CE6073 Pec - WRE

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CE6703
WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
UNIT I WATER RESOURCES
Water resources survey – Water resources of India and Tamilnadu – Description of water
resources planning – Estimation of water requirements for irrigation and drinking- Single
and multipurpose reservoir – Multi objective - Fixation of Storage capacity -Strategies for
reservoir operation - Design flood-levees and flood walls.
INTRODUCTION
Primary categories of water

1. Saline – predominantly seawater
2. Freshwater.
Global Water Distribution:
PLACE OF NATURE OF PERCENTAGE

S.NO QUANTITY,km3
OCCURENCE WATER %
1 Oceans Saline 1,350,000,000 97.37%
2 Snow and ice Freshwater 27,500,000 1.98
3 Groundwater Freshwater 8,200,000 0.59
4 Atmosphere Freshwater 460,000 0.033
5 Lakes & rivers Freshwater 207,000 0.015
6 Soil moisture Freshwater 70,000 0.005
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The hydrologic cycle consists of four key components
1. Precipitation
2. Runoff
3. Storage
4. Evapo-transpiration
1. Precipitation
Precipitation occurs when atmospheric moisture becomes too great to remain suspended in clouds.
It denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere, the usual forms being
rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Once it reaches the earth’s surface, precipitation can become
surface water runoff, surface water storage, glacial ice, water for plants, groundwater, or may
evaporate and return immediately to the atmosphere. Ocean evaporation is the greatest source
(about 90%) of precipitation.
Rainfall is the predominant form of precipitation and its distribution over the world and within a
country.
India has a typical monsoon climate. At this time, the surface winds undergo a complete reversal
from January to July, and cause two types of monsoon.
In winter dry and cold air from land in the northern latitudes flows southwest (northeast monsoon),
while in summer warm and humid air originates over the ocean and flows in the opposite direction
(southwest monsoon), accounting for some 70 to 95 percent of the annual rainfall. The average
annual rainfall is estimated as 1170 mm over the country, but varies significantly from place to
place.
In the northwest desert of Rajasthan, the average annual rainfall is lower than 150 mm/year.
In the broad belt extending from Madhya Pradesh up to Tamil Nadu, through Maharastra, parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the average annual rainfall is generally lower than 500 mm/year.
At the other extreme, more than 10000 mm of rainfall occurs in some portion of the Khasi Hills in
the northeast of the country in a short period of four months.
In other parts of the northeast (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.,) west coast and in sub-
Himalayan West Bengal the average annual rainfall is about 2500 mm.
Except in the northwest of India, inter annual variability of rainfall in relatively low. The main
areas affected by severe droughts are Rajasthan, Gujarat (Kutch and Saurashtra).
The year can be divided into four seasons:
• The winter or northeast monsoon season from January to February.
• The hot season from March to May.
• The summer or south west monsoon from June to September.
• The post – monsoon season from October to December.
The monsoon winds advance over the country either from the Arabian Sea or from the Bay of
Bengal. In India, the south-west monsoon is the principal rainy season, which contributes over 75%
of the annual rainfall received over a major portion of the country.
2. Runoff
 Runoff is the water that flows across the land surface after a storm event. As rain falls over
land, part of that gets infiltrated the surface as overland flow. As the flow bears down, it
notches out rills and gullies which combine to form channels. These combine further to
form streams and rivers.
 The geographical area which contributes to the flow of a river is called a river or a
watershed. The following are the major river basins of our country
1. Indus 2. Ganges 3. Brahmaputra 4. Krishna 5. Godavari 6. Mahanandi 7. Sabarmati
8. Tapti 9. Brahmani-Baitarani 10. Narmada 11. Pennar 12. Mahi
3. Storage
 Portion of the precipitation falling on land surface which does not flow out as runoff gets
stored as either as surface water bodies like Lakes, Reservoirs and Wetlands or as sub-
surface water body, usually called Ground water.
 Ground water storage is the water infiltrating through the soil cover of a land surface and
traveling further to reach the huge body of water underground.
 The following definitions may be useful:
Lakes: Large, naturally occurring inland body of water
Reservoirs: Artificial or natural inland body of water used to store water to meet
various demands.
Wet Lands: Natural or artificial areas of shallow water or saturated soils that
contain or could support water–loving plants.

4. Evapotranspiration
 Evapotranspiration is actually the combination of two terms – evaporation and transpiration.
The first of these, that is, evaporation is the process of liquid converting into vapour,
through wind action and solar radiation and returning to the atmosphere.
 Evaporation is the cause of loss of water from open bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers,
the oceans and the land surface. It is interesting to note that ocean evaporation provides
approximately 90 percent of the earth’s precipitation.
 Transpiration is the process by which water molecules leaves the body of a living plant and
escapes to the atmosphere. The water is drawn up by the plant root system and part of that is
lost through the tissues of plant leaf (through the stomata).
 In areas of abundant rainfall, transpiration is fairly constant with variations occurring
primarily in the length of each plants growing season. However, transpiration in dry areas
varies greatly with the root depth.
 Evapotranspiration, therefore, includes all evaporation from water and land surfaces, as well
as transpiration from plants.
WATER RESOURCES SURVEY
The term water resources refer to the exploitable surface water and groundwater in a defined water
management unit (e.g. catchment basin).
All Water Resources projects have to be cost evaluated. This is an essential part of planning.
Since, generally, such projects would be funded by the respective State Governments, in which the
project would be coming up it would be helpful for the State planners to collect the desired amount
of money, like by issuing bonds to the public, taking loans from a bank, etc.
Since a project involves money, it is essential that the minimum amount is spent, under the given
constraints of project construction.
Hence, a few feasible alternatives for a project are usually worked out. For example, a project
involving a storage dam has to be located on a map of the river valley at more than one possible
location, if the terrain permits.
In this instance, the dam would generally be located at the narrowest part of the river valley to
reduce cost of dam construction, but also a couple of more alternatives would be selected since
there would be other features of a dam whose cost would dictate the total cost of the project.
For example, the foundation could be weak for the first alternative and consequently require costly
found treatment, raising thereby the total project cost.
At times, an economically lucrative project site may be causing submergence of a costly property,
say an industry, whose relocation cost would offset the benefit of the alternative.

On the other hand, the beneficial returns may also vary.

For example, the volume of water stored behind a dam for one alternative of layout may not be the
same as that behind another.
Hence, what is required is to evaluate the so-called Benefit-Cost Ratio defined as below:
The annual cost and benefits are worked out as under.
Annual Cost(C):
The investment for a project is done in the initial years during construction and then
on operation and maintenance during the project's lifetime. The initial cost may be met by
certain sources like borrowing, etc. but has to be repaid over a certain number of years,
usually with an interest, to the lender.
This is called the Annual Recovery Cost, which, together with the yearly
maintenance cost would give the total Annual Costs. It must be noted that there are many
non - tangible costs, which arise due to the effect of the project on the environment that has
to be quantified properly and included in the annual costs.
WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA AND TAMILNADU
The following are the major river basins of our country, and the corresponding figures, as obtained
from the web-site of the Ministry of Water Resources; Government of India is mentioned alongside
each.
1. Indus
2. Ganges
3. Brahmaputra
4. Krishna
5. Godavari
6. Mahanandi
7. Sabarmati
8. Tapi
9. Brahmani-Baitarani
10. Narmada
11. Pennar
12. Mahi
Surface water potential:
The average annual surface water flows in India has been estimated as 1869 cubic km.
This is the utilizable surface water potential in India.
But the amount of water that can be actually put to beneficial use is much less due to severe
limitations posed by Physiography, topography, inter-state issues and the present state of
technology to harness water resources economically.
The recent estimates made by the Central Water Commission, indicate that the water
resources is utilizable through construction of structures is about 690 cubic km (about 36%
of the total).
One reason for this vast difference is that not only does the whole rainfall occur in about
four months a year but the spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall is too uneven due to
which the annual average has very little significance for all practical purposes
Monsoon rain is the main source of fresh water with 76% of the rainfall occurring between
June and September under the influence of the southwest monsoon.
The average annual precipitation in volumetric terms is 4000 cubic km.

The average annual surface flow out of this is 1869 cubic km, the rest being lost in
infiltration and evaporation.
Ground water potential:
The potential of dynamic or rechargeable ground water resources of our country has been
estimated by the Central Ground Water Board to be about 432 cubic km.
Ground water recharge is principally governed by the intensity of rainfall as also the soil and
aquifer conditions.
This is a dynamic resource and is replenished every year from natural precipitation, seepage
from surface water bodies and conveyance systems return flow from irrigation water, etc.
The highlighted terms are defined or explained as under:
Utilizable surface water potential:
This is the amount of water that can be purpose fully used, without any wastage to the sea,
if water storage and conveyance structures like dams, barrages, canals, etc. are suitably built
at requisite sites.
Central Water Commission:
Central Water Commission is an attached office of Ministry of Water Resources with Head
Quarters at New Delhi. It is a premier technical organization in the country in the field of
water resources since 1945.
The commission is charged with the general responsibility of initiating, coordinating and
furthering, in consultation with the State Governments concerned, schemes for control,
conservation and utilization of water resources throughout the country, for purpose of flood
control, irrigation, navigation, drinking water supply and water power development.
Central Ground Water Board:
It is responsible for carrying out nation-wide surveys and assessment of groundwater
resources and guiding the states appropriately in scientific and technical matters relating to
groundwater.
The Central Ground Water Board has generated valuable scientific and technical data
through regional hydro geological surveys, groundwater exploration, resource and water
quality monitoring and research and development.
It assists the States in developing broad policy guidelines for development and management
of groundwater resources including their conservation, augmentation and protection from
pollution, regulation of extraction and conjunctive use of surface water and ground water
resources.
The Central Ground Water Board organizes Mass Awareness Programmes to create
awareness on various aspects of groundwater investigation, exploration, development and
management.
Ground water recharge:
Some of the water that precipitates, flows on ground surface or seeps through soil first, then
flows laterally and some continues to percolate deeper into the soil.
This body of water will eventually reach a saturated zone and replenish or recharge
groundwater supply.
In other words, the recuperation of groundwater is called the groundwater recharge which is
done to increase the groundwater table elevation.

This can be done by many artificial techniques, say, by constructing a detention dam called
a water spreading dam or a dike, to store the flood waters and allow for subsequent seepage
of water into the soil, so as to increase the groundwater table.
It can also be done by the method of rainwater harvesting in small scale, even at individual
houses.
The all India figure for groundwater recharge volume is 418.5 cubic km and the per capita
annual volume of groundwater recharge is 412.9 cubic m per person.
DESCRIPTION OF WATER RESOURCES PLANNING
WATER RESOURCES PLANNING
Water resources development and management will have to be planned for a hydrological
unit such as a drainage basin as a whole or a sub-basin. Apart from traditional methods, non-
conventional methods for utilization of water should be considered, like
Inter-basin transfer
Artificial recharge of ground water
Desalination of brackish sea water
Roof-top rain water harvesting
Inter-basin transfer:
Basically, it's the movement of surface water from one river basin into another. The
actual transfer is the amount of water not returned to its source basin. The most typical situation
occurs when a water system has an intake and wastewater discharge in different basins. But
other situations also cause transfers. One is where a system's service area covers more than one
basin. Any water used up or consumed in a portion of the service area outside of the source
basin would be considered part of a transfer (e.g. watering your yard). Transfers can also occur
between interconnected systems, where a system in one basin purchases water from a system in
another basin.
Artificial recharge of ground water:

Artificial recharge provides ground water users an opportunity to increase the
amount of water available during periods of high demand--typically summer months. Past
interest in artificial recharge has focused on aquifers that have declined because of heavy
use and from which existing users have been unable to obtain sufficient water to satisfy
their needs
Desalination of brackish sea water:
Water seems to be a superabundant natural resource on the planet earth. However,
only 0.3 per cent of the world's total amount of water can be used as clean drinking water.
Man requires huge amounts of drinking water every day and extracts it from nature for
innumerable purposes. As natural fresh water resources are limited, sea water plays an
important part as a source for drinking water as well. In order to use this water, it has to be
desalinated. Reverse osmosis and electro dialysis is the preferred methods for desalination
of brackish sea water.
Roof-top rain water harvesting:
In urban areas, the roof top rain water can be conserved and used for recharge of ground
water. This approach requires connecting the outlets pipe from roof top to divert the water to either
existing well/tube wells/bore wells or specially designed wells/ structures. The Urban housing
complexes or institutional buildings have large roof area and can be utilized for harvesting the roof
top rain water to recharge aquifer in urban areas.
One important concept useful in water resources planning is Conjunctive or combined use of both
surface and ground water for a region has to be planned for sustainable development incorporating
quantity and quality aspects as well as environmental considerations. Since there would be many
factors influencing the decision of projects involving conjunctive use of surface and ground water,
keeping in mind the underlying constraints, the entire system dynamics should be studied to as
detail as practically possible.
The uncertainties of rainfall, the primary source of water, and its variability in space and time has
to be borne in mind while deciding upon the planning alternatives.
ESTIMATION OF WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR IRRIGATION AND DRINKING
Irrigation Water Requirements

Introduction
Irrigated agriculture is facing new challenges that require refined management and
innovative design.
Formerly, emphasis centered on project design; however, current issues involve limited
water supplies with several competing users, the threat of water quality degradation through
excess irrigation, and narrow economic margins.
Meeting these challenges requires improved prediction of irrigation water requirements.
Irrigation water requirements can be defined as the quantity, or depth, of irrigation water in
addition to precipitation required to produce the desired crop yield and quality and to
maintain an acceptable salt balance in the root zone.
This quantity of water must be determined for such uses as irrigation scheduling for a
specific field and seasonal water needs for planning, management, and development of
irrigation projects.
The amount and timing of precipitation strongly influence irrigation water requirements. In
arid areas, annual precipitation is generally less than 10 inches and irrigation is necessary to
successfully grow farm crops.
In semiarid areas (those typically receiving between 15 to 20 inches of annual
precipitation), crops can be grown without irrigation, but are subject to droughts that reduce
crop yields and can result in crop failure in extreme drought conditions.
Sub-humid areas, which receive from 20 to 30 inches of annual precipitation, are typically
characterized by short, dry periods.
Depending on the available water storage capacity of soils and the crop rooting depth,
irrigation may be needed for short periods during the growing season in these areas.
In humid areas, those receiving more than 30 inches of annual precipitation, the amount of
precipitation normally exceed evapotranspiration throughout most of the year.

