

34

17
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

35

35

Extrinsic Material
❑ Extrinsic semiconductor (Non-pure) is a semiconductor that has been doped,
and giving it different electrical properties than intrinsic semiconductor
❑ We can calculate binding energy by using Bohr model results, considering the
loosely bound electron as ranging about tightly bound “core” electrons in a
hydrogen-like orbit 4
mq
E= ; n = 1 , K = 4  0 r
2K 2h 2

(a) Donation of electron from donor level to conduction bond

(b) Acceptance of valence bond electrons by acceptor level
(c) Donor & acceptor atoms in covalent bonding model of Si
Thus energy to excite the donor electron from n=1 state to the
free state (n=∞) is ≈6meV 36

36

18
 Example
❑ Calculate the approximate donor binding energy for Ge(εr=16,
mn*=0.12m0)?

mn* q 4
E=
8( 0 r ) 2 h 2
0.12(9.11 10 −31 )(1.6  10 −19 ) 4
=
8(8.85  10 −12  16) 2 (6.63  10 −34 ) 2
= 1.02  10 − 21 J = 0.0064eV

37

37

Electrons & Holes in Quantum Wells

❑ In MBE (molecular beam epitaxy) or MOVPE (metal-organic vapor deposition
epitaxy) growth of multilayer compound semiconductors has continuous single
crystal can be grown in which adjacent layer have different band gaps
❑ Consequence of confining electrons & holes in very thin layer is that these
particles behave according to particle in a potential well problem with quantum
states
❑ An electron on one of the discrete conduction band states (E1) can make a
transition to an empty discrete valance band state in GaAs quantum well (such
as Eh), giving off a photon of energy Eg+E1+Eh, greater than GaAs band gap

38

38

19
 Carriers Concentrations
❑ In calculating semiconductor electrical properties & analyzing device behavior,
it is often necessary to know the number of charge carriers/cm3 in material. The
majority carrier concentration is usually obvious in heavily doped material, since
one majority carrier is obtained for each impurity atom (for the standard doping
impurities)
❑ Concentration of minority carriers is not obvious, however, nor is the
temperature dependence of carrier concentration

39

39

The Fermi Level

❑ Fermi level is a hypothetical level of potential energy for an electron inside a
crystalline solid. Occupying such a level would give an electron (in the fields of
all its neighboring nuclei) a potential energy equal to its chemical potential
(average diffusion energy per electron) as they both appear in Fermi-Dirac
distribution function:

❑ T is absolute temperature, k is Boltzmann's constant

❑ Fermi level is analogous to chemical potential
❑ Fermi level or Fermi energy is energy, at which probability of occupation by an
electron (or hole) is exactly ½

Fermi-Dirac distribution function:

k : Boltzmann’s constant
f(E) : Fermi-Dirac distribution function
Ef : Fermi level

40

40

20
 The Fermi Level
❑ Fermi-Dirac distribution gives the probability that (at thermodynamic equilibrium)
an electron will occupy a state having energy E. Alternatively, it gives the
average number of electrons that will occupy that state given the restriction
imposed by Pauli exclusion principle

❑ The Fermi-Dirac distribution gives the probability of occupancy of a state at a

given temperature
❑ Fermi level is analogous to chemical potential
❑ Fermi level or Fermi energy is the energy, at which the probability of occupation
by an electron (or hole) is exactly ½

• Fermi Function is symmetrical about EF for all

1 1 1
f (E f ) = ( E f −E f ) = = temperatures
1+ e kT 1+1 2 • At T = 0 K, this function has a simple rectangular
form (binary occupational probability)
• At T = 0 K, available energy state up to EF is filled
with electrons & all states above EF are empty
• It is not necessary that Fermi level is close to or
superpose on energy states. In semiconductor,
usually, Fermi level is in band gap

41

41

The Fermi Level

❑ It is useful to think of Fermi level as a tool to determine electron/hole occupation
at conduction or valence band for doped/undoped semiconductor in equilibrium
❑ In intrinsic material, the Fermi level is close to the middle of band gap
❑ In n-type material, the Fermi level is close to the conduction band
❑ In p-type material, the Fermi level is close to the valence band

Fermi distribution function applied to semiconductors

(a) Intrinsic materials, (b) n-type materials, (c) p-type materials 42

42

21
 The Fermi Level

43

43

Electron & Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium


❑ Concentration of electrons in conduction band is n =  f ( E ) N ( E )dE 0
EC
❑ N(E)dE : Density of states (cm-3) in energy range dE (derivation in Appendix IV)
❑ Result of integration is same as that obtained if we represent all of distributed
electron states in conduction band edge EC
Conduction band electron concentration p0 = NV [1 − f ( EV )]
n0 = N C f ( EC ) 1
1 − f ( EV ) = 1 − ( EV −EF )  e
− ( EF − EV )
kT

1+ e kT

Effective density of states

− ( EF − EV ) 2 m*p kT
p0 = N V e N V = 2(
3
kT ) 2

Fermi function h2
1 − ( EC − EF )
f ( EC ) = e
− ( Ei − Ev )
pi = NV e
kT − ( Ec − Ei )
ni = N C e
( EC − EF )
kT
kT
1+ e kT

