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ME 6504 - ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS
UNIT I .BASICS OF METROLOGY 5
Introduction to Metrology – Need – Elements – Work piece, Instruments – Persons

Environment – their effect on Precision and Accuracy – Errors – Errors in
Measurements – Types – Control – Types of standards.
UNIT II LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS 10
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Linear Measuring Instruments – Evolution – Types – Classification – Limit gauges –
gauge design –terminology – procedure – concepts of interchange ability and
selective assembly – Angular measuring instruments – Types – Bevel protractor
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clinometers angle gauges, spirit levels sine bar – Angle alignment telescope –
Autocollimator – Applications.
UNIT III ADVANCES IN METROLOGY 12
Basic concept of lasers Advantages of lasers – laser Interferometers – types – DC

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and AC Lasers interferometer – Applications – Straightness – Alignment. Basic
concept of CMM – Types of CMM – Constructional features – Probes – Accessories
– Software – Applications – Basic concepts of Machine Vision System – Element –
Applications.
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UNIT IV FORM MEASUREMENT 10
Principles and Methods of straightness – Flatness measurement – Thread

measurement, gear measurement, surface finish measurement, Roundness
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measurement – Applications.
UNIT V MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE 8
Force, torque, power - mechanical , Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Electrical type. Flow
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measurement: Venturimeter, Orifice meter, rotameter, pitot tube – Temperature:

bimetallic strip, thermocouples, electrical resistance thermometer – Reliability and
Calibration – Readability and Reliability.
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UNIT – I-BASICS OF METROLOGY

Metrology is the name given to the science of puremeasurement.
Engineering Metrology is restricted to measurements of length & angle.Need for
Measurement
 To ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the established standard.
 To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
 To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty product reaches
the customers.
 To coordinate the functions of quality control, production, procurement & other
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departments of the organization.
 To judge the possibility of making some of the defective parts acceptable after
minor repairs.
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Precision & Accuracy of Measurement
Precision : It is the degree which determines how well identically performed
measurements agree with each other. It is the repeatability of the measuring
process. It carries no meaning for only one measurement. It exists only when a set of
observations is gathered for the same quantity under identical conditions. In such a
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set, the observations will scatter about a mean. The less is the scattering, the more
precise is the measurement.
Basic units in SI system

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1) For Length : Metre (m) which is equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of
the red-orange radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 &
5d5 of the krypton-86 atom. (Definition by wavelength standard)
By Line standard, Metre is the distance between the axes of two lines engraved on a
polished surface of the Platinum – Iridium bar ‗M‘ (90% platinum & 10% iridium) kept
at Bureau of Weights & Measures (BIPM) at Sevres near Paris at 0C, the bar kept
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under normal atmospheric pressure, supported by two rollers of at least 1 cm

diameter symmetrically situated in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 588.9
mm (Airy points) so as to give minimum deflection.
2) For Mass: Kilogram (kg) which is equal to the mass of International prototype of
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the kilogram.
3) For Time : Second (s) which is equal to the duration of 9192631770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the hyper fine levels of the ground
state of the Caesium 133 atom.
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4) For Current : Ampere (A) is that constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular cross section &
placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce between these conductors, a force
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equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per unit length.

5) For Temperature: Kelvin (K) is the fraction 1/273 of thermodynamic temperature of
the triple point of water.
6) For Luminous intensity: Candela (cd) is the luminous intensity in the perpendicular
direction of a surface of 1/6,00,000 m2 of a black body at the temperature of freezing
platinum under a pressure of 101325 N/m2.
7) For amount of substance: Mole (mol) is the amount of substance of a system
which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of
Carbon-12.
Supplementary SI units:

1) For Plane angle: Radian (rad)

2) For Solid angle: Steradian (sr)
Derived SI units:
1) For Frequency: Hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second)
2) For Force: Newton (1 N = 1 kg-m/s2)
3) For Energy: Joule (1 J = 1 N-m)
4) For Power: Watt (1 W = 1 J/s)
Errors In Measurements:-
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During measurement several types of error may arise as indicated and these error
can be broadly classified into two categories.
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a) Controllable Errors :
These are controllable in both their magnitude and sense. These can be
determined and reduced, if attempts are made to analyse them. These are also
known as systematic errors. These can be due to :
1.Calibration Errors :
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The actual length of standards such as slip gauges and engraved scales will vary
from nominal value by small amount. Sometimes the instrument inertia and
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hysteresis effects do not let the instrument translate with complete fidelity. Often
signal transmission errors such as a drop in voltage along the wires between the
transducer and the electric meter occur. For high order accuracy these variations
have positive significance and to minimize such variations calibration curves much
be used.
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2. Ambient Conditions :
Variations in the ambient conditions from internationally agreed standard value of

20oC, barometric pressure 760mm of mercury and 10mm of mercury vapour
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pressure, can give rise to errors in the measured size of the component.
Temperature is by far the most significant of these ambient conditions and due
correction is needed to obtain error free results.
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1.Stylus Pressure :
Error induced due to stylus pressure are also appreciable. Whenever any
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component in measured under a definite stylus pressure both the deformation of the
workpiece surface and deflection of the workpiece shape will occur.
Avoidable Errors :
These error include the errors due to Parallel and the effect of misalignment of the
workpiece centers. Instrument location errors such as placing a thermometer is
sunlight when attempting to measure air temperature also being to this category.
b) Random Errors :

These occur randomly and the specific causes of such errors cannot be
determined, but likely sources of this type of error are small variations in the position
of setting standards and workpiece, slight displacement of lever joints in the
measuring joints in the measuring instrument, transient flaction in the friction in the
measuring instrument and operator errors in reading scale and pointer type displays
or in reading engraved scale positions.
From the above, it is clear that systematic errors are those which are repeated
consistently with repetition of the experiment, where as random errors are those
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which are accidental and whose magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from a
knowledge of the measuring system and condition of measurement.
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Systematic error and random error:-
For statistical study and the study of accumulation of errors, errors are
categorized as controllable errors and random errors.
(a) Systematic or controllable errors: ta s