However, drought periods sometimes occur, which reduce yield and impair quality,
especially for crops grown on shallow, sandy soils or that have a shallow root system.
Irrigation is not needed to produce a crop in most years, but may be needed to protect
against an occasional crop failure and to maintain product quality.
Irrigation requirements
The primary objective of irrigation is to provide plants with sufficient water to obtain
optimum yields and a high quality harvested product.
The required timing and amount of applied water is determined by the prevailing climatic
conditions, the crop and its stage of growth, soil properties (such as water holding capacity),
and the extent of root development.
Water within the crop root zone is the source of water for crop evapotranspiration.
Thus, it is important to consider the field water balance to determine the irrigation water
requirements.
Plant roots require moisture and oxygen to live.
Where either is out of balance, root functions are slowed and crop growth reduced.
All crops have critical growth periods when even small moisture stress can significantly
impact crop yields and quality.
Critical water needs periods vary crop by crop.
Soil moisture during the critical water periods should be maintained at sufficient levels to
ensure the plant does not stress from lack of water.
The calculation of irrigation water requirements

Delineation of major irrigation cropping pattern zones.
These zones are considered homogeneous in terms of types of irrigated crops grown, crop
calendar, cropping intensity and gross irrigation efficiency.
Represented on the map of Africa, they should be viewed as regions where some
homogeneity can be found in terms of irrigated crops.
The cropping pattern proposed for the zone should be viewed as representative of an
'average' rather than a 'typical' irrigation scheme.
Definition of the area of influence of the climate stations (in GIS) and quality check on the
climate data.
Combination of the irrigation cropping pattern zones with the climate stations' zones (in
GIS) to obtain basic mapping units.
Calculation of net and gross irrigation water requirements for different scenarios.
Comparison with existing data and final adjustment.
Delineation of irrigation cropping pattern zones
The criteria used for the delineation of the irrigation cropping pattern zones were, in order
of decreasing importance: distribution of irrigated crops, average rainfall trends and
patterns, topographic gradients, presence of large river valleys (Nile, Niger, Senegal),
presence of extensive wetlands (the Sudd in Sudan), population pressure, technological
differences and crop calendar above and below the equator (Zaire).
The starting point was the type of irrigated crops currently grown in Africa.
This resulted in 18 zones.

From these zones, sub-zones showing a different cropping intensity or a different crop
calendar were defied.
This resulted in a total of 24 irrigation pattern zones which are considered to be
homogeneous for:
• crops currently grown;

• crop calendar;
• Cropping intensity.
Only the main crops currently grown, those occupying at least 85% of the irrigated area,
were considered.
Land occupation of the remaining 15 % by secondary crops was assigned to the main crops.
An 'average' typical monthly crop calendar was assigned to each zone, based on work done
by FAO's global information and early warning system, and on information from the
reference library of FAO's agro-meteorology group, AQUASTAT and, for eastern Africa,
from the IGADD crop production system zones inventory.
For each crop the actual cropping intensity was derived from national crop production and
land use figures extracted from the FAO AGROSTAT [6] and AQUASTAT [21a]
databases.
It ranges from 100 to 200%, according to the crop calendar.
The cropping intensity to be used in this study of irrigation potential ('potential' scenario)
was generally estimated by increasing current values by 10 to 20%, but it was assumed that
because of market limitations the current high intensity (in relative terms) of vegetables in
certain parts of the continent would not be found in the potential scenario.
Therefore, intensities of cereal crops are higher in the potential scenario than in the actual
situation.
RESERVOIR
INTRODUCTION

In the process of illustrating the primary functions of a reservoir engineer, namely, the
estimation of hydrocarbons in place, the calculation of a recovery factor and the attachment of a
time scale to the recovery; this chapter introduces many of the fundamental concepts in
reservoir engineering.

The description of the calculation of oil in place concentrates largely on the determination of
fluid pressure regimes and the problem of locating fluid contacts in the reservoir.

Primary recovery is described in general terms by considering the significance of the isothermal
compressibility of the reservoir fluids; while the determination of the recovery factor and
attachment of a time scale are illustrated by describing volumetric gas reservoir engineering.

The chapter finishes with a brief quantitative account of the phase behavior of multi-component
hydrocarbon systems.
Operation of system of reservoirs

It is not very uncommon to find a group or „system‟ of reservoirs either in a single river or in a
river and its tributaries. Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

In case of system of reservoirs, it is necessary to adopt a strategy for integrated operated of
reservoirs to achieve optimum utilization of the water resources available and to benefit the
best out of the reservoir system.

In the preparation of regulation plans for an integrated operation of system of reservoirs,
principles applicable to separate units are first applied to the individual reservoirs.

Modifications of schedule so developed should then be considered by working out several
alternative plans. In these studies optimization and simulation techniques
Types Of Reservoirs:
 Auxiliary or Compensatory Reservoir: A reservoir which supplements and absorbed the spill
of a main reservoir.
 Balancing Reservoirs: A reservoir downstream of the main reservoir for holding water let
down from the main reservoir in excess of that required for irrigation, power generation or
other purposes.
 Conservation Reservoir: A reservoir impounding water for useful purposes, such as
irrigation, power generation, recreation, domestic, industrial and municipal supply etc.
 Detention Reservoir: A reservoir where in water is stored for a relatively brief period of time,
past of it being retained until the stream can safely carry the ordinary flow plus the released
water. Such reservoirs usually have outlets without control gates and are used for flood
regulation. These reservoirs are also called as the Flood Control Reservoir or Retarding
Reservoir.
 Distribution Reservoir: A reservoir connected with distribution system a water supply
project, used primarily to care for fluctuations in demand which occur over short periods
and as local storage in case of emergency such as a break in a main supply line failure of a
pumping plant.
 Impounding or Storage Reservoir: A reservoir with gate-controlled outlets wherein surface
water may be retained for a considerable period of time and released for use at a time when
the normal flow of the stream is in sufficient to satisfy requirements.
Single Purpose Reservoirs
The common principles of single purpose reservoir operation are given below:
A) FLOOD CONTROL- Operation of flood control reservoirs is primarily governed by the

available flood storage capacity of damage centers to be protected, flood characteristics, ability and
accuracy of flood/ storm forecast and size of the uncontrolled drainage area. A regulation plan to
cover all the complicated situations may be difficult to evolve, but generally it should be possible
according to one of the following principles:
1) Effective use of available flood control storage: Operation under this principle aims at reducing
flood damages of the locations to be protected to the maximum extent possible, by effective use of
flood event. Since the release under this plan would obviously be lower than those required for
controlling the reservoir design flood, there is distinct possibility of having a portion of the flood
control space occupied during the occurrence of a subsequent heavy flood. In order to reduce this
element of risk, maintenance of an adequate network of flood forecasting stations both in the
upstream and downstream areas would be absolutely necessary.

2) Control of reservoir design flood: According to this principle, releases from flood control
reservoirs operated on this concept are made on the same hypothesis as adopted for controlling the
reservoir design flood that is the full storage capacity would be utilized only when the flood
develops into the reservoir design flood. However, as the design flood is usually an extreme event,
regulation of minor and major floods, which occur more often, is less satisfactory when
3) this method is applied.
4) Combination of principle (1) and (2): In this method, a combination of the principles (1) and (2)
is followed. The principle (1) is followed for the lower portion of the flood reserve to achieve the
maximum benefits by controlling the earlier part of the flood.
Thereafter releases are made as scheduled for the reservoir design flood as in principle (2). In
most cases this plan will result in the best overall regulation, as it combines the good points of
both the methods.
4) Flood control in emergencies: It is advisable to prepare an emergency release schedule that uses
information on reservoir data immediately available to the operator. Such schedule should be
available with the operator to enable him to comply with necessary precautions under extreme
flood conditions.
B) CONSERVATION:
Reservoirs meant for augmentation of supplies during lean period should usually be operated to fill
as early as possible during filling period, while meeting the requirements. All water in excess of the
requirements of the filling period shall be impounded. No spilling of water over the spillway will
normally be permitted until the FRL is reached. Should any flood occur when the reservoir is at or
near the FRL, release of flood waters should be affected, so as not to exceed the discharge that
would have occurred had there been no reservoir. In case the year happens to be dry, the draft for
filling period should be curtailed by applying suitable factors. The depletion period should begin
thereafter. However, in case the reservoir is planned with carry-over capacity, it is necessary to
ensure that the regulation will provide the required carry-over capacity at the end of the depletion
period.
MULTIPURPOSE RESERVOIRS:
The general principles of operation of reservoirs with these multiple storage spaces are
described below:
1. Separate allocation of capacities- When separate allocations of capacity have been made for each
of the conservational uses, in addition to that required for flood control, operation for each of the
function shall follow the principles of respective functions. The storage available for flood control
could, however be utilized for generation of secondary power to the extent possible. Allocation of
specific storage space to several purposes with the conservation zone may sometimes be impossible
or very costly to provide water for the various purposes in the quantities needed and at the time
they are needed.
2. Joint use of storage space- In multi-purpose reservoir where joint use of some of the storage
space or storage water has been envisaged, operation becomes complicated due to competing and
conflicting demands. While flood control requires low reservoir level, conservation interests
require as high a level as is attainable. Thus, the objectives of these functions are not compatible
and a compromise will have to be effected in flood control operations by sacrificing the
requirements of these functions.
In some cases parts of the conservational storage space is utilized for flood moderation, during the
earlier stages of the monsoon. This space has to be filled up for conservation purpose towards the
end of monsoon progressively, as it might not be possible to fill up this space during the post-
monsoon periods, when the flows are insufficient even to meet the current requirements. This will
naturally involve some sacrifice of the flood control interests towards the end of the monsoon
Multipurpose reservoirs
Water supply
Flood control
Soil erosion
Environmental management
Hydroelectric power generation
Navigation
Recreation
For example, managers responsible for hydroelectric power generation often want to keep lake
levels as high as possible, since the water stored in the reservoir serves as a kind of "fuel" for their
generators.
However, managers responsible for flood control often want to keep lake levels as
low as possible to provide the maximum amount of storage capacity for rainwater
runoff.
Water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations,
community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.
Irrigation is covered separately.
Flood control
Floods are caused by many factors: heavy rainfall, highly accelerated snowmelt, severe
winds over water, unusual high tides, tsunamis, or failure of dams, levees, retention
ponds, or other structures that retained the water.
Flooding can be exacerbated by increased amounts of impervious surface or by other
natural hazards such as wildfires, which reduce the supply of vegetation that can absorb
rainfall.
Periodic floods occur on many rivers, forming a surrounding region known as the flood
plain.
During times of rain, some of the water is retained in ponds or soil, some is absorbed by
grass and vegetation, some evaporates, and the rest travels over the land as surface
runoff.

Floods occur when ponds, lakes, riverbeds, soil, and vegetation cannot absorb all the
water. Water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried within stream
channels or retained in natural ponds, lakes, and man-made reservoirs.
About 30 percent of all precipitation becomes runoff and that amount might be
increased by water from melting snow.
River flooding is often caused by heavy rain, sometimes increased by melting snow.
A flood that rises rapidly, with little or no advance warning, is called a flash flood.
Flash usually result from intense rainfall over a relatively small area, or if the area was
already saturated from previous precipitation.
Soil erosion
In geomorphology and geology, erosion refers to the actions of exogamic processes
(such as water flow or wind) which remove soil and rock from one location on the
Earth's crust, then transport it to another location where it is deposited.
Eroded sediment may be transported just a few millimeters, or for thousands of
kilometers.
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the
rate at which erosion is occurring globally.
Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both 'on-site' and 'off-site' problems.
On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural and (on naturallandscapes) ecological
collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the
eventual end result is desertification.
Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies,
as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses.
Water and wind erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation; combined,
they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded, making excessive
erosion one of the most significant environmental problems world-wide.
Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban
sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on
stimulating erosion.
However, there are many remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of
vulnerable soils.
Environmental resource management
Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact

of human societies on the environment.
It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself.
Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are
protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem
integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.
Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that
rise between meeting needs and protecting resources.
It is thus linked to protection and sustainability.
Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the
production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or
flowing water.
It is the most widely used form of renewable, accounting for 16 percent of global
electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010, and is
expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32
percent of global hydropower in 2010.
China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in
2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.
There are now four hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam
and Xiluodu Dam in China, Itapúa Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guru
Dam in Venezuela.
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of
renewable electricity.
The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5
U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. It is also a flexible source of electricity since the amount
produced by the plant can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing
energy demands.
However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and
building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.
Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and
has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2)
Navigation
Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling
the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.
The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation, marine
navigation, aeronautic navigation, and space navigation.
It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to
perform navigation tasks.
All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's position compared to

known locations or patterns.
Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the
determination of position and direction.
In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian navigation.
For information about different navigation strategies that people use, visit human
navigation.
Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil.

It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes,
and re-vegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall.
Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include
protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing
soil consolidation.

