System Earthing

System Earthing

Earth faults :- 70 Æ 90% of all faults.

EA

IF
System Earthing

Earthing method determines :-

z Fault current IF
z Damage caused
z Steady state overvoltages
z Transient overvoltages
z Insulation requirements
z Quantities available to detect faults
z Type of Protection
 Earthing Method

Solid / Low Z High Z

IF High Low
Overvoltages in Low High
Sound Phases
Damage High Low
Cost of Insulation Low High
Low Voltage Systems For Safety
Medium Voltage Systems To limit current
cost of insulation
acceptable
High Voltage & To limit cost
EHV Systems of insulation
Methods of Earthing In
Common Use

z Solid or Direct Earthing

z Resistance Earthing
z Reactance Earthing
z Resonant or Petersen Coil Earthing
z Insulated Earth
 System Earthing

Solid

Lowest System Z0
IF High
- Damage
- Easy E/F Protn.
No Arcing Grounds IF >> ICHARGE
Lowest Overvoltages
 System Earthing

Reactance

Lower IF
Higher Transient Overvoltages
Cheaper than resistance at high
volts
Overvoltages during E/Fs
0.8 Î 1 x VØ/Ø
Not often used except as tuned
reactor
 System Earthing

Petersen Coil
XE ≈ ∑ XCHARGING
Arcing faults self extinguishing
- Good for transient faults
XE needs changing if XC alters
Overvoltages during E/Fs Î VØ/Ø
Insulation important
Tuned Restricts use of auto-transformers
Discriminative E/F protection
difficult
 System Earthing

Resistance

Reduced IF
Reduced transient overvoltages
Not self extinguishing but E/F
easier to detect
 System Earthing

Unearthed

Insulated
IF Capacitive
Can be self extinguishing if IF
small
Overvoltages during E/Fs = VØ/Ø
Arcing faults likely - high transient
overvoltages
Insulation important
 System Earthing
Î 660 V Solid - Safety
Insulated - Special cases where continuity
of supply required

660 V Î 33 kV Resistance or reactance normally used

Solid - When IF is low

Resistance - IF limited to IFL
Reactance - IF(E/F) limited to IF(3Ø)
Petersen - Overhead lines. Lightning
Coil

> 33 kV Solid
Overvoltages more important (insulation)

Directly Coupled Resistance - Most common

Generators Solid and - Not recommended
Reactance (High IF )
 System Earthing

Generator - Transformer Units

IF ~ 10 Î 15 A

IF ~ 200 Î 300 A
 Low Voltage System Earthing

Safety :-

z Power system neutral solidly earthed at transformer.

z Metallic tools and appliances solidly earthed.

z Sensitive protection by :-

RCD’s :- Residual current devices

ELCB’s :- Earth leakage circuit breakers

Earth Fault Hazard
Unearthed
Appliance

ZF

ZP

ZF = Fault impedance VP
ZE
ZP = Human body impedance
ZE = Environmental impedance
VP = Case / earth potential
Earth Fault Hazard
RCD for High ZF
Unearthed
Appliance
Fuses for
High IF

IF

ZF

Protective Earth Conductor

VH ZP
ZF = Fault impedance VP

ZP = Human body impedance ZE

ZE = Environmental impedance
Without protective earth : -
VP = Case / earth potential
ZP
VH = E∅/N .
ZP + ZF + ZE
 Unearthed L.V. Winding

Normal
V Conditions

H.V. L.V.
 Unearthed L.V. Winding
Inter-winding fault ‘F’
causes dangerous rise
in L.V. voltage

VF
yv

L.V.
xV

H.V.