Systematic error is just a euphemism for experimental mistakes. These are
controllable in both their magnitude and sense. These can be determined and
reduced, if attempts are made to analyse them. However, they can not be revealed
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by repeated observations. These errors either have a constant value or a value
changing according to a definite law. These can be due to:
1. Calibration Errors: The actual length of standards such as slip gauges and
engraved scales will vary from nominal value by small amount. Sometimes the
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instrument inertia, hysteresis effects do not let the instrument translate with
complete fidelity. Often signal transmission errors such as drop in voltage
along the wires between the transducer and the electric meter occur. For high
order accuracy these variations have positive significance and to minimize
such variations calibration curves must be used.
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2. Ambient Conditions: Variations in the ambient conditions from internationally

agreed standard value of 20C, barometric pressure 760 mm of mercury, and
10mm of mercury vapour pressure, can give rise to errors in the measured
size of the component. Temperature is by far the most significant of these
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ambient conditions and due correction is needed to obtain error free results.
3. Styles Pressure: Error induced due to styles pressure is also appreciable.
Whenever any component is measured under a definite stylus pressure both
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the deformation of the workpiece surface and deflection of the workpiece

shape will occur.
4. Avoidable Errors: These errors include the errors due to parallax and the effect
of misalignment of the workpiece centre. Instrument location errors such as
placing a thermometer in sunlight when attempting to measure air temperature
also belong to this category.
5. Experimental arrangement being different from that assumed in theory.
6. Incorrect theory i.e., the presence of effects not taken into account.
(b) Random Errors:

These occur randomly and the specific cases of such errors cannot be
determined, but likely sources of this type of errors are small variations in the
position of setting standard and workpiece, slight displacement of lever joints in the
measuring joints in measuring instrument, transient fluctuation in the friction in the
measuring instrument, and operator errors in reading scale and pointer type displays
or in reading engraved scale positions.
Characteristics of random errors:
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The various characteristics of random errors are:
 These are due to large number of unpredictable and fluctuating causes that
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can not be controlled by the experimenter. Hence they are sometimes positive
and sometimes negative and of variable magnitude. Accordingly they get
revealed by repeated observations.
 These are caused by friction and play in the instrument‘s linkages, estimation
of reading by judging fractional part of a scale division, by errors in position the
measured object, etc. ta s
 These are variable in magnitude and sign and are introduced by the very
process of observation itself.
 The frequency of the occurrence of random errors depends on the occurrence
probability for different values of random errors.
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 Random errors show up as various indication values within the specified limits
of error in a series of measurements of a given dimension.
 The probability of occurrence is equal for positive and negative errors of the
same absolute value since random errors follow normal frequency distribution.
 Random errors of larger absolute value are rather than those of smaller
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values.
 The arithmetic mean of random errors in a given series of measurements
approaches zero as the number of measurements increases.
 For each method of measurement, random errors do not exceed a certain
definite value. Errors exceeding this value are regarded as gross errors
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(errors which greatly distort the results and need to be ignored).

 The most reliable value of the size being sought in a series of measurements
is the arithmetic mean of the results obtained.
 The main characteristic of random errors, which is used to determine the
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maximum measuring error, is the standard deviation.

 The maximum error for a given method of measurement is determined as
three times the standard deviation.
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 The maximum error determines the spread of possible random error values
 The standard deviation and the maximum error determine the accuracy of a
single measurement in given series.
From the above, it is clear that systematic errors are those which are repeated
consistently with repetition of the experiment, whereas Random Errors are those
which are accidental and whose magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from
knowledge of measuring system and conditions of measurement.

classification of measurements:-
In the precision measurements, various methods of measurement are

followed depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
The various methods of measurement are classified as follow :-
Direct method of measurement

Indirect method of measurement
Absolute method of measurement
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Comparative method of measurement
Contact method of measurement
Contact less method of measurement
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The direct method of measurement is one in which the measurement value in
determined directly where as in the indirect method of measurement the dimension
in determined by measuring the values functionally related to the required value.
The direct method of measurement is simple and most widely employed in
production. ta s
In many cases, for example, as when checking the pitch diameter of treads,
the direct method may lead to large errors in measurement. In this case, it is more
expedient to make indirect measurement.
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An absolute method of measurement in one in which the zero division of the
measuring tool or instrument corresponding zero value of the measured dimension.
eg. Steel rule, vernier Caliper, micrometer, Screw gauge). By absolute method the
full value of the dimension is determined.
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In the comparative method, only the deviation of the measured dimension

from a master gauge are determined (eg. Dial comparator).
In contact methods of measurement, the measuring tip of the instrument

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actually touches the surface to be measured, eg. By dial comparator, screw gauges
etc. In such cases arrangements for constant contact pressure should be provided
in order to prevent errors due to excess contact pressure.
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In Contact less method of measurement, no contact is required. Such

instruments include tool maker's micrometer and projection comparator.
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According to the functions, the measuring instruments classified as.

Length measuring instruments
Angle measuring instruments
Instrument for checking deviation from geometrical forms
Instrument for determining the quality of surface finish.
According to the accuracy of measurement, the measuring instrument are

classified as follows.
Most accurate instrument eg : light – interference instruments.
Second group consists of less accurate instruments. Such as tool room
Microscopes, comparator optimeter etc.