In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry
land farming.
Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining.
Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial
removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.
Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5000 years, and was the basis
of the economy and society of numerous societies, ranging from Asia to Arizona.
Channel improvement.
o At the diversion structure, a headwork regulates the flow into a canal.
o This canal, which takes its supplies directly from the river, is called the main canal
and usually direct irrigation from the waters of this canal is not carried out.
o This acts as a feeder channel to the branch canals, or branches.
o Branch canals generally carry a discharge higher than 5 m3 /s and acts as feeder
channel for major distributaries which, in turn carry 0.25 to 5 m3 /s of discharge.
The major distributaries either feed the water courses or the minor distributaries, which
generally carry discharge less than 0.25 m3 /s. Though irrigation canals may be
constructed in natural or compacted earth, these suffer from certain disadvantages, like
the following
• Maximum velocity limited to prevent erosion
• Seepage of water into the ground
• Possibility of vegetation growth in banks, leading to increased friction
• Possibility of bank failure, either due to erosion or activities of burrowing
animals.
All these reasons lead to adoption of lining of canals, though the cost may be
prohibitive.
Hence, before suggesting a possible lining for a canal, it is necessary to evaluate the
cost vis-à-vis the savings due to reduction in water loss through seepage.
Apart from avoiding all the disadvantages of an unlined canal, a lined canal also has the
advantage of giving low resistance and thus reducing the frictional loss and maintaining
the energy and water surface slopes for the canal as less as possible. This is
advantageous as it means that the canal slope may also be smaller, to maintain the same
discharge than for a canal with higher friction loss. A smaller canal slope means a larger
command area.
RESERVOIR STORAGE ZONE AND USES OF RESERVOIR

The storage capacity in a reservoir is nationally divided into three or four parts distinguished by
corresponding levels.
Full Reservoir Level (FRL): It is the level corresponding to the storage which includes both
inactive and active storages and also the flood storage, if provided for. In fact, this is the highest
reservoir level that can be maintained without spillway discharge or without passing water
downstream through sluice ways.
Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level below which the reservoir will not be drawn
down so as to maintain a minimum head required in power projects.
Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below the level, there are no outlets to drain the water in the reservoir
by gravity.
Maximum Water Level (MWL): This id the water level that is ever likely to be attained during the
passage of the design flood. It depends upon the specified initial reservoir level and the spillway
gate operation rule. This level is also called sometimes as the Highest Reservoir Level or the
Highest Flood Level.
Live storage: This is the storage available for the intended purpose between Full Supply Level and
the Invert Level of the lowest discharge outlet. The Full Supply Level is normally that level above
which over spill to waste would take place. The minimum operating level must be sufficiently
above the lowest discharge outlet to avoid vortex formation and air entrainment. This may also be
termed as the volume of water actually available at any time between the Dead Storage Level and
the lower of the actual water level and Full Reservoir Level.
Dead storage: It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge outlet from the
reservoir. It may be available to contain sedimentation, provided the sediment does not adversely
affect the lowest discharge.
Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: This is required as a reserve between Full Reservoir Level and
the Maximum Water level to contain the peaks of floods that might occur when there is insufficient
storage capacity for them below Full Reservoir Level.
Some other terms related to reservoirs are defined as follows:
Buffer Storage: This is the space located just above the Dead Storage Level up to Minimum
Drawdown Level. As the name implies, this zone is a buffer between the active and dead storage
zones and releases from this zone are made in dry situations to cater for essential requirements
only. Dead Storage and Buffer Storage together is called Interactive Storage.
Within-the-Year Storage: This term is used to denote the storage of a reservoir meant for meeting
the demands of a specific hydrologic year used for planning the project.
Carry-Over Storage: When the entire water stored in a reservoir is not used up in a year, the
unused water is stored as carry-over storage for use in subsequent years.
Silt / Sedimentation zones: The space occupied by the sediment in the reservoir can be divided into
separate zones. A schematic diagram showing these zones is illustrated in Figure 2 (as defined in
IS: 5477).

Freeboard: It is the margin kept for safety between the level at which the dam would be
overtopped and the maximum still water level.
Sedimentation of reservoirs
It is important to note that storage reservoirs built across rivers and streams loose their
capacity on account of deposition of sediment.
This deposition which takes place progressively in time reduces the active capacity of
the reservoir to provide the outputs of water through passage of time.
In this regard, the Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 12182 - 1987 “Guidelines for
determination of effects of sedimentation in planning and performance of reservoir” is
an important document which discusses some of the aspects of sedimentation that have
to be considered while planning reservoirs.
While planning a reservoir, the degree of seriousness and the effect of sedimentation at
the proposed location has to be judged from studies, which normally combination
consists of:
1. Performance Assessment (Simulation) Studies with varying rate of sedimentation.
2. Likely effects of sedimentation at dam face.
In special cases, where the effects of sedimentation on backwater levels are likely to be
significant, backwater studies would be useful to understand the size of river water levels.
Similarly, special studies to bring out delta formation region changes may be of interest.
The steps to be followed for performance assessment studies with varying rates of
sedimentation are as follows:
- Estimation of annual sediment yields into the reservoir or the average annual
sediment yield and of trap efficiency expected.
- Distribution of sediment within reservoir to obtain a sediment elevation and
capacity curve at any appropriate time.
- Simulation studies with varying rates of sedimentation.
- Assessment of effect of sedimentation.
In general, the performance assessment of reservoir projects has to be done for varying
hydrologic inputs to meet varying demands.
Although analytical probability based methods are available to some extent, simulation of
the reservoir system is the standard method.
The method is also known as the working tables or sequential routing. In this method, the
water balance of the reservoir s and of other specific locations of water use and constraints
in the systems are considered.
All inflows to and outflows from the reservoirs are worked out to decide the changed
storage during the period.
In simulation studies, the inflows to be used may be either historical inflow series, adjusted
for future up stream water use changes or an adjusted synthetically generated series.
Control of sedimentation in reservoirs
Sedimentation of a reservoir is a natural phenomenon and is a matter of vital concern for
storage projects in meeting various demands, like irrigation, hydroelectric power, flood
control, etc.
Since it affects the useful capacity of the reservoir based on which projects are expected to
be productive for a design period.
Further, the deposited sediment adds to the forces on structures in dams, spillways, etc.
The rate of sedimentation will depend largely on the annual sediment load carried by the
stream and the extent to which the same will be retained in the reservoir.
This, in turn, depends upon a number of factors such as the area and nature of the
catchment, level use pattern (cultivation practices, grazing, logging, construction activities
and conservation practices), rainfall pattern, storage capacity, period of storage in relation to
the sediment load of the stream, particle size distribution in the suspended sediment,
channel hydraulics, location and size of sluices, outlet works, configuration of the reservoir,
and the method and purpose of releases through the dam.
Therefore, attention is required to each one of these factors for the efficient control of
sedimentation of reservoirs with a view to enhancing their useful life and some of these
methods are discussed in the Bureau of Indian Standard code IS: 6518-1992 “Code of
practice for control of sediment in reservoirs”.
There are different techniques of controlling sedimentation in reservoirs which may broadly be
classified as follows:
• Adequate design of reservoir
• Control of sediment inflow
• Control of sediment deposition
• Removal of deposited sediment.
Strategies for reservoir operation
The flow in the river changes seasonally and from year to year, due to temporal and spatial
variation in precipitation.
Thus, the water available abundantly during monsoon season becomes scarce during the non-
monsoon season, when it is most needed.
The traditional method followed commonly for meeting the needs of water during the
scarce period is construction of storage reservoir on the river course.
The excess water during the monsoon season is stored in such reservoirs for eventual use in
lean period.
Construction of storages will also help in control of flood, as well as generation of
electricity power.

To meet the objective set forth in planning a reservoir or a group of reservoirs and to
achieve maximum benefits out of the storage created, it is imperative to evolve guidelines
for operation of reservoirs.
Without proper regulation schedules, the reservoir may not meet the full objective for which
it was planned and may also pose danger to the structure itself.
Control of flood is better achieved if the reservoir level is kept low in the early stages of the
monsoon season.
However, at a later stage, if the anticipated inflows do not result the reservoir may not get
filled up to FRL in the early stages of monsoon, to avoid the risk of reservoir remaining
unfilled at later stage, there may be problem of accommodating high floods occurring at
later stage.
In some cases while planning reservoirs, social and other considerations occasionally result
in adoption of a plan that may not be economically the best.
Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in a
specified period of time.
Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied from a
reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year.
Secondaryyield is the quantity of water which is available during the period of
high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield.
Averageyield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the secondary
yield over a long period of time.
Designyield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design yield is
usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of
risk involved.
Reservoir Capacity depends upon the inflow available and demand.
 If the inflow in the river is always greater than the demand, there is no
storage required
 If the inflow in the river is small but the demand is high, a large reservoir
capacity is required
The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following methods:
1. Graphical method, using mass curves.
2. Analytical method
Determination of reservoir capacity for a specified yield or demand using
mass curve
1. Prepare a mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the site for a number of
consecutive years including the most critical years (or the driest years) when the
discharge is low.
2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding toDownloaded
the given rate of demand. If the
From : www.EasyEngineering.net
rate of demand is constant, the mass demand curve is a straight line. The scale of
the mass demand curve should be the same as that of the mass inflow curve.
3. Draw the lines AB, FG, etc. such that
(i) They are parallel to the mass demand curve, and
(ii) They are tangential to the crests A, F, etc. of the mass curve.
4. Determine the vertical intercepts CD. HJ, etc. between the tangential lines and the
mass inflow curve. These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow
volumes fall short of demand.
Assuming that the reservoir is full at point A, the inflow volume during the
period AE is equal to ordinate DE and the demand is equal to ordinate CE. Thus
the storage required is equal to the volume indicated by the intercept CD.
5. Determine the largest of the vertical intercepts found in Step (4). The largest
vertical intercept represents the storage capacity required.
The following points should be noted.
(i) The capacity obtained in the net storage capacity which must be
available to meet the demand. The gross capacity of the reservoir will
be more than the net storage capacity. It is obtained by adding the
evaporation and seepage losses to the net storage capacity.
(ii) The tangential lines AB, FG; etc. when extended forward must
intersect the curve. This is necessary for the reservoir to become full
again, If these lines do not intersect the mass curve, the reservoir will

not be filled again. However, very large reservoirs sometimes do not

get refilled every year. In that case, they may become full after 2-3
years.
(iii) The vertical distance such as FL between the successive tangents
represents the volume of water spilled over the spillway of the dam.
Analytical Method
In the analytical method, capacity of the reservoir is determined from
the net inflow and demand.Storage is required when the demand exceeds the
net inflow. The total storage required is equal to the sum of the storage
required during the various periods.
1. Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site during the critical
dry period. Generally, the monthly inflow rates are required. However, for
very large reservoirs, the annual inflow rates may be used.
2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water

rights or to honour the agreement between the states or the cities.
3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir

during the month.
4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the

reservoir. The panevaporation data are normally used for the estimation of
evaporation losses during the month.
5. Ascertain the demand during various months.
6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:
Adjusted inflow = Stream inflow + Precipitation - Evaporation

– Downstream Discharge
7. Compute the storage capacity for each months.
Storage required = Adjusted inflow – Demand
8. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the

storages required found in Step 7.

Determination of YieldDownloaded
from a Reservoir
The yield from a reservoir of a given capacity can be determined by the

use of the mass inflow curve
1. Prepare the mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the river.
2. Draw tangents AB, FG, etc. at the crests A, F, etc. of the mass inflow
curve in such a way that the maximum departure (intercept) of these
tangents from the mass inflow curve is equal to the given reservoir
capacity.
3. Measure the slopes of all the tangents drawn in Step 2.
4. Determine the slope of the flattest tangent.
5. Draw the mass demand curve from the slope of the flattest tangent (see
insect). The yield is equal to the slope of this line.
LEVEES AND FLOODWALL

Levees and floodwalls are barriers that hold back floodwaters
A levee is constructed of compacted soil and requires more land area.
Floodwalls are built of manmade materials, such as concrete and masonry.
These structures may completely surround the building or may tie into high ground at
each end. If openings are left for the driveway and/or sidewalk, closures must be installed
to seal these access points prior to a flood.

Applicability
Because levees and floodwalls are located away from the structure or area to be protected, they
provide flood protection without altering the building.
Flood hazard:
o Although levees and floodwalls can be built to any height, they are usually limited
to four feet for floodwalls and six feet for levees (due to cost, aesthetics, access,
water pressure, and space).
o The structure should be built at least one foot higher than the anticipated flood
depth (freeboard protection).
o No matter how high the barrier is, it can always be overtopped by a larger flood,
which would cause as much damage as if no protection were provided (or more).
In areas with high velocity flow, erosion protection may be necessary to protect
an earthen levee or prevent undermining of a floodwall.
o Flash flooding precludes the use of closures that require human intervention to
install. If flooding lasts more than 3 to 4 days, seepage is more likely to pose
problems.
Site requirements:
A levee or floodwall is not feasible if it would impede flow or block natural drainage in a
manner that results in damage to surrounding property.
Considerable horizontal space is required for levees; floodwalls are generally more
appropriate for small sites.
The underlying soil must support the levee or floodwall and resist seepage of water under
the structure.
Building characteristics:
A house with a basement can still experience flood damage even if a levee or floodwater
protects the structure from surface water.
Saturated soil can exert hydrostatic pressure on basement walls, causing them to crack,
buckle, or event collapse.
Access:
Access to the structure can be enabled
Downloaded by providing a means of crossing over a levee or
floodwall, such as a ramp or stairway.
If this is not feasible, it may be necessary to design openings at driveways, sidewalks, or
other entrances and a mechanism for closing all such openings.
Designs that do not require human intervention are preferable. If a closure requires
manual installation, the effectiveness of the flood protection system depends on the
availability of a capable person who is aware of the flood threat and has sufficient time to
install closures and make certain they are properly sealed.
Aesthetics:
The rounded outlines of an earthen levee can be shaped to blend into the natural
landscape.
Floodwalls can be designed as attractive features by incorporating them into the
landscape design and utilizing decorative bricks or blocks (although this will generally
increase the cost).
Regulations:
A levee or floodwall cannot be used to bring a substantially damaged or substantially improved
structure into compliance with current floodplain development standards.
Costs
Depending on the availability of suitable local soil, levees may be less expensive than
other flood proofing options.
However, if suitable fill material is not locally available, the expense of transporting
proper material to the site can be significant.
The cost of floodwalls is usually greater than that of levees.
Levees:
To be effective, a levee must be constructed with compacted, impervious soils.
The practice of piling stream sediment on the bank does not provide flood protection. The
embankment slopes must be gentle (usually a ratio of one vertical to two or three
horizontal) to provide adequate stability and minimize erosion.
The levee’s width will thus be several times its height.