VF = xV + (1 - y)v
 Breakdown Between HV and
LV Windings
3000 / 440 V Transformer

A2

1730V a2

254V
N n

c2 b2

C2 B2

Normal voltage conditions

Neutrals earthed or unearthed
 Breakdown Between HV and
LV Windings

A2
95V
a2
xH x xL
1730V 254V
n
1009V
850V c2 b2 755V

C2 B2

Voltage conditions with breakdown

between HV and LV at point X on
phase
LV neutral unearthed
Hand to Hand Resistance of Living
Body - 50Hz AC (Freiburger 1933)

6000

5000
Resistance - Ohms

4000

Very Dry Skin

3000

2000

1000 Very Moist Skin

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Volts
Effects of Body Current
1mA Can be felt

> 9mA Cannot let go

15mA Threshold of cramp

30mA Breathing difficult

Rise in blood pressure

50mA Heart misses odd beat

50 → 200mA Heavy shock

Unconsciousness

> 200mA Reversible cardiac arrest

Current marks
Burns
 Effects of Various Values of
Body Current
Current at 50Hz Duration Physiological effects on humans
to 60Hz r.m.s. of shock
value mA

0-1 not Range up to threshold of perception.

critical Electrocution not felt.

1-15 not Range up to threshold of cramp.

Critical Independent release of hands from object gripped no longer possible. Possibly
powerful and sometimes painful effects on muscles of fingers and arms.

15-30 minutes Cramp-like contraction of arms. Difficulty in breathing. Rise in blood pressure.
Limit of tolerability.

30-50 seconds Heart irregularities. Rise in blood pressure. Powerful cramp-effect. to minutes
Unconsciousness. Ventricular fibrillation if long shock at upper limit of range.

less than No ventricular fibrillation. Heavy shock.

50 to a cardiac cycle
few hundred
above one Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase not
cardiac cycle important. (Disturbance of stimulus conducting system?) Unconsciousness.
Current marks.

less than Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase

cardiac cycle Important Initiation of fibrillation only in the sensitive phase.
Above (Direct stimulatory effect on heart muscle?) Unconsciousness. Current marks
few hundred
over one Reversible cardiac arrest. Range of electrical defibrillation. Unconsciousness.
cardiac cycle Current marks. Burns
 Body Current / Time and Security

Threshold
of
10,000 Fibrillation
Threshold
of
Threshold Let Go
of
Perception
Time 1,000
(mS)
IEC Security
Curve

100 Let Go
Hold On

10
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Current (mA)
 Voltage Range for Protection
Operation

Hold On
Region

1,000 Let Go
Region

Threshold Very Dry Skin

of 20mA
Perception Very Moist Skin
100 Volts to
operate protection
V 30V - 80V
(Volt)

Fibrillation
10 Possible

1.0
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Current (mA)
 Earthing Impedance Affects
Touch & Step Potentials
E
!
Touch RF
Step RE True IF
VH VH Earth
Surface

RG

Don’t forget
communications
cables etc.
entering S/S !
IF

IF

RG ' RG
VH = E True Earth
RE + RF + RG ' d
RG' = f(Distance)
 Interconnected Star (Zig-Zag) Earthing
Transformer
Single Earthing Resistor
I

2I 3I
3I Earth
Fault

Transformer Insulated I I I
for Line Voltage

I 2I 3I
Resistor Insulated
I I I For System Phase
Voltage
Interconnected Star Earthing Transformer
Three Earthing Resistors
I

2I 3I
3I Earth
Fault

Note:- Resistors to
Resistors I I I
be insulated for line
voltage and to have 3
times the ohmic value
of a single neutral
I I I
resistor

I 2I 3I

I I 3I
I
 Displacement of Neutral from
Earth during an Earth Fault
Z IF
Va

N
Vc Vb Z

ZE
Va

G G

ZE
VGN = ΙF ZE = VaN . N
ZE + Z
Vc Vb
 Earth Fault on System with
Insulated Earth

Va

N Vab
Vc Vb Ib - jXc

Vac
Ic - jXc
Vab Vac
IF
- jXc - jXc

-jXc -jXc -jXc

G
 Earth Fault on System with
Insulated Earth
G
Vac Vab
Va
Vab Vac
ΙF = +
- jXc - jXc
Vac
= - Ιc
- jXc 3VaN
= = 3 x normal charging current
N - jXc
Vc Vb
IF
30° 30°
Vac
Vab
- jXc = - Ιb
- jXc