Third group consists of , still less accurate instruments eg: dial indicators, vernier
caliper and rules with vernier skills.
Measuring instrument are also classified in accordance with then metrological

proper ties, such as range of instrument, scale graduation value, scale spacing,
sensitivity and reading accuracy.
Range of Measurement :
It indicates the size values between which measurements may be made on
the given instrument.
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Scale Spacing :
It is the distance between the axis of two adjacent graduations on the scale.
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Scale division Value :
It the measured value corresponding to one division of the instrument scale,
eg. For Vernier Caliper the scale division value 0.1mm.
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Sensitivity (amplification or gearing ratio ):
It is the ratio of the scale spacing to the space division value. It would also be
expressed as the ratio of the product of all the larger lever arms and the product of
all the smaller lever arms.
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Sensitivity Threshold :
It is defined as the minimum measured value which may cause any
movement whatsoever of the indicating hand..
Reading Accuracy :
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It is the accuracy that may be attained in using a measuring instrument.
Reading Error :
It is defined as the difference between the reading of the instrument and the
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actual value of the dimension being measured.
Mention a few important precautions for use of instruments towards achieving

accuracy in measurement are as follows :
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The measurement must be made at right angles to the surfaces of the component.
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The component must be supported so that it does not collapse under the measuring
pressure or under its own weight.
The work piece must be cleaned before being measured, and coated with oil or a
corruption inhibitor after inspection.
Measuring instrument must be handled with care so that they are not damaged or
strained. They must be kept in their cases when not in use and kept clean and
lightly oiled on the bright surfaces. They should be regularly checked to ensure
that they have not lost their mutual accuracy.
 It must be emphasized that it is not good practice to rely on the accuracy of the
instruments and on the readings taken – readings should be double checked and

the instruments should be periodically checked against the appropriate standards.

Measuring instruments are produced to a high degree of accuracy, form the
engineer's common rule to the most complex optical instrument, and they should
be treated accordingly. Instruments are easily damaged, and very often the
damage is not noticeable. Always handle instrument with great care, and report
immediately any accidental damage. Protect highly polished surfaces from
corrosion by handling them as little as possible and by covering them with
petroleum jelly when not in use.
Sources of errors in precision measurement:-
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Failure to consider the following factors may introduce errors in measurement :
Alignment Principle
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Location of the measured part
Temperature
Parallax.
Alignment Principle (Abbe's Principle) :

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Abbe's principle of alignment states that " the axis or line of measurement of
the measured part should consider with the measuring scale or axis or measurement
of measuring instrument ".
The effect of simple scale alignment error is shown in fig.

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L
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L
Q JCL
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if Q = angle of scale misalignment

L = apparent length
Loose = true length
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if e = induced error
then,
e = L-L cose
= L(1-CoseC)
An alignment error of 2o over iN introduces an error of approximately 0.6mm.
Error in introduced to dial indicator readings if the plunger axis does not
coincide with the axis or line of measurement.
Q

If e = Induced error
L = change in indicator reading,
reading.
L case = Surface displacement
\ e = L (1-Cose) Line or axis of measure Dial gauge axis.
To ensure correct displacement readings on the dial indicator the plunger

must, of course be normal to the surface in both mutually perpendicular planes.
A second source of error will illustrated by the vernier Caliper and similar
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instruments or circumstance is associated with measuring pressure or "feel". The
measuring pressure in applied by the adjusting screw which is adjacent and parallel
to the scale. A bending moment in introduced equal to the product of the force
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applied by the adjusting screw and the perpendicular distance between the screw
centre line and the line of measurement as in Fig.
Variation of force applied at the screw are augmented at the line of

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measurement and a hot unusual form of damage to Vernier Caliper is permanent
distortion to the measuring jaws presumably from this source as in fig.
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Location :
when using a sensitive comparator, the measured part in located on a table

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which forms the datum for comparison with the standard. The comparator reading in
thus an indication of the displacement of the upper surface of the measured part
from the datum. Faults at the location surface of the part damage, geometrical
variations from part to part or the presence of foreign matter are also transmitted to
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the indicator. This provides false information regarding the true length of the part by
introducing both sine and cosine error.
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Where location conditions may not be ideal, ex:- inter stage measurement
during production, sensors, operating on each side of the component can be used
which eliminate the more serious sine type error. A two probe system measures
length rather than surface displacement and highly sensitive electronic comparators
of this type are used for slip gauge measurement.
Temperature :-
The standard reference temp. at which line and end standards are said to be
at their true length is 20o and for highest accuracy in measurement this temp.

Should be maintained. When this is not possible and the length at reference temp.
must be known, a correction is made to allow for the difference between ambient and
reference temp. The correction value required to – 0.001375mm, when steel object
exactly 25mm long at 20oC and Co-efficient of linear expansion 11Mm c/m in
measured at 25oC, Which is rather larger than the increment step the M88/2 stip
gauge set.
However, for less stringent measurement requirements it is not essential that

correction to reference temperature is made provided that the following precautions
and conditions are observed.
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a) The temp. at which measurement is made is not changing significantly.
b) The gauge and work being compared are at the same temp and the temp is the
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same as ambient temp.
c) The gauge and work have the same Co-efficient of linear expansion.
Conditions a) and b) can be met if gauge and work allowed sufficient time to reach
equal temp with surrounding after being arranged in the measuring positions.
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If the measurement can be carried out on the surface of a large mass, eg:
Surface plate, then temp. equalization will be family vapid as heat will be conducted
away form the work and gauge but will not contribute any significant temp. change to
the plate.
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A component having a co-efficient of linear expansion significantly different from the
gauge may be said to correct to size only at a given temp.
Parallax Effect :
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On most dials the indicating finger or pointer lies in a plane parallel to the
scale but displaced a small distance away to allow free movement of the pointer. It
is then essential to observe the pointer along a line normal to the scale otherwise a
reading error will occur. This effect is shown in fig. Where a dial is shown observed
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from three positions where the pointer is set at zero on the scale, observed from
position 1) ie, from the left, the pointer appears to indicate some value, to the right
off zero, and from position 2) Some value slightly to the left of zero, while only at
position. 3) With the pointer Coincide with zero on the scale. Rules and micrometer
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thimbles are beveled to reduce this effect and on dials the indicates may be
arranged to lie in the same plane as the scale, thus completely eliminating parallax,
or a silvered reflector may be incorporated on the scale so that the line between the
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of eye and pointer is normal to the scale only when the pointer obscures in own
image in the reflector.
Classifications of Methods of Measurements
In precision measurements various methods of measurement are followed

depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
There are numerous ways in which a quantity can be measured. Any method
of measurements should be defined in such a detail and followed by such a standard

practice that there is little scope for uncertainty. The nature of the procedure in
some of the most common measurements is described below. Actual
measurements may employ one or more combinations of the following.
(i) Direct method of measurement: In this method the value of a quantity of

obtained directly by comparing the unknown with the standard. It involves
no mathematical calculations to arrive at the results, for example,
measurement of length by a graduated scale. The method is not very
accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness in making
judgement.
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(ii) Indirect method of measurement: In this method several parameters (to
which the quantity to be measured is linked with) are measured directly
and then the value is determined by mathematical relationship. For
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example, measurement of density by measuring mass and geometrical
dimensions.
(iii) Fundamental method of measurement: Also known as the absolute
method of measurement, it is based on the measurement of the base
quantities used to define the quantity. For example, measuring a quantity
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directly in accordance with the definition of that quantity, or measuring a
quantity indirectly by direct measurement of the quantities linked with the
definition of the quantity to be measured.
(iv) Comparison method of measurement: This method involves comparison
with either a known value of the same quantity or another quantity which is
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function of the quantity to be measured.
(v) Substitution method of measurement: In this method, the quantity to be
measured is measured by direct comparison on an indicating device by
replacing the measuring quantity with some other known quantity which
produce same effect on the indicating device. For example, determination
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of mass by Borda method.

(vi) Transposition method of measurement: This is a method of
measurement by direct comparison in which the value of the quantity to be
measured is first balanced by a initial known value A of the same quantity;
next the value of the quantity to be measured is put in the place of that
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known value and is balanced again by a second known value B. When

the balance indicating device gives the same indication in both cases, the
value of the quantity to be measured is AB . For example, determination
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of a mass by means of a balance and known weights, using the Gauss

double weighing method.
(vii) Differential or comparison method of measurement: This method
involves measuring the difference between the given quantity and a known
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master of near about the same value. For example, determination of

diameter with master cylinder on a comparator.
(viii) Coincidence method of measurement: In this differential method of
measurement the very small difference between the given quantity and the
reference is determined is determined by the observation of the
coincidence of scale marks. For example, measurement on vernier
caliper.
(ix) Null method of measurement: In this method the quantity to be
measured is compared with a known source and the difference between
these two is made zero.

(x) Deflection method of measurement: In this method, the value of the

quantity is directly indicated by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated
scale.
(xi) Interpolation method of measurement: In this method, the given
quantity is compared with two or more known value of near about same
value ensuring at least one smaller and one bigger than the quantity to be
measured and the readings interpolated.
(xii) Extrapolation method of measurement: In this method, the given
quantity is compared with two or more known smaller values and
extrapolating the reading.
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(xiii) Complimentary method of measurement: This is the method of
measurement by comparison in which the value of the quantity to be
measured is combined with a known value of the same quantity so
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adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to predetermined
comparison value. For example, determination of the volume of a solid by
liquid displacement.
(xiv) Composite method of measurement: In involves the comparison of the
actual contour of a component to be checked with its contours in maximum
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and minimum tolerable limits. This method provides for the checking of
the cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the component
which are controlled through a combined tolerance. This method is most
reliable to ensure inter-changeability and is usually effected through the
use of composite ―Go‖ gauges, for example, checking of the thread of a
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nut with a screw plug ―GO‖ gauge.
(xv) Element method: In this method, the several related dimensions are
gauged individually, i.e., each component element is checked separately.
For example, in the case of thread, the pitch diameter, pitch, and flank
angle are checked separately and then the virtual pitch diameter is
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calculated. It may be noted that value of virtual pitch diameter depends on

the deviations of the above thread elements. The functioning of thread
depends on virtual pitch diameter lying within the specified tolerable limits.
In case of composite method, all the three elements need not be checked
separately and is thus useful for checking the product parts. Element
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method is used for checking tools and for detecting the causes of rejects in
the product.
(xvi) Contact and contact less methods of measurements: In contact
methods of measurements, the measuring tip of the instrument actually
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touches the surface to be measured. In such cases, arrangements for

constant contact pressure should be provided in order to prevent errors
due to excess contact pressure. In contactless method of measurements,
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no contact is required. Such instruments include tool – maker‘s

microscope and projection comparator, etc.
For every method of measurement a detailed definition of the equipment to be

used, a sequential list of operations to be performed, the surrounding environmental
conditions and descriptions of all factors influencing accuracy of measurement at the
required level must be prepared and followed.

Metrological characteristics of Measuring Instruments:-

Measuring instruments are usually specified by their metrological properties,
such as range of measurement, scale graduation value, scale spacing, sensitivity
and reading accuracy.
Range of Measurement: It indicates the size values between which

measurements may be made on the given instrument.
Scale range: It is the difference between the values of the measured

quantities corresponding to the terminal scale marks.
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Instrument range: It is the capacity or total range of values which an
instrument is capable of measuring. For example, a micrometer screw gauge with
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capacity of 25 to 50mm has instrument range of 25 to 50mm but scale range is
25mm.
Scale Spacing: It is the distance between the axes of two adjacent

graduations on the scale. Most instruments have a constant value of scale spacing
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throughout the scale. Such scales are said to be linear.
In case of non – linear scales, the scale spacing value is variable within the
limits of the scale.
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Scale Division Value: It is the measured value of the measured quantity
corresponding to one division of the instrument, e.g. for ordinary scale, the scale
division value is 1mm. As a rule, the scale division should not be smaller in value
than the permissible indication error of an instrument.
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Sensitivity (Amplication or gearing ratio): It is the ratio of the scale spacing to

the division value. It could also be expressed as the ratio of the product of all the
larger lever arms and the product of all the smaller lever arms. It is the property of a
measuring instrument to respond to changes in the measurement quantity.
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Sensitivity Threshold: It is defined as the minimum measured value which

may cause any movement whatsoever of the indicating hand. It is also called the
discrimination or resolving power of an instrument and is the minimum change in the
quantity being measured which produces a perceptible movement of the index.
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Reading Accuracy: It is the accuracy that may be attained in using a

measuring instrument.
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Reading Error: It is defined as the difference between the reading of the

instrument and the actual value of the dimension being measured.
Accuracy of observation: It is accuracy attainable in reading the scale of an

instrument. It depends on the quality of the scale marks, the width or the pointer /
index, the space between the pointer and the scale, the illumination of the scale, and
the skill of the inspector. The width of scale mark is usually kept one – tenth of the
scale spacing for accurate reading of indications.