Floodwalls:
Floodwalls are generally constructed of solid concrete (alone or in combination with
masonry).
They must be designed to withstand water pressure without overturning or displacement.
Closures:
o Mechanisms for closing access openings in a levee or floodwall include
automated systems (usually expensive) or manually operated flood gates, stop
logs, or panels. There are often hinges or sliding mechanisms for installation.
o If the closure is not permanently attached, it must be stored in a readily accessible
location.
o Any sewers or drain pipes passing through or under a floodwall or levee require
closure valves to prevent backup and flooding inside the building and protected
area.
Interior drainage:

o Rain, snow melt, and seepage
Downloaded From : water must be removed from the protected side of
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a levee or floodwall using drains (with flap valves to prevent backflow during a
flood) and a sump pump.
o An emergency power source for the electric sump pump enables operation
during a power outage.
Maintenance:
o Routine inspection enables identification and repair of problems while they are
still minor.
o Levees should be checked for signs of erosion, settlement, loss of vegetation,
animal burrows, and trees.
o Inspect floodwalls for cracking, spelling, or scour.
o Routine maintenance is needed to make sure that sump pumps, valves, drain
pipes, and closures operate properly.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Levees and Floodwalls

Advantages
Levees and floodwalls can protect a building and the surrounding area from inundation
without significant changes to the structure if the design flood level is not exceeded.
There is no pressure from floodwater to cause structural damage to the building.
These barriers are usually less expensive than elevating or relocating the structure.
Occupants do not have to leave the structure during construction.
Disadvantages
This technique cannot be used to bring a substantially damaged or improved structure

into compliance with floodplain development standards.
May violate floodplain development standards, particularly in floodway locations, by
causing obstructed flow or in increased flood heights.
Failure or overtopping of a levee or floodwall results in as much damage as if there was
no protection (or more).
May be expensive.
For buildings with basements, hydrostatic pressure from groundwater may still cause
damage.
Local drainage can be affected, possibly creating water problems for others.
Interior drainage must be provided.
Levees require considerable land area.
Require periodic maintenance.
No reduction in flood insurance premiums.
Do not eliminate the need to evacuate during floods.

UNIT II WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Economics of water resources planning; – National Water Policy – Consumptive and non-
consumptive water use - Water quality – Scope and aims of master plan - Concept of basin
as a unit for development - Water budget- Conjunctive use of surface and ground water.
ECONOMICS OF WATER RESOURCES PLANNING
 All Water Resources projects have to be cost evaluated. This is an essential part of
planning.
 Since, generally, such projects would be funded by the respective State Governments, in
which the project would be coming up it would be helpful for the State planners to collect
the desired amount of money, like by issuing bonds to the public, taking loans from a
bank, etc.
 Since a project involves money, it is essential that the minimum amount is spent, under
the given constraints of project construction.
 Hence, a few feasible alternatives for a project are usually worked out. For example, a
project involving a storage dam has to be located on a map of the river valley at more
than one possible location, if the terrain permits.
 In this instance, the dam would generally be located at the narrowest part of the river
valley to reduce cost of dam construction, but also a couple of more alternatives would be
selected since there would be other features of a dam whose cost would dictate the total
cost of the project.
 For example, the foundation could be weak for the first alternative and consequently
require costly found treatment, raising thereby the total project cost.
 At times, a economically lucrative project site may be causing submergence of a costly
property, say an industry, whose relocation cost would offset the benefit of the
alternative.
 On the other hand, the beneficial returns may also vary.
 For example, the volume of water stored behind a dam for one alternative of layout may
not be the same as that behind another.
National Water Policy
National Water Policy is formulated by the Ministry of Water Resources of the Government of
India to govern the planning and development of water resources and their optimum utilization.
The first National Water Policy was adopted in September, 1987. It was reviewed and updated
in 2002 and later in 2012.
India accounts for 15% of the world population and about 4% of the world’s water resources.
One of the solutions to solve the country’s water woes is to link the rivers.
India has been successful in creating live water storage capacity of about 253 billion cubic meter
(BCM) so far. In a first, the ecological needs of river have also been taken into consideration.

The major provisions under the policy are:
1. Envisages to establish a standardized national information system with a network of data

banks and data bases
2. Resource planning and recycling for providing maximum availability
3. To give importance to the impact of projects on human settlements and environment.
4. Guidelines for the safety of storage dams and other water-related structures
5. Regulate exploitation of groundwater
6. Setting water allocation priorities in the following order: Drinking water, Irrigation,
Hydropower, Navigation, Industrial and other uses.
7. The water rates for surface water and ground water should be rationalized with due
regard to the interests of small and marginal farmers.
The policy also deals with participation of farmers and voluntary agencies, water quality, water
zoning, conservation of water, flood and drought management, erosion etc.
National Water Policy 2012
The main emphasis of National Water Policy 2012 is to treat water as economic good which the
ministry claims to promote its conservation and efficient use. This provision intended for the
privatization of water-delivery services is being criticized from various quarters. The policy also
does away with the priorities for water allocation mentioned in 1987 and 2002 versions of the
policy. The policy was adopted with disapproval from many states.
The other major features are:-
 To ensure access to a minimum quantity of potable water for essential health and hygiene
to all citizens, available within easy reach of the household.
 To curtail subsidy to agricultural electricity users.
 Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority.
 To keep aside a portion of the river flow to meet the ecological needs and to ensure that
the low and high flow releases correspond in time closely to the natural flow regime.
 To give statutory powers to Water Users Associations to maintain the distribution system.
 Project benefited families to bear part of the cost of resettlement & rehabilitation of
project affected families.
 To remove the large disparity between stipulations for water supply in urban areas and in
rural areas.
 To support a National Water Framework Law.
New National Water Policy
 Ministry of Water Resources has evolved the Draft National Water Policy (2012) to meet
the present challenges in the water sector. The salient features of the Draft National
Water Policy (2012) are at Annexure I.
 State Governments have been actively involved while drafting the Policy. The National
Water Board comprising of Chief Secretaries of all the States and Secretaries of related
Union Ministries considered the draft National Water Policy (2012) at its Meeting held
on 7th June, 2012. Thereafter, the National Water Resources Council with Chief
Ministers of all States as members is to consider and adopt the draft National Water
Policy (2012) arrived at as per deliberations in the National Water Board.

 There is no proposal at present for a separate Interlinking River Policy. However, the
draft National Water Policy (2012) stipulates that inter basin transfers of water should be
considered on the basis of merits of each case after evaluating the environmental,
economic and social impacts of such transfers.
 The comparative details of National Water Policies of 1987, 2002 and draft National
Water Policy (2012), sector-wise, are at Annexure II.
 The Supreme Court in its order dated 27.02.2012 has directed the Union of India and
particularly the Ministry of Water Resources to forth with constitute a Committee to be
called ‘Special Committee for Inter-Linking of Rivers’. Accordingly, the Government is
constituting the High Power Committee for interlinking of rivers as per the direction of
the Supreme Court. The nomination from the States involved in the Inter-linking of rivers
have been called for.
 The draft National Water Policy (2012) is to be considered by the National Water
Resources Council (NWRC) for adoption. Thereafter, the National Water Policy would
be recommended to all States for implementation.
 This information was given by Union Water Resources Minister Shri Harish Rawat in
the Rajya Sabha today in reply to a written question.
SALIENT FEATURES OF REVISED DRAFT NATIONAL WATER POLICY

(2012)
1. Emphasis on the need for a national water framework law, comprehensive legislation
for optimum development of inter-State rivers and river valleys, amendment of Irrigation
Acts, Indian Easements Act, 1882, etc.
2. Water, after meeting the pre-emptive needs for safe drinking water and sanitation,
achieving food security, supporting poor people dependent on agriculture for their livelihood
and high priority allocation for minimum eco-system needs, be treated as economic good so
as to promote its conservation and efficient use.
3. Ecological needs of the river should be determined recognizing that river flows are
characterized by low or no flows, small floods (freshets), large floods and flow variability
and should accommodate development needs. A portion of river flows should be kept aside
to meet ecological needs ensuring that the proportional low and high flow releases
correspond in time closely to the natural flow regime.
4. Adaptation strategies in view of climate change for designing and management of
water resources structures and review of acceptability criteria has been emphasized.
5. A system to evolve benchmarks for water uses for different purposes, i.e., water
footprints, and water auditing be developed to ensure efficient use of water. Project
financing has been suggested as a tool to incentivize efficient & economic use of water.
6. Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority has been recommended. Incentivization of
recycle and re-use has been recommended.

7. Water Users Associations should be given statutory powers to collect and retain a
portion of water charges, manage the volumetric quantum of water allotted to them and
maintain the distribution system in their jurisdiction.
8. Removal of large disparity in stipulations for water supply in urban areas and in rural
areas has been recommended.
9. Water resources projects and services should be managed with community
participation. Wherever the State Governments or local governing bodies so decide, the
private sector can be encouraged to become a service provider in public private partnership
model to meet agreed terms of service delivery, including penalties for failure.
10. Adequate grants to the States to update technology, design practices, planning and
management practices, preparation of annual water balances and accounts for the site and
basin, preparation of hydrologic balances for water systems, and benchmarking and
performance evaluation.
Annexure II
COMPARASION OF PROVISIONS OF NATIONAL WATER POLICIES 1987, 2002

AND DRAFT NATIONAL WATER POLICY (2012)
National
Sector National Water Draft National Water
Sl. No. Water Policy
Description Policy (2002) Policy (2012)
(1987)
Perspective for Integrated perspective
Water National National considering local,
1.
Resources perspectives. perspectives. regional, State and
Planning national context
All water related data,
should be integrated
with well-defined
procedures and formats
Standardized Standardized
to ensure online
Information national national
2. updation and transfer
System information information
of data to facilitate
system system
development of
database for informed
decision making in the
management of water

National
(1987)
Integrated Water
Resources
Hydrological Hydrological Management taking
Water unit such as a unit such as a river basin / sub-basin
3. Resources drainage basin drainage basin as as a unit, should be the
Planning as a whole, or a whole, or a main principle for
a sub-basin sub-basin planning, development
and management of
water resources
There is a need for
Appropriate
Appropriate comprehensive
river basin
organisations legislation for optimum
organisations
should be development of inter-
should be
established for State rivers and river
established for
the planned valleys and to enable
Institutional the planned
4. development establishment of basin
Mechanism development and
and authorities with
management of a
management appropriate powers to
river basin as a
of a river plan, manage and
whole or sub-
basin as a regulate utilization of
basins, wherever
whole. water resource in the
necessary.
basins.
Safe drinking water
and sanitation defined
Drinking
as pre-emptive needs
water Drinking water
followed by high
accorded accorded highest
priority allocation for
highest priority followed
Water other domestic needs
priority by irrigation,
5. Allocation (including needs of
followed by hydro-power,
Priorities animals), achieving
irrigation, ecology,
food security,
hydro-power, navigation,
supporting sustenance
navigation, industries, etc.
agriculture and
industries, etc.
minimum eco-system
needs.

National
(1987)
All water resources
Water
projects, including
resource Water resource
hydro power projects,
development development
should be planned to
projects projects should
the extent feasible as
Project should as far as far as possible
6. multi-purpose projects
Planning as possible be be planned and
with provision of
planned and developed as
storage to derive
developed as multipurpose
maximum benefit from
multipurpose projects.
available topology and
projects.
water resources
No specific
mention A portion of river
Minimum flow
except flows should be kept
should be
providing for aside to meet
ensured in the
the ecological needs
perennial
Environmental preservation ensuring that the
7. streams for
Flow in Rivers of the quality proportional low and
maintaining
of high flow releases
ecology and
environment correspond in time
social
and the closely to the natural
considerations.
ecological flow regime.
balance.
Exploitation Declining ground
of ground water levels in over-
Exploitation of
water exploited areas need to
ground water
resources be arrested by
resources should
should be so introducing improved
be so regulated
Ground-water regulated as technologies of water
8. as not to exceed
development not to exceed use, incentivizing
the recharging
the recharging efficient water use and
possibilities, as
possibilities, encouraging
also to ensure
as also to community based
social equity.
ensure social management of
equity. aquifers.

National
(1987)
Adequate
drinking water Adequate safe Minimum quantity of
facilities drinking water potable water for
should be facilities should essential health and
Access to safe
provided to be provided to hygiene to all its
9. drinking
the entire the entire citizens, available
Water
population population both within easy reach of
both in urban in urban and in the household, must be
and in rural rural areas. ensured.
areas by 1991.
Water should
be made
available to Water should be Inter-basin transfers
water short made available are not merely for
areas by to water short increasing production
transfer from areas by transfer but also for meeting
other areas from other areas basic human need and
including including achieving equity and
transfers from transfers from social justice. Inter-
Inter-basin one river one river basin basin transfers of water
10.
transfer basin to to another, based should be considered
another, based on a national on the basis of merits
on a national perspective, after of each case after
perspective, taking into evaluating the
after taking account the environmental,
into account requirements of economic and social
the the areas / impacts of such
requirements basins. transfers.
of the
areas/basins.

National
(1987)
The “project” and the
“basin” water use
The efficiency efficiencies need to be
of utilisation improved through
in all the Efficiency of continuous water
diverse uses utilisation in all balance and water
of water the diverse uses accounting studies. An
should be of water should institutional
Water Use
11. improved and be optimised and arrangement for
Efficiency
an awareness an awareness of promotion, regulation
of water as a water as a scarce and evolving
scarce resource should mechanisms for
resource be fostered. efficient use of water at
should be basin/sub-basin level
fostered. will be established for
this purpose at the
national level.
Water charges
Water rates
should cover at
should be Water Regulatory
least the
adequate to Authority should be set
operation and
cover the up to fix water tariffs
maintenance
annual with provision of
12. Water Pricing charges of
maintenance differential pricing for
providing the
and operation the pre-emptive and
service initially
charges and a high priority uses of
and a part of the
part of the water.
capital costs
fixed costs.
subsequently.

National
(1987)
Water Users’
Associations and
the local bodies Community based
Efforts should should be water management
be made to involved in the should be
involve operation, institutionalized and
farmers maintenance and strengthened.
progressively management of
in various water Water Users
Participatory aspects of infrastructures / Associations should be
13. Water management facilities at given statutory powers
Management of irrigation appropriate to collect and retain a
systems, levels portion of water
particularly in progressively, charges, manage the
water with a view to volumetric quantum of
distribution eventually water allotted to them
and collection transfer the and maintain the
of water rates. management of distribution system in
such facilities to their jurisdiction
the user groups /
local bodies.
While every effort
should be made to
Emphasis on
Emphasis on avert water related
non-structural
non-structural disasters like floods
measures,
measures, such and droughts, through
such as flood
as flood structural and non-
forecasting
forecasting and structural measures,
and warning
Flood warning, flood emphasis should be on
14. and flood
management plain zoning and preparedness for flood
plain zoning,
flood proofing, / drought with coping
so as to reduce
so as to reduce mechanisms as an
the recurring
the recurring option. Greater
expenditure
expenditure on emphasis should be
on flood
flood relief. placed on rehabilitation
relief.
of natural drainage
system.