Vab Vac Vb
Ιb = - = ∴ Ιb = 3 . = 3 x normal charging current
- jXc - jXc Xc

Vac Vca Vc
Ιc = - = ∴ Ιc = 3 . = 3 x normal charging current
- jXc - jXc Xc
 Earth Fault on System with
Resistance Earthed System

Va

Vc Vb

VaN Vab Vac

RE IF
- jXc - jXc
RE
-jXc -jXc -jXc

a, G a, G
G a
 Earth Fault on System with
Resistance Earthed System

VaN
-Ic -Ib RE
IF

G Vb
Ιb = 3 = 3 x normal
Xc charging current

Vac Va
Vab
Vc
Ιc = 3 = 3 x normal
N
Xc charging current
Vac Vb
= - Ιc
- jXc Vc
Vab
= - Ιb
- jXc
 Earth Fault on System with Resonant
or Petersen Coil Earthing

Va

N Vab
- Ιb =
- jXc
Vc Vb

VaN Vab Vac

jXL IF
- jXc - jXc
-jXL
-jXc -jXc -jXc

a, G a, G

a,G
 Earth Fault on System with Resonant
or Petersen Coil Earthing
G

Vac Vab

Va
VaN VaN
jXL jXL
N -Ic
Vc Vb
Vac
= - Ιc
- jXc -Ib

Vab VaN
= - Ιb ΙF = - Ιb - Ι +
- jXc c jXL
V
= 0 if aN = Ιb + Ιc
jXL

For perfect tuning ∅/N =

V 3. 3 3. 3 Xc
+ ∴ XL =
jXL 2jXc 2jXc 3
 Sequence Impedances
Transmission Line
Generator
Generator Transformer
Fault

X
C C' Capacitance of
ZE Z'E the transmission
system

Positive Phase-Sequence Network :-

X1
ZG1 ZT1 ZL1
P1

Ea -jXC1 -jX'C1

N1
 Sequence Impedances

Negative Phase-Sequence Network :-

X2
ZG2 ZT2 ZL2
P2

-jXC2 -jX'C2

N2

Zero Phase-Sequence Network :-

X0
ZG0 ZT0 ZL0
P0

3ZE -jXC0 3Z'E -jX'C0

N0
 Fault Currents and Voltages
Analysis of Single Phase to Earth and Double
Phase to Earth Faults

The following analysis relates to the system shown in

Figure 7.

Let Z1, Z2 and Z0 be the system sequence impedances in

the fault path. Let Z2 = K2Z1 and Z0 = K0Z1.

For a phase to earth fault :

I1 = I2 = I0 = Ea/Z1 + Z2 + Z0 = Ea/Z1 (1 + K2 + K0)

 Fault Currents and Voltages
Analysis of Single Phase to Earth and Double
Phase to Earth Faults

For a phase to phase to earth fault :

Ea Ea
Ι1 = =
Z Z
Z1 + 2 0 ⎛ K 2K 0 ⎞
Z1 ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
Z 2 + Z0 ⎝ K 2 + K0 ⎠

Z0 - Ea . K 0
Ι 2 = Ι1 . =
Z 2 + Z0 Z1 (K 2 + K 0 + K 2K 0 )

Z2 - Ea . K 2
Ι0 = Ι1 . =
Z 2 + Z0 Z1 (K 2 + K 0 + K 2K 0 )
 Fault Currents and Voltages
Analysis of Single Phase to Earth and Double
Phase to Earth Faults