Parallax: It is apparent change in the position of the index relative to the scale
marks, when the scale is observed in a direction other than perpendicular to its
plane.
Repeatability: It is the variation of indications in repeated measurements of

the same dimension. The variations may be due to clearances, friction and
distortions in the instrument‘s mechanism. Repeatability represents the
reproducibility of the readings of an instrument when a series of measurements in
carried out under fixed conditions of use.
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Measuring force: It is the force produced by an instrument and acting upon
the measured surface in the direction of measurement. It is usually developed by
springs whose deformation and pressure change with the displacement of the
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instrument‘s measuring spindle.
Precision and Accuracy:-
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The agreement of the measured value with the true value of the measured
quantity is called accuracy. If the measurement of a dimensions of a part
approximates very closely to the true value of that dimension, it is said to be
accurate. Thus the term accuracy denotes the closeness of the measured value with
the true value. The difference between the measured value and the true value is the
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error of measurement. The lesser the error, more is the accuracy.
Precision, The terms precision and accuracy are used in connection with the
performance of the instrument. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring
process. It refers to the group of measurements for the same characteristics taken
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under identical conditions. It indicates to what extent the identically performed

measurements agree with each other. If the instrument is not precise it will give
different (widely varying) results for the same dimension when measured again and
again. The set of observations will scatter about the mean. The scatter of these
measurements is designated as , the standard deviation. It is used as an index of
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precision. The less the scattering more precise is the instrument. Thus, lower, the
value of , the more precise is the instrument.
Accuracy: Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality
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characteristic agrees with the true value. The difference between the true value and
the measured value is known as error of measurement.
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Distinction between Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy is very often confused with precision though much different. The
distinction between the precision and accuracy will become clear by the following
example. Several measurements are made on a component by different types of
instruments (A, B and C respectively) and the results are plotted. In any set of
measurements, the individual measurements are scattered about the mean, and the
precision signifies how well the various measurements performed by same
instrument on the same quality characteristics agree with each other.

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The difference between the mean of set of readings of the same quality
characteristic and the true value is called as error. Less the error more accurate is
the instrument.
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Figure shows that the instrument A is precise since the results of number of
measurements are close to the average value. However, there is a large difference
(error) between the true value and the average value hence it is not accurate.
The readings taken by the instruments are scattered much from the average
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value and hence it is not precise but accurate as there is a small difference between
the average value and true value.
Figure shows that the instrument is accurate as well as precise.

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Factors affecting the accuracy of the measuring system:-

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The basic components of an accuracy evaluation are the five elements of a

measuring system such as:
1. Factors affecting the calibration standards

2. Factors affecting the workpiece
3. Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of the instrument
4. Factors affecting the person, who carries out the measurements, and
5. Factors affecting the environment.
1. Factors affecting the standard. It may be affected by:

a. Coefficient of thermal expansion,

b. Calibration interval,
c. Stability with time,
d. Elastic properties,
e. Geometric compatibility
2. Factors affecting the Workpiece, these are:
a. Cleanliness, surface finish, waviness, scratch, surface defects etc.,
b. Hidden geometry,
c. Elastic properties,
d. Adequate datum on the workpiece
e. Arrangement of supporting workpiece
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f. Thermal equalization etc.
3. Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of Instrument
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a. Adequate amplification for accuracy objective,
b. Scale error,
c. Effect of friction, backlash, hysteresis, zero drift error,
d. Deformation in handling or use, when heavy workpieces are measured
e. Calibration errors,
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f. Mechanical parts (slides, guide ways or moving elements)
g. Repeatability and readability
h. Contact geometry for both workpiece and standard
4. Factors affecting person:
a. Training, skill
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b. Sense of precision appreciation,
c. Ability to select measuring instruments and standards
d. Sensible appreciation of measuring cost,
e. Attitude towards personal accuracy achievements
f. Planning measurement techniques for minimum cost, consistent with
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precision requirements etc
5. Factors affecting Environment:

a. Temperature, humidity etc.,
b. Clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision,
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c. Adequate illumination
d. Temperature equalization between standard, workpiece, and
instrument,
e. Thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights, heating
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elements, sunlight and people,

f. Manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
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Higher accuracy can be achieved only if, all the sources of error due to the above
five elements in the measuring system are analysed and steps taken to eliminate
them.
The above analysis of five basic metrology elements can be composed into
the acronym.
SWIPE, for convenient reference

Where, S – STANDARD

W - WORKPIECE
I - INSTRUMENT
P - PERSON
E - ENVIRONMENT
Terms of measuring systems:-
(i) Sensitivity
(ii) Readability
(iii) Calibration
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(iv) Repeatability
Sensitivity
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Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating
device of a instrument, with respect to the measured quantity. In other words,
sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the scale spacing to the scale division
value. For example, if on a dial indicator, the scale spacing is 1.0 mm and the scale
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division value is 0.01 mm, then sensitivity is 100. It is also called as amplification
factor or gearing ratio.
If we now consider sensitivity over the full range o instrument reading with
respect to measured quantities as shown in Fig., the sensitivity at any value of
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dy
y where dx and dy are increments of x and y, taken over the full instrument
dx
scale, the sensitivity is the slope of the curve at any value of y.
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The sensitivity may be constant or variable along the scale. In the first case
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we get linear transmission and in the second non-linear transmission and in the
second non-linear transmission.
Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small difference