National
(1987)
Concerted
efforts, such
as command Concerted
area efforts should be
All components of
development, made to ensure
water resources
should be that the irrigation
projects should be
made to potential created
Gap between planned and executed
ensure that the is fully utilised.
Irrigation in a pari-passu manner
irrigation For this purpose,
15. Potential so that intended
potential the command
created and benefits start accruing
created is area
utilized immediately and there
fully utilised development
is no gap between
and the gap approach should
potential created and
between the be adopted in all
potential utilized.
potential irrigation
created and its projects.
utilisation is
removed.
Consumptive Use of Water
Definition:
It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area. It is the amount of water
required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration and building of plant tissues
plus evaporation from soils and intercepted precipitation. It is expressed in terms of depth of
water. Consumptive use varies with temperature, humidity, wind speed, topography, sunlight
hours, method of irrigation, moisture availability.
Mathematically,
Consumptive Use = Evapotranspiration = Evaporation + transpiration
It is expressed in terms of depth of water.
what do”water use” and “water consumption” mean?
 “Water use” describes the total amount of water withdrawn from its source to be used.
Measures of water usage help evaluate the level of demand from industrial, agricultural, and
domestic users. For example, a manufacturing plant might require 10,000 gallons of freshwater a
day for cooling, running, or cleaning its equipment. Even if the plant returns 95 percent of that
water to the watershed, the plant needs all 10,000 gallons to operate.
 “Water consumption” is the portion of water use that is not returned to the original water
source after being withdrawn. Consumption occurs when water is lost into the atmosphere
through evaporation or incorporated into a product or plant (such as a corn stalk) and is no longer
available for reuse. Water consumption is particularly relevant when analyzing water scarcity
and the impact of human activities on water availability. For example, irrigated

agriculture accounts for 70 percent of water use worldwide and almost 50 percent of that is lost,
either evaporated into the atmosphere or transpired through plant leaves.
CONSUMPTIVE WATER USE:

Consumptive water use is water removed from available supplies without return to a
water resource system (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and food
preparation that is not returned to a stream, river, or water treatment plant).
Evaporation from the surface of the earth into clouds of water in the air which then falls
to the ground as "rain" is excluded from this model
Crop consumptive water use is the amount of water transpired during plant growth plus
what evaporates from the soil surface and foliage in the crop area.
The portion of water consumed in crop production depends on many factors, especially
the irrigation technology.
Non-consumptive water use:
Non consumptive water use includes water withdrawn for use that is not consumed, for
example, water withdrawn for purposes such as hydropower generation.
This also includes uses such as boating or fishing where the water is still available for
other uses at the same site.
The terms Consumptive Use and Non consumptive Use are traditionally associated with
water rights and water use studies, but they are not completely definitive.
No typical consumptive use is 100 percent efficient; there is always some return flow
associated with such use either in the form of a return to surface flows or as a ground
water recharge.
Nor are typically non consumptive uses of water entirely non consumptive.
There are evaporation losses, for instance, associated with maintaining a reservoir at a
specified elevation to support fish, recreation, or hydro-power, and there are conveyance
losses associated with maintaining a minimum stream flow in a river, canal, or ditch
Factors Affecting the Consumptive Use of Water
Consumptive use of water varies with:
1. Evaporation which depends on humidity

2. Mean Monthly temperature
3. Growing season of crops and cropping pattern
4. Monthly precipitation in area
5. Wind velocity in locality
6. Soil and topography
7. Irrigation practices and method of irrigation
8. Sunlight hours
Types of Consumptive Water Use
Following are the types of consumptive use,
1. Optimum Consumptive Use

2. Potential Consumptive Use
3. Seasonal Consumptive Use

1. Optimum Consumptive Use:
It is the consumptive use which produces a maximum crop yield.
2. Potential Consumptive Use:
If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of vegetation fully
covering the entire area then resulting evapotranspiration is known as Potential Consumptive
Use.
3. Seasonal Consumptive Use:
The total amount of water used in the evapotranspiration by a cropped area during the entire
growing season.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY A CROP
Many factors operate singly or in combination to influence the amounts of water consumed by
plants. Their effects are not necessarily constant, but the factors may differ with locality and
water consumption may fluctuate from year to year.
Some effects involve the human factor; others are related to the natural influences of the
environment and to the growth characteristics of the plants.
The more important of the natural influences are climate, water supply, soils, and topography.
The climatic factors that particularly affect consumptive use are temperature, solar radiation,
precipitation, humidity, wind movement, length of growing season, latitude, and sunlight. Data
were not available for solar radiation.
1. PRECIPITATION
The amount and rate of precipitation may have some minor effect on the amount of water
consumptively used during any summer. Under certain conditions, precipitation may occur as a
series of frequent, light showers during the hot summer. Such showers may add little or nothing
to the soil moisture for use by the plants through transpiration but do decrease the withdrawal
from the stored moisture. Such precipitation may be lost largely by evaporation directly from the
surface of the plant foliage and the land surface.
Part of the precipitation from heavy storms may be lost by surface runoff. Other storms may be
of such intensity and amount that a large percentage of the moisture will enter the soil and
become available for plant transpiration. This available soil moisture may materially reduce the
amount of irrigation water needed.
2. TEMPERATURE
The rate of consumptive use of water by crops in any particular locality is probably affected
more by temperature, which for long-time periods is a good measure of solar radiation, than by
any other factor. Abnormally low temperatures retard plant growth and unusually high

temperatures may produce dormancy. Consumptive use may vary widely even in years of equal
accumulated temperatures because of deviations from the normal seasonal distribution.
Transpiration is influenced not only by temperature but also by the area of leaf surface and the
physiologic needs of the plant, both of which are related to stage of maturity.
3. HUMIDITY
Evaporation and transpiration are accelerated on days of low humidity and slowed during periods
of high humidity. During periods of low relative humidity, greater rate of use of water by
vegetation may be expected.
4. WIND MOVEMENT
Evaporation of water from land and plant surfaces takes place more rapidly when there is
moving air than under calm air conditions. Hot, dry winds and other unusual wind conditions
during the growing period will affect the amount of water consumptively used. However, there is
a limit in the amount of water that can be utilized. As soon as the land surface is dry, evaporation
practically stops and transpiration is limited by the ability of the plants to extract and convey the
soil moisture through the plants.
5. GROWING SEASON
The growing season, which is tied rather closely to temperature, has a major effect on the
seasonal use of water by plants. It is frequently considered to be the period between killing
frosts, but for many annual crops, it is shorter than the frost-free period, as such crops are usually
planted after frosts are past and mature before they recur.
For most perennial crops, growth starts as soon as the maximum temperature stays well above
the freezing point for an extended period of days, and continues throughout the season despite
later freezes. Sometimes growth persists after the first so-called killing frost in the fall. In the
spring, and to less extent in the fall, daily minimum temperatures may fluctuate several degrees
above and below 32° F. for several days before remaining generally above or below the freezing
point. The hardier crops survive these fluctuations and continue unharmed during a few hours of
subfreezing temperature. In fact, many hardy crops, especially grasses, may mature even though
growing season temperatures repeatedly drop below freezing. In southern Arizona and California
alfalfa and citrus trees grow throughout the year.
Although the frost-free season may be used as a guide for computing consumptive use, actual
dates of planting and harvesting of the crops and average annual dates of the first and last
irrigation are important in determining the consumptive irrigation requirements of the crops.
6. LATITUDE AND SUNLIGHT
Although latitude may hardly be called a climatic factor, it does have considerable influence on
the rate of consumptive use of water by various plants. Because of the earth’s movement and
axial inclination, the hours of daylight during the summer are much greater in the northern

latitudes than at the Equator. Since the sun is the source of all energy used in crop growth and
evaporation of water, this longer day may allow plant transpiration to continue for a longer
period each day and to produce an effect similar to that of lengthening the growing season.
7. AVAILABLE IRRIGATION WATER SUPPLY
All the above-mentioned climatic factors influence the amount of water that potentially can be
consumed in a given area. However, there are other factors that also cause important differences
in the consumptive use-rates. Naturally, unless water is available from some source
(precipitation, natural ground water, or irrigation), there can be no consumptive use. In those
areas of the arid and semiarid West where the major source is irrigation, both the quantity and
seasonal distribution of the available supply will affect consumptive use. Where water is
plentiful and cheap, there is a tendency for farmers to overirrigate. If the soil surface is
frequently wet and the resulting evaporation is high, the combined evaporation and transpiration
or consumptive use may likewise increase. Also, under more optimum soil moisture conditions,
yields of crops such as alfalfa may be higher than average and more water consumed. In
irrigating some crops, such as potatoes, water is applied to the field not only for the purpose of
supplying the consumptive water needs of the crop but also to help maintain a favorable
microclimatic condition.
8. QUALITY OF WATER
Some investigations have shown that the quality of the water supply may have an appreciable
effect on consumptive use. Whether or not plants actually transpire more or less if water is
highly saline may be debatable. However, if it is necessary to apply additional water to the land
to leach the salts down through the soil, more water will probably be lost by evaporation from
the soil surface and such loss will be chargeable against the consumptive requirement of the
cropped area.
9. SOIL FERTILITY
If a soil is made more fertile through the application of manure or by some other means, the
yields may be expected to increase with an accompanying small increase in use of water.
However, an increase in fertility of the soil causes a decrease in the amount of water consumed
per unit of crop yield.
10. PLANT PESTS AND DISEASES
Where plant pests and diseases seriously affect the natural growth of the plants, it is reasonable
to assume that transpiration will likewise decrease. It is recognized that some damage to crops is
caused every year by pests and diseases. Ordinarily the losses may not vary greatly from year to

year, but in those years when they are unusually severe consumptive use may be lowered
materially.
WATER QUALITY
Water characteristics and quality:


Physical characteristics

Chemical characteristics

Biological characteristics
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Turbidity
o The clarity of water Transparency of natural water bodies is affected by human
activity, decaying plant matter, algal blooms, suspended sediments, and plant
nutrients
o Turbidity provides an inexpensive estimate of total suspended solids
o TSS concentration Turbidity has little meaning except in relatively clear waters
but is useful in defining drinking-water quality in water treatment measures how
deep a person can see into the water
Total Solids (TS) - The total of all solids in a water sample
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) - The amount of filterable solids in a water sample, filters are
dried and weighed
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - Non filterable solids that pass through a filter with a pore size of
2.0 micron, after filtration the liquid is dried and residue is weighed EPA Secondary Drinking
Water Recommendation is for TDS of less than 500mg/L
Volatile Solids (VS) - Volatile solids are those solids lost on heating to 500 degrees C - rough
approximation of the amount of organic matter present in the solid fraction of wastewater
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Commonly measured chemical parameters are:
– pH
– Alkalinity
– Hardness
– Nitrates, Nitrites, & Ammonia

– Phosphates
– Dissolved Oxygen & Biochemical Oxygen Demand
pH:

The pH of water determines the solubility of many ions and biological availability of
chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) an heavy metals
(lead, copper, cadmium)
Hardness
Hard water is found in about 85% of USA.
Prevents lathering/sudsing - hotter water and extra rinse cycles may be required
Fabric appearance declines & life may be reduced
Minerals may clog pipes & cause excessive wear on moving parts
Solutions:
– Distill water to remove the calcium and magnesium
– Soften the Water - Replaces calcium and magnesium ions with
sodium or potassium ions.
Cation exchange
Strong adsorption » » » Weak adsorption
Al+3 > Ca+2 > Mg+2 > K + = NH4+ > Na + >H +
Nitrogen
Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78.1% of the Earth’s atmosphere
An essential nutrient required by all plants and animals for formation of amino acids
(the molecular units that make up protein) N must be "fixed" (combined) in the form
of ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3) to be used for growth
– N2 + 8H+ + bacteria = 2NH3 + H2

– NH3 + O2 + bacteria = NO2- + 3H+ + 2e-
– NO2- + H2O + bacteria = NO3- + 2H+ +2e-
Ammonia NH3 (extremely toxic) continually changes to ammonium NH4 +

(relatively harmless) and vice versa, relative concentration depends on temperature & pH
At higher temperatures and pH, more N is in the ammonia form
Sources:
Fertilized areas; Sewage disposal; Feed lots; N cycle
PHOSPHATES
Secondary Drinking Water Standard EPA recommendation– total phosphate should
be <0.05 mg/L (as phosphorus) in a stream where it enters a lake or reservoir
total phosphate should not exceed 0.1 mg/L in streams that do not discharge directly
into lakes or reservoirs
Sources:
Erosion, Fertilizer, Sewage, Feed lots, Detergents

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen DO mg/L – only gas routinely measured in water samples
(depends on temperature, salinity, and pressure)
Analysis should be performed on site immediately after sampling
Oxygen enters the water by photosynthesis of aquatic biota transfer across the air-
water interface
DO < 5mg/L stresses aquatic life (the lower the concentration, the greater the stress)
Biological Characteristics
 Harmless bacteria ~ present in large numbers in feces and intestinal tracts of humans and
other warm-blooded animals
Environmental Impact

Indicator of contamination with human or animal fecal material

May indicate contamination by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses
Criteria
Swimming ~ fewer than 200 colonies/100 mL

Fishing and boating ~ fewer than 1000 colonies/100 mL
Domestic water supply ~ fewer than 2000 colonies/100 mL
Drinking water 0 colonies/100Ml
Biological Oxygen Demand
Biological Oxygen Demand is a measure of oxygen used by microorganisms to
decompose organic waste (add a microorganism seed to all samples seal sample
dead plants, leaves, samples, from air, store in dark to prevent photosynthesis,
subtract seeded control, measure decrease in DO)
Nitrates & phosphates are plant
nutrients so may contribute to high
BOD levels When BOD levels are high, dissolved
oxygen decreases ⇒ fish and other grass clippings, manure, sewage, or food waste
aquatic organisms may not survive

An index of the degree of organic pollution in water
BOD level of 1-2 ppm - very good
BOD level of 3-5 ppm - moderately clean
BOD level of 6-9 ppm - somewhat polluted
SCOPE AND AIMS OF MASTER PLAN


Virtually everything that society does, and has done, on the surface of the land has
impacted our water resources.