Also :
V1 = Ea - I1Z1; V2 = -I2Z2 = -I2K2Z1; V0 = -I0Z0 = -I0K0Z1
Ia = I1 + I2 + I0; Va = V1 + V2 + V0

Ib = a2I1 + aI2 + I0; Vb = a2V1 + aV2 + V0

Ic = aI1 + a2 I2 + I0; Vc = aV1 + a2V2 + V0

From all these equations it is possible to calculate the fault

currents and voltages at the fault location in terms of the phase
sequence impedances of the system. The values of these
currents and voltages are shown in Table 2.
Currents have been expressed in terms of the three phase fault
current where I3Ø = Ea/Z1
 Sequence Connections for
Phase to Earth Fault

ZG1 ZT1 X1 ZL1 P1 I1

Ea -jXC1 -jX'C1
N1 P2 ZL2 X2 ZT2 ZG2 N2 P0 ZL0 X0 ZT0 3Z'E
N0
I2 -jXC2 I0
-jX'C2 -jX'C0
Z1

Z2 Z0
 Phase to Earth Fault

E E E
Ι1 = Ι 2 = Ι0 = = =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0 Z1 + K 2Z1 + K 0 Z1 Z1 {1 + K 2 + K 0 }

V1 = E - Ι1Z1
V2 = - Ι 2Z2 = - Ι 2K 2Z1 = - Ι1K 2Z1
V0 = - Ι0 Z0 = - Ι0K 0 Z1 = - Ι1K 0 Z1

3E
Ιa = 3Ι1 =
Z1 {1 + K 2 + K 0 }

For a fault at the same point : -

E 3
Ι3∅ = ∴ Ιa = . Ι3∅
Z1 (1 + K 2 + K 0 )
Phase to Earth Fault

Vb = a2 V1 + aV2 + V0

= a2 {Ea - Ι1Z1} + a{- Ι1K 2Z1} - Ι1K 0 Z1

= a2Ea - Ι1Z1 ⎧⎨a2 + aK 2 + K 0 ⎫⎬

⎩ ⎭
. Z1 = ⎧⎨a2 + aK 2 + K 0 ⎫⎬
Ea
= Eb -
Z1 (1 + K 2 + K 0 ) ⎩ ⎭
⎧a2 + aK + K ⎫
⎨ 2 0 ⎬⎭
= Eb - ⎩ . Ea
{1 + K 2 + K 0 }

⎧a + a2K + K ⎫
⎨ 2 0 ⎬⎭
Vc = Ec - ⎩ . Ea
{1 + K 2 + K 0 }
 Phase to Earth Fault

VRES = Va + Vb + Vc
⎧a2 + aK + K + a + a2K + K ⎫
⎨ 2 0 2 0 ⎬⎭
= Eb + Ec - ⎩ . Ea
{1 + K 2 + K 0 }
= Eb + Ec + Ea
{1 + K 2 − 2K 0 }
{1 + K 2 + K 0 }
3K 0
= Eb + Ec + Ea - . Ea
(1 + K 2 + K 0 )
− 3K 0
= . Ea
(1 + K 2 + K 0 )
 Sequence Connections for
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault

P0 ZL0 X0 ZT0 3Z'E N0

I0

-jX'C0

Z0

X1 Z X2
ZG1 ZT1 L1 P1 P2 ZL2 ZT2 ZG2 N2
I1 I2
Ea -jXC1 -jX'C1
-jXC2
N1
-jX'C2
Z2
Z1
 Steady-state Fault Currents and Voltages for
Phase-to-Earth and Double-Phase to Earth
Faults

Phase to earth fault (a - e) Double phase to earth fault (b - c - e)

3
Ιa . Ι3∅ 0
1 + K 2 + K0

K 2 (a2 − 1) + K 0 (a2 - a)
Ιb 0 . Ι3∅
K 2 + K0 + K 2 K0

K 2 (a − 1) + K 0 (a - a2 )
Ιc 0 . Ι3∅
K 2 + K0 + K 2 K0
- 3K 2
Ιres Equal to Ιa Ι3∅
K 2 + K0 + K 2 K0
3 K 2 K0
Va 0 . Ea
K 2 + K0 + K 2 K0
 Steady-state Fault Currents and Voltages for
Phase-to-Earth and Double-Phase to Earth
Faults