Electrons in conduction band − ( Ec − Ev ) − Eg

n0 p0 = N c N v e kT
= Nc Nve kT
− ( EC − EF )
n0 = N C e − Eg − Eg
ni = N c N v e
kT

ni pi = N c N v e kT 2 kT

Effective density of states

2 mn* kT 3 2 n0 p0 = ni2 n0 = ni e
( EF − Ei ) ( Ei − EF )

N C = 2( ) kT
p0 = ni e kT

h2 44

44

22
 Electron & Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium

45

45

Electron & Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium

46

46

23
 Electron & Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
Fermi level at center
indicates equal electron &
hole Distribution

Fermi level near CB

indicates more electrons in
CB than holes in VB

Fermi level near CB

indicates less electrons in
CB than holes in VB

47

47

Examples
❑ A Si sample is doped with 1017 As Atom/cm3. What is the equilibrium hole
concentration p0 at 300°K? Where is EF relative to Ei?
❑ Since Nd»ni, we can approximate n0=Nd and Ec

ni2 2.25 10 20 0.407eV

p0 = = 17
= 2.25 103 cm −3 1.1eV Ei
n0 10
Ev
( EF − Ei ) n 1017
n0 = ni e kT
E F − Ei = kT ln 0 = 0.0259 ln = 0.407eV
ni 1.5  1010

48

48

24
 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations
❑ At very high temperature so much electron-hole pair (EHP) is generated donors
are ionized & get donated for conduction
❑ At very low temperature no EHP material becomes intrinsic (n ~ p) once again
Higher the bandgap, lower the intrinsic carrier concentration

all dopants ionized

(1/T=large) (1/T=small)

49

49

Compensation & Space Charge Neutrality

❑ As doping is increased slowly, Fermi level moves toward the respective bands, &
at some point may even penetrate the donor level & even band

50

50

25
 Summary of Carrier Density in Semiconductor
❑ In thermal equilibrium undoped semiconductor, carrier densities are: n=ni; p=pi
❑ In doped condition, for ND >> ni, n = ND & p = ni*ni/ND
❑ In doped condition, for ND ~ ni, n & p
❑ At very high temperature, semiconductor generates so much electron-hole pair
due to thermal activation, that semiconductor becomes intrinsic again, meaning
n ~p again, in spite of the doping
❑ When a light with super bandgap energy is shone on semiconductor, electron-
hole pairs are created in large quantities, n = ND + nop, & p = ni*ni/(ND + nop)

51

51

Example

52

52

26
 Mobility
❑ Mobility represents the ease of electrons & holes to flow through crystal under
an externally applied electric field
❑ Motion of electrons and holes in solid at thermal equilibrium:
– Random thermal wandering
– Random scattering from the lattice & impurities
– No net motion of group of N electrons, no preferred direction of motion
– An individual electron has a net motion, however, there is always another electron
that has opposite net motion (reflected as k and –k state occupation in E-K diagram
❑ Motion of electrons & holes in solid in presence of electric or magnetic fields
– Random thermal wandering + a net drift motion
– Random scattering from the lattice and impurities

53

53

Electric Field

54

54

27
 Mobility

55

55

Mobility

56

56

28
 Current Density

57

57

Resistance

Example:

58

58

29
 Effects on Temperature & Mobility
❑ Two major scattering mechanisms that influence electron & hole mobility:
– Ionized impurity Scattering
– Lattice Scattering or Phonon Scattering
❑ Overall mobility in presence of two or more independent scattering mechanisms
is given by (Mattheisen’s Rule):

Approximate temperature dependence of mobility with both lattice & impurity scattering 59

59

Effects of Temperature & Doping on Mobility

❑ Mobility reduces for higher doping due to increased ionized impurity scattering
❑ Compare the electron & hole mobility for Si, Ge, GaAs
❑ At high electric field, velocity of electrons CANNOT increase linearly with voltage
due to increased scattering from lattice vibrations (electron loses the entire extra
energy from electric field immediately)
❑ At particular electric field called critical electric field, mobility becomes almost
zero, & velocity of electrons become almost constant w.r.t. electric field

Electron drift velocity

saturates at high
electric fields for Si

Slope gives the mobility

only at low electric field
<v>=-unE

60

60

30
 The Hall Effect
❑ Hall effect is used to find mobility & carrier concentration in materials
❑ The establishment of E-field Ey is called Hall-Effect

❑ Experimental Observations:
– If constant current is flowing in x-direction & magnetic field in z-direction
(perpendicular to holes direction), holes are deflected then, voltage drop is built up in
y or –y direction, depending on charge carriers i.e. electrons or holes
– In equilibrium, electric field built in y-direction is generated to balance the magnetic
field induced Lorentz force on carriers

61

61

The Hall Effect

62

62

31
 Example

63

63

Invariance of the Fermi Level at Equilibrium

64

64

32