Water and community are linked and interdependent elements that combined have
shaped the landscape of Prince George’s County.

Historically, the natural waters of the county have stimulated growth and economic
development and have influenced the evolution of our communities and neighborhoods.

Similarly, the advancement and expansion of society has impacted and affected
natural waters in numerous respects.

Today it is attainable and necessary to maintain the growth and vitality of our
county, while sustaining the integrity of the natural water resources that support our
existence.

The natural environment of Prince George’s County is rich in diversity and provides
economic and social, as well as environmental, resources.

The county has large and small rivers; streams and tributaries; mature woods;
farmland; floodplains; tidal and non tidal wetlands; habitats of rare, threatened, and
endangered species; and steep and gentle slopes that make up its physical form.

This natural landscape sustains the hydrologic system that provides drinking water,
absorbs waste, and manages storm water consumed and produced by our land uses.
 Preservation of the natural, environmental, and water resources of Prince George’s
County is a necessary priority in order to sustain existing development, allow for growth
and change, and adapt to future conditions.

The Water Resources Plan is a policy document that is formally adopted by the
Planning Board and approved by the strategies to assist the county, state, and federal
agencies, communities, citizens, and others in making informed decisions about growth
and development, land preservation, environmental and water resource protection, and
the infrastructure needed to support sound land use.

The Water Resources Plan strives to support contemporary water resource protection
policies and strategies, incorporate natural resource and land

Preservation programs, enumerate coordination and communication opportunities,
and maintain supportive planning processes.
 The plan was assembled to provide an assessment of the impacts of existing and
future land use on county water resources, including drinking water and wastewater
supply and demand capacities, and point source and nonpoint source impacts to streams
and local tributaries.

The Water Resources Plan broadly supports the General Plan, and its core policies
and recommendations for the county to guide decisions about growth and development.

The Water Resources Plan promotes source and receiving water protection and use
and demand management of water resources.
WATER BUDGETS
The development and utilization of water resources must be managed in a sustainable

manner if in stream, recreational, municipal, agricultural, and other uses are to be
accommodated.
A water budget analysis starts with an evaluation of the existing water resources (water
income), and then subtracts the existing water uses (water expenses) to arrive at the

current water budget.

The scale (i.e., sophistication or level of effort) of the water budget study is determined
by the requirement that all major factors in the water budget be included within the
area of study.
The study area must include the recharge area for all major (greater than 100,000 gpd)
groundwater withdrawals.
The development of a water budget will generally require the following information:
 The amount and seasonal distribution of precipitation

 The variation in precipitation due to year-to-year climatic variability
 The amount and seasonal distribution of stream flows
 The variation in stream flows due to year-to-year climatic variability
 The amount and seasonal distribution of stream base flows
 The variation in stream base flows due to year-to-year climatic variability
 A topographic map and/or database with
- Locations and magnitudes of water withdrawals
- Locations and magnitudes of water returns
- Capture area for all high capacity wells
- Wellhead protection areas
- Areas of impervious cover
- Soil drainage characteristics
- Land use planning and zoning
- Locations and nature of water quality problems
- Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for all streams
- Aquifer types
- Aquifer structure
- Water table configuration
- Storage facilities.
 Uncertainties in the water budget due to lack of data on the basin surface water
and groundwater flow may require the acquisition of additional information
from a network of surface water and groundwater monitoring points for an
extended period.
 In some cases, this information will be available from similar, nearby
watersheds, and can be scaled to the watershed under study.
 The area to be included in the study is determined by the hydro geomorphic
setting, and the location of large withdrawals and discharges within that setting.
 It is essential to include the capture area and area of contribution for all surface
water and groundwater withdrawals of 100,000 gallons per day or greater and
all consumptive use withdrawals of 20,000 gallons per day or greater.
WATER-BUDGET EQUATION
The water-budget equation is simple, universal, and adaptable because it relies on

few assumptions on mechanisms of water movement and storage.

A basic water budget for a small watershed can be expressed as:
P + Qin = ET + ∆S + Qout
Where
P - Precipitation,
Q in - water flow into the watershed,
ET - evapotranspiration (the sum of evaporation from soils, surface-water

bodies, and plants),
∆S - change in water storage,
Qout - water flow out of the watershed.
WATER BUDGET OF INDIA
o The average annual precipitation received in India is 4,000km3, out of which

700 km3 is immediately lost to the atmosphere, 2,150 km3 soaks into the ground
and 1,150 km3 flows as surface runoff.
o The total water resources in the country have been estimated as 1,953 km3.
Nearly 62% or 1,202 km3 of the total water resources is available in the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Megha basin.
o The remaining 23 basins have 751 km3 of the total water resources.
o The annual water availability in terms of utilizable water resources in India is
.
1,122 km3
o Besides this, the quantity of 123km3 to 169km3 additional return flows will also
be available from increased use form irrigation, domestic and industrial purposes
by the year 2050.
o The per capita availability of utilizable water, which was about 3,000m3 in the
year 1951, has been reduced to 1,100m3 in 1998 and is expected to be 687 m3
by the year 2050.
PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY OF WATER
YEAR 1951 1991 2010 2025 2050
6 361 846.3 1,157 1,333 1,581

Population (10 )

Average Water Resources

3
(m / person/year) 3,008 128.3 938 814 687
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
GENERAL
o Watershed – defined – as the land area that contributes runoff to a
particular point along a waterway.
o A typical watershed can cover tens to hundreds of square miles
and several jurisdictions.
o Watersheds are broken down into smaller geographic units called sub-
watersheds.
o Sub-watersheds typically have a drainage area of 2 to 15 square miles
with boundaries that include the land area draining to a point at or below
the confluence of two second order streams and almost always within
the limits of a third order stream.
o The terms “watershed “and “sub-watershed” are not interchangeable.
o The term watershed is used when referring to broader management
issues across an entire watershed.
o While the term sub-watershed is used to refer assessment level studies
and specific projects within the smaller sub-watershed units.
o Watershed is considered as a biological, physical, economical, and
social system too.
o Watershed is a natural unit of land, which collects water and drains
through a common point by a system of drains. Hence it comprise of a
Catchment area (Recharge Zone), a Command area (Transition
Zone), a Delta area (Discharge Zone).

o Topmost portion of the watershed is known as the “ridge” and a line

joining the ridge portions along the boundary of the watershed is called
a “ridgeline”.
o A watershed is thus a logical unit for planning optimal development of

its soil, water and biomass resources.
TYPE OF WATERSHED
 Common mode of categorization

- Size,
- Drainage,
- Shape
- Land use pattern.
 Categorization could also based on
- Size of the stream or river,
- Point of interception of the stream or river,
- Drainage density
- Its distribution.
 The all India soil and Land Use Surveys (AIS & LUS) of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India, have developed a system for watershed delineation like water
resource region, basin, catchment, sub-catchment, and watershed.
 The usually accepted five levels of watershed delineation based on geographical area of
the watershed are the following
- Macro watershed (>50,000 Hectare)
- Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hectare)
- Mille-watershed (1000 to 10000 Hectare)
- Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hectare)
- Mini watershed ( 1- 100 Hectare)
 A watershed could be described as fan shaped (near circular or fen shaped (elongated).
Hydrologically the shape of the watershed is important because it controls the time
taken for the runoff to concentrate at the outlet.
 Watersheds may also be categorized as hill or flat watersheds, humid or arid watersheds,
red soil watershed or black soil watershed based on criteria like soil, slope, climate etc.
 Depending on the land use pattern watershed could again be classified as highland
watersheds, tribal settlements and watersheds in areas of settled cultivation.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
 Watershed management has emerged as a new paradigm for planning,
development and management of land, water and biomass resources with a
focus on social and environmental aspects following a participatory
approach.

 Watershed management is more a philosophy of comprehensive integrated

approach to natural resources management.
 It aims at integration of social resources management with natural resources
management.
 The approach is generally preventive, progressive, corrective and curative.
 Watershed management involves the judicious use of natural resource with
active participation of institutions, organizations, in harmony with the
ecosystem.
COMPONENTS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
COMPONENTS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
LAND MANAGEMENT WATER MANAGEMENT BIOMASS MANAGEMENT
LAND MANAGEMENT
Land characteristics like terrain, slope, and formation, depth, texture, moisture, and
infiltration rate and soil capacity are the major determinants of land management
activities in a watershed.
Broad category of land management interventions can be as follow:
 Structural measures
 Vegetative measures
 Production measures
 Protection measures
Structural measures – include intervention like -
- Stone bunds
- Contour bunds
- Earthen bunds
- Graded bunds
- Compartmental bunds
- Contour terrace walls
- Contour trenches
- Bench terracing
- Broad based terraces
- Centripetal terraces
- Field bunds

- Channel walls
- Stream bank stabilization
- Check dams etc.
Vegetative measures – include

 Vegetative cover
 Plant cover
 Mulching
 Vegetative hedges
 Grass land management
 Agro-forestry etc.
Production measures – include interventions aimed at increasing the productivity

of land like
 Mixed cropping,
 Strip cropping,
 Cover cropping
 Crop rotations,
 Cultivation of shrubs and herbs,
 Contour cultivation conservation tillage,
 Land leveling, use of improved verity of seeds,
 Horticulture, etc.
Protective measures like
- Landslide control
-Gully plugging
- Runoff collection etc. can also be adopted.
WATER MANAGEMENT
Water characteristics like
Inflows water use outflows storage
(Precipitation, (evaporation, (surface water outflow, (surface storage
Surface water inflow, evapotranspiration, ground water outflow) groundwater
storage Groundwater inflow) irrigation, drinking water) root zone
storage)
Broad interventions for water management are
 Rain water harvesting

 Ground water recharge

 Maintenance of water balance

 Economic use of water
Simple and cost effective rainwater harvesting structures are
- Percolation pit/tanks
- Recharge trenches/rain pits
- Recharge wells
- Ferro cement tanks
- Farm ponds
- V ditch
- Benching terracing
Economic use of water and avoidance of affluence in use of water at individual and
community levels may be the major concern for water management in the years to
come.
BIOMASS MANAGEMENT
Major intervention areas for biomass management are:
- Eco – preservation
- Biomass regeneration
- Forest management and conservation
- Plant protection and social forestry
- Increased productivity of animals
- Income and employment generation activities
- Co ordination of health and sanitation programmes
- Better living standards for people
- Formation
CAUSES OF WATERSHED DETERIORATION

 Uncontrolled, unplanned, unscientific land use and interventions
 Cultivation on sloping land with adequate precautions
 Cultivation without agronomic measures to conserve soil and water
 Cultivation along susceptible nalla banks
 Cultivation of erosion-permitting crops
 Over-cropping without soil fertility replenishment
 Faulty agricultural techniques
Grass lands:
 Excessive and uncontrolled grazing
 Growth of weeds
 Development of cattle tracks causing damage and compaction of
soil resulting in lower infiltration rates, fires, theft etc,
Forest:
 Excessive and uncontrolled grazing which inhibits regeneration

from seed or stock

 Clear felling on steep slopes

 Destruction of forest land by fires and thefts
Shifting cultivation: proved to be very damaging to protective
and productive vegetation
Unscientific mining and construction activities: damage the
vegetation and the landscape. Natural drainage lines are often
blocked by debris.
Fire: intentional / accidental fires result in loss of vegetation, organic
matter and micro-organisms.
Non-cooperation of the community: Non – cooperation of the
community in conserving, protecting and enriching then ecosystem.
REQUIREMEN OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
 To control damaging runoff

 To manage and utilize runoff for useful purposes
 To control erosion affecting reduction of sediment production
 To moderate floods in the downstream area

 To enhance groundwater storage wherever applicable
 To appropriately use land resources in the watershed, thus develop in
forest and fodder resources.
CONCEPT OF BASIN AS A UNIT FOR DEVELOPMENT

The goals of water resources project planning may be by the use of constructed facilities,
or structural measures, or by management and legal techniques that do not require
constructed facilities.
The latter are called non-structural measures and may include rules to limit or control
water and land use which complement or substitute for constructed facilities.
A project may consist of one or more structural or non-structural resources. Water
resources planning techniques are used to determine what measures should be employed
to meet water needs and to take advantage of opportunities for water resources
development, and also to preserve and enhance natural water resources and related land
resources.
The scientific and technological development has been conspicuously evident during the
twentieth century in major fields of engineering.
But since water resources have been practiced for many centuries, the development in
this field may not have been as spectacular as, say, for computer sciences.
However, with the rapid development of substantial computational power resulting
reduced computation cost, the planning strategies have seen new directions in the last
century which utilizes the best of the computer resources.
Further, economic considerations used to be the guiding constraint for planning a water
resources project.

But during the last couple of decades of the twentieth century there has been a growing
awareness for environmental sustainability. And now, environmental constrains find a
significant place in the water resources project (or for that matter any developmental
project) planning besides the usual economic and social constraints.
Priorities for water resources planning
Water resource projects are constructed to develop or manage the available water
resources for different purposes.
According to the National Water Policy (2002), the water allocation priorities for
planning and operation of water resource systems should broadly be as follows:
-
Domestic consumption
This includes water requirements primarily for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing of
clothes and utensils and flushing of toilets.
-Irrigation
Water required for growing crops in a systematic and scientific manner in areas even with
deficit rainfall.
-Hydropower
This is the generation of electricity by harnessing the power of flowing water.
-Ecology / environment restoration

Water required for maintaining the environmental health of a region.
-Industries
The industries require water for various purposes and that by thermal power stations is
quite high.
-Navigation
Navigation possibility in rivers may be enhanced by increasing the flow, thereby
increasing the depth of water required to allow larger vessels to pass.
-Other uses
Like entertainment of scenic natural view.
Water budget and development plan.


A ground-water system consists of a mass of water flowing through the pores or cracks
below the Earth's surface.

This mass of water is in motion.

Water is constantly added to the system by recharge from precipitation, and water is
constantly leaving the system as discharge to surface water and as evapotranspiration.