a2 + a K 2 + K 0
Vb Eb - Ea 0
1 + K 2 + K0

a + a2 K 2 + K 0
Vc Ec - Ea 0
1 + K 2 + K0
Vab Equal to - Vb Equal to Va
K2 − 1
Vbc Ebc + Ebc 0
1 + K 2 + K0
Vca Equal to Vc Equal to Va
− 3K 0
Vres . . Ea
1 + K 2 + K0
 Z2
K2 =
Z1

z Independent of earthing method

z Normally K2 = 1
z Close to power stations with synchronous
generators :-
K2 Î up to 1.4
X2 for cylindrical rotors = Xd"
for salient poles = Xd" to 1.4 Xd"
 Z0
K0 =
Z1

z Depends on method of earthing

– Relative values of transformer, generator and line impedances
– Transformer winding arrangement
– Amount and angle of ZLINE

z K0 has an angle
z K0 ranges from ∞ for unearthed system to 0.2 for solid
earthing and fault close to a power station.
Line
XS1 = 25%
XS2 = 25%
X0 7 7
= = = 0.219
XT1 = XT2 = XT0 = 7%
X1 25 + 7 32
Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages Due to
Different System Earthing for an A-E Fault

K0 VB calculated from
formula in Table 2 K 2 = 1
⎧⎪a2 + a ⎫⎪
0 Eb - ⎨ ⎬ Ea = Eb + Ea/2
⎪⎩ 1 + 1 ⎪⎭
⎧⎪a2 + 0 + 0.5 ⎫⎪
0.5 Eb - ⎨ ⎬ Ea = Eb + Ea/5
⎪⎩ 1 + 1 + 0.5 ⎪⎭
⎧⎪a2 + a + 1⎫⎪
1 Eb - ⎨ ⎬ Ea = Eb
⎪⎩ 1 + 1 + 1 ⎪⎭
⎧⎪a2 + a + 4 ⎫⎪
4 Eb - ⎨ ⎬ Ea = Eb − Ea/2
⎪⎩ 1 + 1 + 4 ⎪⎭
⎧∞ ⎫
∞ Eb - ⎨ ⎬ Ea = Eb − Ea
⎩∞ ⎭
 Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages Due to
Different System Earthing for an A-E Fault
Ea

K = 0
G

K = 0.5 V'c V'b

K = 1
Ec Eb
Effectively earthed systems

K = 4 V"c V"b
Non-effectively earthed
systems

K = ∞
 Healthy Phase Voltages during
Earth Faults
⎧⎪ a2 + aK + K ⎫⎪
Vb = Eb - ⎨ 2 0 E
⎬ a
⎪⎩ 1 + K 2 + K 0 ⎪
⎭
Assuming K 2 = Z2 /Z1 = 1∠0°
⎧⎪ a2 + a + K ⎫⎪
Vb = Eb − ⎨ 0 E
⎬ a
⎪⎩ 2 + K 0 ⎪⎭

K0 = 0.5
Solid earthing; Fault near power station
VS.P. < VØ/N rated (- 0.95 VØ/N)

K0 = 1.0
Solid earthing; Fault remote from power
station VS.P. = VØ/N rated
 Healthy Phase Voltages during
Earth Faults
K0 → 4.5
- Solid earthing; Remote fault; Long line
ZL0/ZL1 can be 4.5

- Also possible with low reactance earthing

- VS.P. = 0.75 VØ/Ø rated with K0. = 4

K0 > 1.0
VS.P. > VØ/N rated
 Healthy Phase Voltages during
Earth Faults
Effectively Earthed Systems
British definition (BS 162 : 1961) :-
VS.P. > 80% of VØ/Ø rated
Note :- VS.P. > 0.8 VØ/Ø rated
is possible on solidly earthed systems
∴ Overvoltage relays should not be connected
Ø/N or may operate for earth faults.
American definition :-
X0/X1 ≤ 3 and R0/X1 ≤ 1