in a quantity being measured. High sensitivity instruments may lead to drifts due to
thermal or other effects, and indications of lower sensitivity.
Readability
Readability refers to the ease with which the readings of a measuring

instrument can be read. It is the susceptibility of a measuring device to have its

indications converted into meaningful number. Fine and widely spaced graduation
lines ordinarily improve the readability. If the graduation lines are very finely spaced,
the scale will be more readable by using the microscope, however, with the naked
eye the readability will be poor.
To make micrometers more readable they are provided with vernier scale. It
can also be improved by using magnifying devices.
Calibration:
The calibration of any measuring instrument is necessary to measure the
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quantity in terms of standard unit. It is the process of framing the scale of the
instrument by applying some standardized signals. Calibration is a premeasurement
process, generally carried out by manufactures.
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It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read out device produces
zero output for zero measured input. Similarly, it should display an output equivalent
to the known measured input near the full scale input value.
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The accuracy of the instrument depends upon the calibration. Constant uses
of instruments affect heir accuracy. If the accuracy is to be maintained, the
instruments must be checked and recalibrated if necessary. The schedule of such
calibration depends upon the severity of use, environmental conditions, accuracy of
measurement required etc. as far as possible calibration should be performed under
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environmental conditions which are vary close to the conditions under which actual
measurements are carried out. If the output of a measuring system is linear and
repeatable, it can be easily calibrated.
Repeatability,
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It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results for the
measurements for the same quantity, when the measurement are carried out
- by the same observer

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- With the same instrument

- Under the same conditions.
- Without any change in location.
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Standards:-
Line and End Measurements

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A length may be measured as the distance between two lines or as he

distance between two parallel faces. So, the instruments for direct measurement of
linear dimensions fall into two categories
1. Line standards
2. End standards
Line standards. When the length is measured as the distance between

centres of two engraved lines, it is called line standard. Both material standards yard

and metre are line standards. The most common example of line measurement is
the rule with divisions shown as lines marked on it.
Characteristics of Line Standard
1. Scales can be accurately engraved but the engraved lines them selves
possess thickness and it is not possible to take measurements with high
accuracy.
2. A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.
3. The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However, he leading ends
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are subjected to wear and this may lead to undersize measurements.
4. A scale does not posses a ―built in ― datum. Therefore it is not possible to
align the scale with the axis of measurement.
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5. Scales are subjected to parallax error.
6. Also, the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required if
sufficient accuracy is to be achieved.
End standards: When length is expressed as the distance between two flat parallel
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faces, it is known as ends standard. Examples: Measurement by slip gauges, end
bars, ends of micrometer anvils, vernier calipers etc. the end faces are hardened,
lapped flat and parallel to a very high degree of accuracy.
Characteristics of End Standards:

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1. These standards are highly accurate and used for measurement of close
tolerance in precision engineering as well as in standard laboratories, tool
rooms, inspection departments etc.
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2. They require more time for measurements and measure only one
dimension at a time.
3. They are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.

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4. Group of slips can be ―wrung‖ together to build up a given size; faulty

wringing and careless use may lead to inaccurate results.
5. End standards have built in datum since their measuring faces are flat and
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parallel and can positively locked on datum surface.
6. They are not subjected to parallax effect as their use depends on feel.
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The accuracy of both these standards is affected by temperature change and

1
both are originally calibrated at 20 C. It is also necessary to take utmost case in
2
their manufacture to ensure that the change of shape with time, secular change is
reduced to negligible.

line and end standard measurements:
Comparison between line standards and End Standards:
Sr. Characteristi
Line standard End standard
No. cs
Length is expressed as the Length is expressed as the distance between two
1. Principle
distance between two lines flat parallel faces
Limited to is 0.2 mm for high Highly accurate for measurement of close
accuracy, scales have to be tolerances up to  0.001 mm.
2. Accuracy
used in conjunction with
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magnifying glass or microscope.
Ease and Measurement is quick and easy. Use of end standard requires skill and is time
3. time of and consuming.
easy.
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Scale markings are not subject These are subjected to wear on their measuring
to wear. However, significant surfaces.
4. Effect of wear wear may occur on leading
ends. Thus it may be difficult to
assume zero of scale as datum.
Cannot be easily aligned with
ta s Can be easily aligned with the axis of measurement.
5. Alignment
the axis of measurement.
Manufacture Simple to manufacture at low Manufacturing process is complex and cost is high
6.
and cost cost.
Parallax They are subjected to parallax They are not subjected to parallax error.
7.
effect error.
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8. Examples Scale (yard, metre etc.,) Slip gauges, end bars, V. caliper, micrometers etc.
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UNIT – II-LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Measurement of Engineering Components
Gauges are used mainly to check the Engineering Components produced on
mass scale, where the job is usually handled by semi-skilled workers. This type of
measurement cannot be relied upon where accuracy is more important. The different
methods and instruments used for precision & accurate (linear & angular)
measurements are discussed in this unit.
Comparator
It is a precision instrument employed to compare the dimension of a given
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component with a working standard (generally slip gauges). It does not measure the
actual dimension but indicates how much it differs from the basic dimension (working
standard).
Uses of Comparator :
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 For calibrating the working gauges
 Used as working gauges
 Used as final inspection gauges
Essential characteristics of a good Comparator :

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 Robust design and construction
 Linear characteristics of scale
 High magnification
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 Quick in results
 Versatility
 Minimum wear of contact point
 Free from back lash
 Quick insertion of work piece
 Provision for compensation from temperature effects
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 Provision for means to prevent damage during use.
Classification of comparators
1) Mechanical comparator
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a) Dial indicator
b) Johansson ‗Mikrokator‘ comparator
c) Sigma comparator
d) Reed type mechanical comparator
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2) Optical comparator
a) Zeiss Ultra optimeter
b) Zeiss optotest comparator
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3) Mechanical – Optical comparator