Each ground-water system is unique in that the source and amount of water flowing
through the system is dependent upon external factors such as rate of precipitation,
location of streams and other surface-water bodies, and rate of evapotranspiration.


The one common factor for all ground-water systems, however, is that the total amount of
water entering, leaving, and being stored in the system must be conserved.

An accounting of all the inflows, outflows, and changes in storage is called a water
budget.

Human activities, such as ground-water withdrawals and irrigation, change the natural
flow patterns, and these changes must be accounted for in the calculation of the water
budget.

Because any water that is used must come from somewhere, human activities affect the
amount and rate of movement of water in the system, entering the system, and leaving the
system.

Some hydrologists believe that a pre-development water budget for a ground-water
system (that is, a water budget for the natural conditions before humans used the water)
can be used to calculate the amount of water available for consumption (or the safe
yield).

In this case, the development of a ground-water system is considered to be "safe" if the
rate of ground-water withdrawal does not exceed the rate of natural recharge.

This concept has been referred to as the "Water-Budget Myth" (Bredehoeft and others,
1982). It is a myth because it is an oversimplification of the information that is needed to
understand the effects of developing a ground-water system.

As human activities change the system, the components of the water budget (inflows,
outflows, and changes in storage) also will change and must be accounted for in any
management decision.

Understanding water budgets and how they change in response to human activities is an
important aspect of ground-water hydrology; however, as we shall see, a predevelopment
water budget by itself is of limited value in determining the amount of ground water that
can be withdrawn on a sustained basis.
Ground-Water Budgets
Under predevelopment conditions, the ground-water system is in long-term equilibrium.
That is, averaged over some period of time, the amount of water entering or recharging
the system is approximately equal to the amount of water leaving or discharging from
the system.
Because the system is in equilibrium, the quantity of water stored in the system is
constant or varies about some average condition in response to annual or longer-term
climatic variations.
This predevelopment water budget is shown schematically
We also can write an equation that describes the water budget of the predevelopment
system as:
Recharge (water entering) = Discharge (water leaving)
Humans change the natural or predevelopment flow system by withdrawing
(pumping) water for use, changing recharge patterns by irrigation and urban
development, changing the type of vegetation, and other activities.
Focusing our attention on the effects of withdrawing ground water, we can conclude that the
source of water for pumpage must be supplied by
(1) More water entering the ground-water system (increased recharge),

(2) Less water leaving the system (decreased discharge),

(3) Removal of water that was stored in the system, or some combination of these
three.
Pumpage = Increased recharge + Water removed from storage + Decreased
discharge.
It is the changes in the system that allows water to be withdrawn.
That is, the water pumped must come from some change of flows and from removal
of water stored in the predevelopment system
The predevelopment water budget does not provide information on where the water
will come from to supply the amount withdrawn.
Furthermore, the predevelopment water budget only indirectly provides information
on the amount of water perennially available, in that it can only indicate the
magnitude of the original discharge that can be decreased (captured) under possible,
usually extreme, development alternatives at possible significant expense to the
environment.
Ground-Water Systems Change in Response to Pumping
Consider a ground-water system in which the only natural source of inflow is a real
recharge from precipitation.
The amount of inflow is thus relatively fixed.
Further consider that the primary sources of any water pumped from this ground-
water system are removal from storage, decreased discharge to streams, and
decreased transpiration by plants rooted near the water table.
If the above-described ground-water system can come to a new equilibrium after a
period of removing water from storage, the amount of water consumed is balanced
by less water flowing to surface-water bodies, and perhaps, less water available for
transpiration by vegetation as the water table declines.
If the consumptive use is so large that a new equilibrium cannot be achieved, water
would continue to be removed from storage. In either case, less water will be
available to surface-water users and the ecological resources dependent on stream
flow.
Depending upon the location of the water withdrawals, the headwaters of streams
may begin to go dry. If the vegetation receives less water, the vegetative character of
the area also might change.
These various effects illustrate how the societal issue of what constitutes an
undesired result enters into the determination of ground-water sustainability.
The tradeoff between water for consumption and the effects of withdrawals on the
environment often become the driving force in determining a good management
scheme.
In most situations, withdrawals from ground-water systems are derived primarily
from decreased ground-water discharge and decreased ground-water storage.
These sources of water were thus emphasized in the previous example. Two special
situations in which increased recharge can occur in response to ground-water
withdrawals are noted here.
Pumping ground water can increase recharge by inducing flow from a stream into
the ground-water system.
When streams flowing across ground-water systems originate in areas outside these
systems, the source of water being discharged by pumpage can be supplied in part
by stream flow that originates upstream from the ground-water basin.
In this case, the predevelopment water budget of the ground-water system does not
account for a source of water outside the ground-water system that is potentially
available as recharge from the stream.

Another potential source of increased recharge is the capture of recharge that was
originally rejected because water levels were at or near land surface.
As the water table declines in response to pumping, a storage capacity for infiltration
of water becomes available in the unsaturated zone. As a result, some water that
previously was rejected as surface runoff can recharge the aquifer and causes a net
increase in recharge.
This source of water to pumping wells is usually negligible, however, compared to
other sources.
CONJUNCTIVE USE OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATER
PRECIPITATION

Precipitation occurs when atmospheric moisture becomes too great to remain suspended
in clouds.

It denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere, the usual forms
being rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew.

Once it reaches the earth’s surface, precipitation can become surface water runoff,
surface water storage, glacial ice, water for plants, groundwater, or may evaporate and
return immediately to the atmosphere.

Ocean evaporation is the greatest source (about 90%) of precipitation.

Rainfall is the predominant form of precipitation and its distribution over the world and
within a country. India has a typical monsoon climate.

At this time, the surface winds undergo a complete reversal from January to July, and
cause two types of monsoon.

In winter dry and cold air from land in the northern latitudes flows southwest (northeast
monsoon), while in summer warm and humid air originates over the ocean and flows in
the opposite direction (southwest monsoon), accounting for some 70 to 95 percent of the
annual rainfall.

The average annual rainfall is estimated as 1170 mm over the country, but varies
significantly from place to place.

In the northwest desert of Rajasthan, the average annual rainfall is lower than 150
mm/year. In the broad belt extending from Madhya Pradesh up to Tamil Nadu, through
Maharastra, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the average annual rainfall is
generally lower than 500 mm/year.

At the other extreme, more than 10000 mm of rainfall occurs in some portion of the
Khasi Hills in the northeast of the country in a short period of four months. In other parts
of the northeast (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.,) west coast and in sub-
Himalayan West Bengal the average annual rainfall is about 2500 mm.

Except in the northwest of India, inter annual variability of rainfall in relatively low. The
main areas affected by severe droughts are Rajasthan, Gujarat (Kutch and Saurashtra).
RUNOFF

Runoff is the water that flows across the land surface after a storm event.

As rain falls over land, part of that gets infiltrated the surface as overland flow.

As the flow bears down, it notches out rills and gullies which combine to form channels.

These combine further to form streams and rivers.

The geographical area which contributes to the flow of a river is called a river or a
watershed. Storage


Portion of the precipitation falling on land surface which does not flow out as runoff gets
stored as either as surface water bodies like Lakes, Reservoirs and Wetlands or as sub-
surface water body, usually called Ground water.

Ground water storage is the water infiltrating through the soil cover of a land surface and
traveling further to reach the huge body of water underground.

As mentioned earlier, the amount of ground water storage is much greater than that of
lakes and rivers.

However, it is not possible to extract the entire groundwater by practicable means. It is
interesting to note that the groundwater also is in a state of continuous movement –
flowing from regions of higher potential to lower.

The rate of movement, however, is exceptionally small compared to the surface water
movement.
The following definitions may be useful:
 Lakes: Large, naturally occurring inland body of water

 Reservoirs: Artificial or natural inland body of water used to store water to meet various
demands.
 Wet Lands: Natural or artificial areas of shallow water or saturated soils that contain or
could support water–loving plants.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Evapotranspiration is actually the combination of two terms – evaporation and
transpiration.

The first of these, that is, evaporation is the process of liquid converting into vapour,
through wind action and solar radiation and returning to the atmosphere.

Evaporation is the cause of loss of water from open bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers,
the oceans and the land surface.

It is interesting to note that ocean evaporation provides approximately 90 percent of the
earth’s precipitation.

However, living near an ocean does not necessarily imply more rainfall as can be noted
from the great difference in the amount of rain received between the east and west coasts
of India

Transpiration is the process by which water molecules leaves the body of a living plant
and escapes to the atmosphere.

The water is drawn up by the plant root system and part of that is lost through the tissues
of plant leaf (through the stomata).

In areas of abundant rainfall, transpiration is fairly constant with variations occurring
primarily in the length of each plants growing season.

However, transpiration in dry areas varies greatly with the root depth.

Evapotranspiration, therefore, includes all evaporation from water and land surfaces, as
well as transpiration from plants.
CONJUNCTIVE USE OF SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER
SURFACE WATER OR GROUNDWATER?
Disadvantages of surface water development compared to groundwater

 In most climates of the world, precipitation, either rain or snow, and consequently peak
runoff corresponding to a significant part of the total discharge of the rivers, occur during
a particular season of the year which usually coincides with the smallest water demand.
 The water development problem therefore consists of transferring water from the high
supply season to the high demand season. The most obvious and the most common
solution to that problem consists of storing surface water behind dams, but storage of
water in the ground may be a valuable alternative to surface storage systems, although
not always systematically considered when planning water development. Yet surface
reservoirs have many drawbacks, especially:
 Evaporation: large open water areas are exposed, during several months and even years,
to high evaporation rates leading to water losses sometimes exceeding 20 percent of the
average annual runoff. Losses may be even higher when the width of the impounded
valley is considerable, and induces a larger open water area.
 Sedimentation: soil erosion in the catchment results in siltation in the surface reservoirs
and in the equivalent reduction of the storage capacity. The soil vulnerability to erosion,
and therefore the importance of the siltation problems in surface reservoirs, grows as the
vegetation cover shrinks, so the more arid the climate, the less the vegetation cover, the
higher the probability of sediment accumulation in the surface reservoirs. Draining part
of the mud from the reservoirs is occasionally possible through specially designed pipes
placed at the bottom of the dam, but each operation is water consuming (to flush the
mud) and may be detrimental to downstream environment.
 Environmental impact of surface reservoirs may often be highly undesirable for human
health, flooding of inhabited, or good agricultural land, distribution of water from the
reservoir may be expensive and requires the construction of costly canals because of the
distance between dam and utilization areas.
Evaporation in Lake Nasser
Since the beginning of impoundment of the High Asswan Dam in 1964, the lake has
progressively increased to a total surface area of 6000 km2, with an average width of 12 km and
a length of 500 km. Total average annual losses had been estimated at 9 km3 for evaporation and
1 km3 for seepage and absorption. Considering that Egypt Nile water allocation corresponds to
55.5 km3, hence losses by evaporation would represent 16 % of the present water allocation of
Egypt, enough to meet the requirement of perhaps 500 000 ha under irrigation.
Morocco: Loss of storage capacity of surface reservoirs due to sedimentation
Sediment accumulation in surface reservoirs, now amounts to 50 million m³/year and is expected
to increase to 100 million m³/year when the remaining large dams construction programme will
be achieved. The present annual loss of storage capacity of surface reservoirs in Morocco is
equivalent to the annual volume required to irrigate 6 000 ha.
 MOROCCO - MOHAMED V RESERVOIR: Reduction of storage capacity


 In contrast, groundwater is not exposed to evaporation; does not suffer from reduction of
storage capacity because of siltation; is seldom harmful to environment and offers a
natural water distribution up to the users.
Why is surface water storage always preferred to groundwater development?
 When looking at these advantages and disadvantages, groundwater seems to be a better

alternative that should be preferred, but this not the case; large and concentrated water
demand such as that from large irrigation schemes is usually supplied from surface water
storage, and there are various reasons for that choice:
- groundwater aquifers seldom offer large storage capacity able to absorb large
volumes of flood in a short period of time, and are unable to return them as
significant discharge per unit production system of well or borehole,
- surface water storage, because of the large investments involved, is often
preferred because it offers a much higher political visibility and because high
construction costs give an opportunity for private profit and corruption, opening
the way for improper influence on decision making.
A reasonable solution
 Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater consists of harmoniously combining the use
of both sources of water in order to minimize the undesirable physical, environmental and
economical effects of each solution and to optimize the water demand/supply balance.
 Usually conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is considered within a river basin
management programme - i.e. both the river and the aquifer belong to the same basin.
 Assuming that the mixed solution is part of the national policy, several problems need to
be carefully studied before selecting the different options and elaborating a programme of
conjunctive use of surface and groundwater:
- underground storage availability to be determined,
- production capacity of the aquifer(s) in term of potential discharge,
- natural recharge of the aquifer(s)
- induced natural recharge of the aquifer(s)
- potential for artificial recharge of the aquifer(s)

- comparative economic and environmental benefits derived from the various

possible options.
CONJUNCTIVE USE OF SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER AS PART OF

INTEGRATED RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT
 The increasing acuteness of water scarcity problems, worldwide, requires the adoption of
a double approach of water supply management and water demand management.
 Governments tend to consider river basins as water resources management units and as a
spatial basis for the formulation of water management strategies integrating all cross-
sectoral issues such as water resources conservation, environment, water resources
allocation, water demand management, etc.
 The conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is one of the strategies of water supply
management which has to be considered to optimize the water resources development,
management and conservation within a basin, and artificial recharge of aquifers is
certainly one of the tools to be used for that purpose.
 The use of the river basin as the spatial unit for analyzing the interactions and
interrelations between the various components of the system, and for defining the water
management policy, is well justified, and is increasingly becoming common practice:
 • in China, river basin plans have legal status and development projects are required to
be consistent with the provisions of the plans;
 • in Indonesia, the Government recently adopted new water management policies in
order to prepare spatial management plans and to link water and land use through river
basin plans, to centre water management at the river basin level, and to centralize water
management responsibilities through a more effective participation and collaboration of
beneficiaries;
 • in Italy, a 1989 law introduced the river basin as a management unit to regulate the
programmes of the various sectoral and regional institutions;
 • in the United Kingdom, Spain, France, and in most European countries, water
resources management is now essentially centred on river basins.
 The adoption of an integrated river basin management approach for elaborating policies
and strategies of water resources development, management and conservation would help
consider the water resources as one system and would avoid a water resources
development approach focused only on surface water. This approach also facilitates the
management of the resource itself, allowing a better understanding, by water users, of the
hydrological issues involved.
 Research is still needed, however, to understand better, and to quantify the role of
watershed management and particularly of soil and water conservation practices in the
water cycle. The development of GIS techniques could certainly help assess the overall
water resources within a river basin and the effect of various human interventions such as
water conservation practices over large areas, large dams or small dams

The conjunctive use of surface and groundwater is one of the strategies of water
supply management which has to be considered to optimize the water resources
development, management and conservation within a basin, and artificial recharge of
aquifers is certainly one of the tools to be used for that purpose.