K0 = high gives non effectively earthed system

e.g. For Resistance
Petersen Coil
Insulated }
Z0 → ∴ ∞ VSP = VØ/Ørated
 VØ/Ø during Earth Fault
⎧ K2 − 1 ⎫
Vbc = Ebc + ⎨ ⎬ Ebc
⎩1 + K 2 + K 0⎭

If generator AVR is not in service :-

I Z2 and Z0 fixed
Id "
Z1 varies from Xd" to Xd, i.e. increases
Id ' If K2 = Z2/Z1 varies from 1 to 0.2
K0 = Z0/Z1 varies from 3.0 to 0.6
Vbc = Ebc
K2 − 1
Id Vb'c' = Ebc + . Ebc
1 + K2 + K0
Few Seconds ⎧ 0.2 - 1.0 ⎫
= ⎨1 + ⎬ Ebc
⎩ 1 + 0.2 + 0.6 ⎭
= 0.556 Ebc
 Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages for an
Earth Fault due to changes of K2 and K0
during the Fault
Vc.and Vd are the healthy phase voltages at fault instant with
K2 = 1.0 and K0 = 3.0.

Vc' and Vb' are the healthy phase voltages a few seconds
after fault occurs with K2. = 0.2 and K0 = 0.6.
Ea

Vc' Vb'

Ec Eb

Vc Vb
 Figure a

Z1 Z2 i Z0

Ea C1 C0 3ZE'
V0
 Figure b

arc
restrikes
V0

Ea

arc extinguishes
 400

VTRANSIENT
Unfaulted Phase
300

(% EØ/N PEAK)

200
Neutral to Earth

100
Faulted Phase

.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2.0
Resistor kW
Charging kVA
 Z1 Z2 i Z0

Ea C1 C0 3RE
 0.7E pk

1
If 3Re =
V0 wC0
V0 = 0.7 Epk.e - t/τ
i

1
45º where τ = 3REC0 =
w
after 7.5ms : -
V0 = 0.06 Epk
 Sound Phase Currents During
an Earth Fault (1)

Source Load
1 X Y
6 5 5 1 1

6 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1
3 6 3
IF
3 3
Sound Phase Currents During
an Earth Fault (2)

ZX1 I1 ZY1
IX1

ZX2 I2 ZY2
IX2

ZX0 I0 ZY0
IX0
 Sound Phase Currents During
an Earth Fault (3)

I1 = I2 = I0 = IX0 + IY0

if ZX0 = ZY0 then IX0 = IY0

IF = 3I0 = 6IX0 ; Iya = IYb = IYc = IX0 = IY0 = IF/6

IXa = IX1 + IX2 + IX0 = 5IX0 = 5IF/6

IXb = a2IX1 + aIX2 + IX0 = -I0 + IX0 = -IF/6

IXc = -IF/6
 Parallel Generators (1)

Only 1 machine is earthed :-

3∅ E/F

G1 G2 G3 G4
Parallel Generators (2)

Consider the current in G1

for :- (i) Earth Fault

(ii) 3Ø Fault

Let
ZG11 = ZG21 = ZG31 = ZG41 = 0.244 p.u.
ZG12 = ZG22 = ZG32 = ZG42 = 0.124 p.u.
ZG10 = ZG20 = ZG30 = ZG40 = 0.05 p.u.
 Earth Fault (1)

Sequence Networks :-
ZG11 ZG12 ZG10
IG11 IG12 IG10
ZG21 ZG22

ZG31 ZG32
EG
IF1 F1 N2 IF2 F2 N0 IF0 F0
N1 ZG41 ZG42

0.244p.u. 0.124p.u. 0.05p.u.

1p.u. 0.244p.u. 0.124p.u.

0.244p.u. 0.124p.u.
IF1 IF2 IF0 F
N1 0.244p.u. 0.124p.u.
0
 Earth Fault (2)

1p.u.
0.061 0.031 0.05

IF1 F N IF2 F2 N0 IF0 F0

N1 1 2

IF1 = IF2 = IF0 = 1 = 1 = 7.04 p.u.