4) Electrical comparator
5) Fluid displacement comparator
6) Pneumatic comparator
a) Back pressure comparator
b) Flow – velocity Pneumatic comparator
In addition, the comparators used in standards room
for calibration of gauges are :
7) Brookes Level comparator
8) Eden-Rolt ‗Millionth‘ Comparator

Basic principle of operation of comparator

The comparator is first adjusted to zero on its dial or recording device with a
gauge block in position. The gauge block (slip gauges) is of dimension which the
work piece should have. The work piece to be checked is then placed in position and
the comparator gives the difference in dimension in relation to the gauge block. The
dimension of the work piece may be less than, equal to, or greater than the standard
dimension. The difference in the dimension will be shown in the dial or in the
recording device of the comparator.
Mechanical Comparators: Various mechanical comparators are discussed next.
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Dial indicator
It is the simplest type of mechanical comparator. It consists of a base with a rigid
column and an arm carrying dial gauge (dial indicator). The arm can be adjusted
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vertically up and down along the column. The arm can be swivelled and the dial
gauge also can be locked in any position along its arm. The whole set up is placed
on the surface place which is used as a datum surface.
uses, characteristics and classification of a comparator.
(i) Uses of Comparator

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The various ways in which comparators can be used are:
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1. Laboratory Standards: Comparators are used
as laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges are sent and co-
related.
2. Working Gauges: They are also used as
working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain required tolerance at all
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important stages of manufacture.

3. Final Inspection Gauges: Comparators may be used as final inspection
gauges where selective assembly, of production parts is necessary.
4. Receiving Inspection Gauges: As receiving
inspection gauges comparators are used for checking parts received from outside
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sources.
5. For checking newly purchased gauges: The use of comparators enables
the checking of the parts (components in mass production at a very fast rate)
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(ii) Essential characteristics of a good comparator
1. Robust design and construction: The design and construction of the

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comparator should be robust so that it can withstand the effects of ordinary

uses without affecting its measuring accuracy.
2. Linear characteristics of scale: Recording or measuring scale should be linear
and uniform (straight line characteristic) and its indications should be clear.
3. High magnification: The magnification of the comparator should be such that a
smallest deviation in size of components can be easily detected.
4. Quick in results: The indicating system should be such that the readings are
obtained in least possible time.
5. Versatility: Instruments should be designed that it can be used for wide range
of measurements.

6. Minimum wear of contact point. The measuring plunger should have hardened
steel contact or diamond to minimize wear effects. Further the contact
pressure should be low and uniform.
7. Free from oscillations: The pointer should come rapidly to rest and should be
free from oscillations.
8. Free from back lash: System should be free from back lash and unnecessary
friction and it should have minimum inertia.
9. Quick insertion of workpiece: Means should be provided for lifting the plunger
for quick insertion of work.
10. Adjustable Table: The table of the instrument should, preferably, be
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adjustable in a vertical sense.
11. Compensation from temperature effects: The indicator should be provided
with maximum compensation for temperature effects.
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12. Means to prevent damage: Suitable means should be provided for preventing
damage of the instrument in the event of the plunger moving through a
greater distance than that corresponding to the range of its measuring scale.
(iii) Classification
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A wide variety of comparators are commercially available at present. They are
classified according to the method used for amplifying and recording the variations
measured into the following types.
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1. Mechanical comparators
2. Optical comparators
3. Mechanical-Optical comparators
4. Electrical and Electronics comparators
5. Pneumatic comparators
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6. Fluid displacement comparators

7. Projection comparators.
8. Multi check comparators
9. Automatic Gauging Machines
10. Electro-Mech. Comparators.
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In addition to above, comparators of particularly high sensitivity and

magnification, used in standard rooms for calibration of gauge include.
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1. The Brookes Level comparator

2. The Eden-Rolt‘millionth‘ comparator.
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Slip Gauges
Slip gauges or gauge blocks are universally accepted end standard of length in
industry. These were introduced by Johnson, a Sweedish engineer, and are also
called as Johnson Gauges.
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade steel with exceptionally close
tolerances. These blocks are suitably hardened though out to ensure maximum
resistance to wear. They are then stabilized by heating and cooling successively in

stages so that hardening stresses are removed.
After being hardened they are carefully finished by high grade lapping to a high
degree of finish, flatness and accuracy. For successful use of slip gauges their
working face are made truly flat and parallel. A slip gauge are also made from
tungsten carbide which is extremely hard and wear resistance.
The cross- sections of these gauges are 9mm 30mm for sizes up to 10mm and
9mm35mm for larger sizes. Any two slips when perfectly clean may be wrung
together. The dimensions are permanently marked on one of the measuring faces of
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gauge blocks.
Gauges blocks are used for:
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(i) Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of the work piece
demands it.
(ii) For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro metes, and such other
measuring instruments.
(iii) Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
(iv)
(v)
conjunction with a sine bar.
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For measuring angle of work piece and also for angular setting in
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often best measured
with the slip gauges or end bars for large dimensions.
(vi) To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or
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between two mating parts.
There are many measurements which can be made with slip gauges either alone
or in conjunction with other simple apparatus such as straight edges, rollers, balls
sine bars etc.
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Wringing of Slip Gauges
The success of precision measurement by slip gauges on the phenomenon of

wringing. The slip gauges are wrung together by hand through a combined sliding
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and twisting motion. The gap between two wrung slips is only of the order of 0.00635
microns (0.63510-3mm) which is negligible.
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Procedure for Wringing
(i) Before using, the slip gauges are cleaned by using a lint free cloth, a
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chamois leather or a cleansing tissue.