UNIT III
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
Need – Merits and Demerits – Duty, Delta and Base period – Irrigation efficiencies –
Crops and Seasons - Crop water Requirement – Estimation of Consumptive use of water.
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
Technical terms:
 Commanded area (CA):is defined as the area that can be irrigated by a canal system
 Gross command area (GCA): This is defined as total area that can be irrigated by a canal
system on the perception that unlimited quantity of water is available. It is the total area that
may theoretically be served by the irrigation system. But this may include inhibited areas,
roads, ponds, uncultivable areas etc which would not be irrigated.
 Culturable command area (CCA): This is the actually irrigated area within the GCA.
During any crop season, only a part of the CCA is put under cultivation and this area is
termed as culturable cultivated area. The remaining area which is not cultivated during a
crop season is conversely termed as culturable uncultivated area.
 Intensity of irrigation is defined as the percentage of the irrigation proposed to be irrigated
annually. Usually the areas irrigated during each crop season (Rabi, Kharif, etc.) are
expressed as a percentage of the CCA which represents the intensity of irrigation for the crop
season. By adding the intensities of irrigation for all crop seasons the yearly intensity of
irrigation to be obtained.
 Crop-ratio: The ratio of the areas under the two crop seasons is called crop-ratio.
 Base period: The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing and its
last watering before harvesting is called the Base or Base period of crop.
 Crop period(C): The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of
its harvesting is called crop period.
 Duty: is the relationship between the volume of water and area under water is defined as 200
ha per cumec to the base of B days.

 Saturation capacity is the amount of water required to fill all the pore spaces between the
soil particles by replacing all the air held in the pore spaces.
 Field capacity is the moisture content of the soil after free drainage has removed most of the
gravity water.
 Duty: Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is the relation between the
area of a crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the entire period
of the growth of that crop.
Definition of Irrigation
 Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is usually used to assist the
growing of crops in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.
Importance of Irrigation Engineering
 In the next 35-45- years, world food production will need to double to meet the demands of
increased population.
 90% of this increased food production will have to come from existing lands.
 70% of this increased food production will have to come from irrigated land
Purposes of Irrigation
 Providing insurance against short duration droughts

 Reducing the hazard of frost (increase the temperature of the plant)
 Reducing the temperature during hot spells
 Washing or diluting salts in the soil Softening tillage pans and clods
 Delaying bud formation by evaporative cooling
 Promoting the function of some micro organisms
The Necessity of Irrigation

 India is basically an agricultural country, and all its resources depend on the agricultural
 Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life.
 Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains.

 However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In
order to get the maximum yield, it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water,
and to maintain correct timing of water.
 This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system-by collecting water during
the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop as and when it is needed.
Objectives of irrigation
 To Supply Water Partially or Totally for Crop Need

 To Cool both the Soil and the Plant
 To Leach Excess Salts
 To improve Groundwater storage
 To Facilitate continuous cropping
 To Enhance Fertilizer Application
Benefits of Irrigation
1. Increase in Crop Yield

2. Protection from famine
3. Cultivation of superior crops
4. Elimination of mixed cropping:
5. Economic development
6. Hydro power generation
7. Domestic and industrial water supply
Advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Increase in food production
2. Optimum utilization of water for optimum benefits
3. General development of the country
4. Elimination of mixed cropping
5. Generation of hydroelectric power

6. Afforestation
7. Domestic water supply
8. Inland navigation
Disadvantages:
1. Pollution of underground water
2. Water – logging of the area
3. Creating unhealthy conditions in colder and damp places
4. Irrigation water may cause breading places of mosquitoes
5. Irrigation increases the expenditure of government
6. Gives rise to disease like malaria
7. Excessive seepage causes water-logging and
8. The climate becomes cooler and makes the locality damp resulting ill-health of the public.
DUTY OF WATER
Duty of water is the relationship between the volume of water and area under water is defined as
200 ha per cumec to the base of B days.
FACTORS AFFECTING DUTY
(a) Type of soil

(b) Temperature and wind
(c) Rainfall and wind.
(d) Crop
(e) Method of cultivation.
(f) Water management.
(g) Climate and season
IMPROVING DUTY
Duty of water can be improved if water is used carefully. The following efforts can be made to
improve duty:

1. The water losses can be reduced by having the irrigated area nearer to the head of the canal.
2. Evaporation losses can be minimized by using the water as quickly as possible.
3. Water losses can be minimized by lining the canals.
4. The cultivators should be trained to use water economically without wasting.
5. The soil properties should be studied by establishing research stations in villages.
.
DELTA: Quantity of water is required for any crop to come to its maturity. The total quantity of
water required for any crop during its base period (B)
BASE PERIOD: It is the time period between the first watering of the crop during its sowing to
last watering before its harvesting. It is generally expressed in days.
IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water input, and is usually expressed as
percentage. Input minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if losses are more, output is less
and, therefore, efficiency is less. Hence, efficiency is inversely proportional to the losses. Water
is lost in irrigation during various processes and, therefore, there are different kinds of irrigation
efficiencies, as given below.
Efficiency of Water-conveyance
It is the ratio of the water delivered into the fields from the outlet point ofthe channel, to the
water entering into the channel at its starting point. It may be represented by q. It takes the
conveyance or transit losses into consideration.
Where,
nd =Wf/Wd
qc= Water conveyance efficiency,
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot at field supply channel, and
Wd = Water diverted from the source.
Efficiency of Water Application
It is ratio of water stored in root zone to the water delivered at the field.
nd = Ws/Wf

Where,
q, = Water application efficiency,
Ws= Water stored at the root zone of plant, and
Wf = Water delivered to the field at the field supply channel.
It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the water needed in the root
zone prior to irrigation (i.e. field capacity- existing moisture content). It may be represented by
qs.
Where, q, = Water-storage efficiency,
Ws= Water stored at the root zone of plant, and
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.
Efficiency of Water Use

It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including leaching water, to the quantity of water
delivered. It may be represented by qu.
nu = Wu/Wd
Where, qu= Water use efficiency,

Wu = Beneficial use of water including leaching water, and
Wd = Water delivered to the field.
It is also expressed as ratio of crop yield to the amount of water depleted bycrop in the
process of Evapo-transpiration
Y Crop water use efficiency = Y / ET
Where,
Y = Crop yield, and
ET = The amount of water depleted by crop in the process of Evapo-transpiration
Uniformity Coefficient or Water Distribution Efficiency
The effectiveness of irrigation may also be measured by its water distribution efficiency (qd),
Which is defined below:
ND = (1-d/D)

Where,
qd= Water distribution efficiency,
D = Mean depth of water stored during irrigation, and
d = Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean.
Net Irrigation Requirement:

Net irrigation requirement is the depth of irrigation water, exclusive of precipitation,
carry over soil moisture or ground water contribution or other gains in soil moisture that is
required consumptively for crop production. It’s basically the amount of irrigation water required
to bring the soil moisture level in the effective root zone to field capacity.
Gross Irrigation:
It is total amount of water applied through irrigation. It is basically net irrigation requirement
plus losses in application of water including other loss.
Gross irrigation requirement in the field= yet irrigation requirement/ Field efficiency of system.
CROP SEASONS IN INDIA:
Define Crop:
Food and non-food supplying plans grown over soil are called crops
Classification of crops
Cropsareclassifiedas
1.Kharif crops
2. Rabi crops
Kharif crops:
The crops which are grown in Kharif crops seasons are known as Kharif crops.
There are divided into two categories
1. Food crops
2. Non-food crops
1. Food crops

The crop which gives food for survival of man and animals are known as Food crops.
Ex:
 Rice
 Maize
 Moong
2. Nonfood crops
The crops which do not give food but they give such products which are essential for
human beings are known as Non-Food crops.
Ex:
 Cotton
 Ground nut
 Seasame
2. Rabi crops:
The crops which are grown in Rabi crops seasons are known as Rabi crops.
There are divided into two categories
1. Food crops
2. Nonfood crops
1. Food crops
The crops under this category are as follows
 Wheat
 Barley
 Gram
 Peas
2. Nonfood crops
The crops under this category are as follows
 Mustard
 Linseed
 Tobacco
CROP SEASONS
The period of time is known as crop season. There are three classifications
1. Summer or kharif season-April to September

2. Winter or Rabi season- Oct to march

3. Monsoon season- June to august
CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
Crop water requirements (CWR) encompass the total amount of water used in
evapotranspiration. It is defined as crop water requirements as ‘the depth of water needed to meet
the water loss through evapotranspiration of a crop, being disease-free, growing in large fields
under non restricting soil conditions, including soil water and fertility, and achieving full
production potential under the given growing environment’
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
Definition:
It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area. It is the amount of water
required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration and building of plant tissues
plus evaporation from soils and intercepted precipitation. It is expressed in terms of depth of
water. Consumptive use varies with temperature, humidity, wind speed, topography, sunlight
hours, method of irrigation, moisture availability.
Mathematically,
Consumptive Use = Evapotranspiration = Evaporation + transpiration It is expressed in

terms of depth of water.
Factors Affecting the Consumptive Use of Water
Consumptive use of water varies with:
1. Evaporation which depends on humidity

2. Mean Monthly temperature
3. Growing season of crops and cropping pattern

4. Monthly precipitation in area

5. Wind velocity in locality
6. Soil and topography
7. Irrigation practices and method of irrigation
8. Sunlight hours
ESTIMATION OF CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
1. Direct Methods:
In this method field observations are made and physical model is used for this purpose. This
includes,
i. Vapour Transfer Method/Soil Moisture Studies
ii. Field Plot Method
iii. Tanks and Lysimeter
iv. Integration Method/Summation Method
v. Irrigation Method
vi. Inflow Outflow Method

1.1 Vapor Transfer Method:

In this method of estimation of water consumptive use, soil moisture measurements are
taken before and after each irrigation. The quantity of water extracted per day from soil is
computed for each period. A curve is drawn by plotting the rate of use against time and from this
curve, the seasonal use can be estimated. This method is suitable in those areas where soil is
fairly uniform and ground water is deep enough so that it does not affect the fluctuations in the
soil moisture within the root zone of the soil.
It is expressed in terms of volume i.e. Acre-feet or Hectare-meter
1.2 Field Plot Method:

Select a representative plot of area and the accuracy depends upon the representativeness
of plot (cropping intensity, exposure etc.).It replicates the conditions of an actual sample field
(field plot). Less seepage should be there.
Inflow + Rain + Outflow = Evapotranspiration
The drawback in this method is that lateral movement of water takes place although more
representative to field condition. Also some correction has to be applied for deep percolation as it
cannot be ascertained in the field.
1.3 Tanks and Lysimeter:

In this method of measurement of consumptive use of water, a watertight tank of
cylindrical shape having diameter 2m and depth about 3m is placed vertically on the ground. The
tank is filled with sample of soil. The bottom of the tank consists of a sand layer and a pan for
collecting the surplus water. The plants grown in the Lysimeter should be the same as in the
surrounding field. The consumptive use of water is estimated by measuring the amount of water
required for the satisfactory growth of the plants within the tanks. Consumptive use of water is
given by,
Cu = Wa – Wd
1.4 Integration Method:
In this method, it is necessary to know the division of total area, i.e. under irrigated crops,
natural native vegetation area, water surface area and bare land area. In this method, annual

consumptive use for the whole area is found in terms of volume. It is expressed in Acre feet or
Hectare meter.
Mathematically,
Total Evapotranspiration = Total consumptive use
1.5 Irrigation Method:
In this method, unit consumption is multiplied by some factor. The multiplication values depend
upon the type of crops in certain area. This method requires an Engineer judgment as these
factors are to be investigated by the Engineers of certain area.

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Primary categories of water

PLACE OF NATURE OF PERCENTAGE

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WATER RESOURCES SURVEY

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On the other hand, the beneficial returns may also vary.

WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA AND TAMILNADU

The average annual precipitation in volumetric terms is 4000 cubic km.

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DESCRIPTION OF WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

Artificial recharge of ground water:

ESTIMATION OF WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR IRRIGATION AND DRINKING

Irrigation Water Requirements

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The calculation of irrigation water requirements

Delineation of irrigation cropping pattern zones

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• crops currently grown;

Operation of system of reservoirs

Single Purpose Reservoirs

A) FLOOD CONTROL- Operation of flood control reservoirs is primarily governed by the

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Hydroelectric power generation

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Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact

All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's position compared to

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil.

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RESERVOIR STORAGE ZONE AND USES OF RESERVOIR

Some other terms related to reservoirs are defined as follows:

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not be filled again. However, very large reservoirs sometimes do not

2. Ascertain the discharge to be released downstream to satisfy water

3. Determine the direct precipitation volume falling on the reservoir

4. Estimate the evaporation losses which would occur from the

5. Ascertain the demand during various months.

6. Determine the adjusted inflow during different months as follows:

Adjusted inflow = Stream inflow + Precipitation - Evaporation

7. Compute the storage capacity for each months.

Storage required = Adjusted inflow – Demand

8. Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir by adding the

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The yield from a reservoir of a given capacity can be determined by the

3. Measure the slopes of all the tangents drawn in Step 2.

4. Determine the slope of the flattest tangent.

LEVEES AND FLOODWALL

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The levee’s width will thus be several times its height.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Levees and Floodwalls

This technique cannot be used to bring a substantially damaged or improved structure

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UNIT II WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

ECONOMICS OF WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

National Water Policy

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The major provisions under the policy are:

1. Envisages to establish a standardized national information system with a network of data