0.061 + 0.031 + 0.05 .142

IF = 3IF1 = 21.12 p.u.

IG11 = IF1 = 1.76 p.u. IG12 = IF2 = 1.76 p.u. IG10 = 7.04 p.u.
4 4

∴ IG1 = IG11 + IG12 + IG10 = 1.76 + 1.76 + 7.04 = 10.56 p.u.

 3Ø Fault

ZG11 = .244
IG11

1p.u. ZG21 = .244

ZG31 = .244
N1 IF1 F1
ZG41 = .244

IG11 = 1 = 4.1 p.u.

.244
∴ IG1 = 4.1 p.u.
Thermal Stress

ΙG1 (E/F) = 10.56 p.u.

ΙG1 (3∅ ) = 4.1 p.u.

Thermal Stress α Ι 2

2
⎧10.56 ⎫
∴ E/F Stress = ⎨ ⎬ x 3∅ Stress
⎩ 4.1 ⎭

= 6.55 x 3∅ Stress
 Methods of Neutral Earthing (1)
Aspect Solid Resistance Resistance & High value Low value Tuned Insulated
reactance reactor reactor reactor

Normal Suitable for Suitable for Suitable for phase Suitable for Suitable for If used for Suitable for line
insulation phase voltage phase voltage voltage line voltage for phase voltage operation with voltage for long
continuously continuously continuously long periods continuously one line earthed
for long periods
insulation must
be suitable for
line voltage

Over voltages:
(a) Initiated by Not excessive Not excessive Not excessive provi- Can be very high Not excessive Not excessive if Arcing ground
faults, ding all three phases e.g. neutral no mutual coup- can give very
switching, etc are made or broken inversion ling between zero high voltages
simultaneously & positive seq-
uence networks

(b) Travelling Negative In general, “ Full reflection at Full reflection at Full reflection at Full reflection
waves reflection negative neutral neutral neutral at neutral
reflection at
neutral

Protection:
(a) Automatic No difficulty No difficulty No difficulty, normal Extremely diffi- No difficulty By using special Extremely
segregation normal methods normal methods methods can be cult if more than normal methods technique can be difficult
of faulty zone can be used can be used used one zone can be used done satisfac-
involved torily

(b) Travelling Diverters rated In general, In general, diverters Diverters rated In general, Diverter rated Diverters rated
waves for phase volts diverters rated rated for line volts for line volts are diverters rated for for line volts are for line volts
are suitable for line voltage are essential essential line volts are essential are essential
are essential essential
 Methods of Neutral Earthing (2)
Aspect Solid Resistance Resistance & High value Low value Tuned Insulated
reactance reactor reactor reactor

Earth-fault
Current
(a) Value Highest value High value High value Negligible High value Negligible Capacitive if
small may be
self exting-
uished

(b) Duration Few seconds Few seconds Few seconds Long time Few seconds Few seconds or In general long
continuous, time
depending on
method of
application

(c) Effect on Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electrostatic Electromagnetic If used for Electrostatic
communica- interference interference interference interference interference may running contin- interference
tion circuits may necessi- depending on depending on necessitate current uously with one
tate current degree of degree of limitation limitation line earthed
limitation limitation requires partic-
ular consideration

Harmonic No limitation Partial limitations Partial limitation of Limits all Appreciably limits Appreciably limits -
currents in of harmonic of harmonic harmonic currents harmonic all harmonic all harmonic
neutral currents currents currents currents currents

Time rating of 30 sec. 30 sec. 30 sec. Continuous 30 sec. 30 sec. or -

neutral apparatus continuous

General remarks Maximum In general use In general use where Confined mainly Cheaper than Best continuity Some applica-
disturbance to a source neutral is to protection of resistor at very of supply. Can tions on short
system not available generator on high voltages be a danger to feeders, in
generator trans- personnel general to be
former unit avoided