(ii) One slip gauge is then oscillated slightly over the other gauge with a light
pressure.
(iii) One gauge is then placed at 900 to other by using light pressure and then
it is rotated until the blocks one brought in one line.
In this way is air is expelled out from between the gauge faces causing the gauge
blocks to adhere. The adhesion is caused partly by molecular attraction and partly by
atmospheric pressure. When two gauges are wrung in this manner is exactly the
sum of their individual dimensions. The wrung gauge can be handled as a unit

without the need for clamping all the pieces together.
Indian Standard on Slip Gauges
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According to IS: 2984-1966, the size of the slip gauges is defined as the distance l
between two plane measuring faces, are being constituted by the surface of an
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auxiliary body with which one of the slip gauge faces is wrung and the other by the
exposed face to the slip gauge faces is wrung and the other by the exposed face to
the slip gauge. Generally the slip gauges are made from high grade steel with
coefficient of thermal expansion (11.5+1.5) 10-6 per degree Celsius between 10C to
300C. The slip gauges are hardened more than 800 HV to make them wear resistant.
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IS:2984 ‗ slip gauges‘ gives recommendations covering the manufacture of gauge
blocks upto 90mm in length in five grades of accuracy.
Grade II. Grade II gauge blocks are workshop grade for rough checks. They are
used for preliminary setting up of components where production tolerances are
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relatively wide; for positioning milling cutters and checking mechanical widths.
Grade I. Grade I gauge blocks are used fro more precise work such as setting up
since bars, checking gap gauges and setting dial test indicators to zero.
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Grade 0. These are inspection grade gauge blocks, used in tool room and
inspection department for high accuracy work.
Grade OO. These gauges are placed in the standard room and used for highest
precision work. Such as checking Grade I and Grade II slip gauges.
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Calibration Grade. This is a special grade, with the actual size of the slips calibrated
on a special chart supplied with a set. The chart must be referred while making up
dimension.
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The following two sets of slip gauges are in general use:
Normal set (M-45)

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Range (mm), Pieces

Step (mm)
1.01 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.09 0.01 9
1.1 to 1.9 0.1 9
1 to 9 1 9
10 to 90 10 9
Total 45 Pieces

Special set (M-87)
Range (mm) Step (mm) Pieces

1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.09 0.01 49
0.5 to 0.5 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
1.005 - 1
Total 87 Pieces
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The other sets available in metric units are: M112,M105,M50,M33 and M27. The
sets M112 and M33 are as follows.
Set M112
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1.001 to 1.00 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 24.50 0.05 49
25 to 100
1.005
25
-
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1
Total 112 Pieces
Set M33/2(2mm based set

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2.005 - 1
2.01 to 2.09 0.01 9
2.10 to 2.90 0.1 9
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1 to 9 1 9
10.30 10 3
60 - 1
100 - 1
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Total 33 Pieces
different types of limit gauges:

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Limit Gauges: Limit gauges are very widely used in industries. As there are two
permissible limits of the dimension of a part, high and low, two gauges are needed to
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check each dimension of the part, one corresponding the low limit of size and other
to the high limit of size of that dimension. These are known as GO and NO-GO
gauges.
The differences between the sizes of these two gauges is equal to the tolerance
on the work piece. GO gauges check the Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and NO-GO
gauge checks the minimum metal limit (LML). In the case of hole, maximum metal
limit is when the hole is as small as possible, that is, it is the low limit of size. In case
of hole, therefore, GO gauge corresponds to the low limit of size, while NO- GO
gauge corresponds to high limit of size. For a shaft, the maximum metal limit is when
the shaft is on the high limit of size. Thus, in case of a shift GO gauge corresponds

to the high limit of size and NO-GO gauge corresponds to the low limit size.
While checking, each of these two gauges is offered in turn to the work. A part is
considered to be good, if the GO gauge passes through or over the work and NO-
GO gauge fails to pass under the action of the part ;is within the specified tolerance.
If both the gauges fail to pass, it indicates that hole is under size or shaft is over size.
If both the gauges pass, it means that the hole is over size or the shaft is under size.
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Limit Plug Gauges
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Gauges used for checking the holes are called ―Plug gauges‖. The ‗GO‘ plug
gauge is the size of the low limit of the hole while ‗NO-GO‘ plug gauge is the size of
the high limit of hole.
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Types of Plug Gauges
1. Solid type. For sizes up to 10mm. (Refer Fig. 9.17)

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2. Renewable type (Taper inserted type). For sizes over 10mm and up to 30mm.
(Refer Fig. 9.18)
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3. Fastened type:

(a) Double – ended: For sizes over 30mm and up to 63mm

(b) Single-ended: For sizes over 63mm and up to 100mm (Refer Fig.
9.20).
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4. Flat type. For sizes over 100mm and up to 250mm. (Refer Fig. 9.22).
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5. Progressive type. For relatively short through hole. It has both the ends on
one side of the gauge as shown in Fig. 9.21.
6. Pilot Plug gauge. To avoid jamming of the plug gauge inside of the hole pilot
groove type gauge (Fig. 9.25) may be used. In pilot plug gauge there is first a
small chamber, then a narrow ring or pilot-its diameter being equal to that of

the body of the gauge, the pilot is of the nature of an ellipse in respect to the
hole. It touches at two points across the major axis which is the diameter of
the plug on entering the hole. If the pilot enters the hole it is sufficiently large
for the rest of the gauge to enter. The chamber behind the pilot lifts the gauge
into link, making jamming impossible. The advantages of such a gauge are
that the operator can work even with less care and there is saving in time.
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Pilot Plug Gauge
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7. Combined dual purpose limit gauge. Combined plug gauge combines both the
GO and NO-GO dimensions in a single member. Thus a single gauge may be
used to check both the upper and lower limits. It consist of a spherical end A
of the diameter equal to the lower limit. A spherical projection B of the outer
edge of the spherical member (Refer Fig. 9.26) is arranged so that the
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spherical surface B and the diametrically opposite part on the spherical
surface is equal to the maximum limit.
For checking the hole by combined limit gauge, for ‗GO‘ limit the gauge is inserted
into the hole with the handle parallel to the axis of the hole. For checking the hole the
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‗NO- GO‘ limit, the gauge is tilted so that the spherical projection B is normal to the
hole. The gauge in this position should not enter the hole.
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The plug gauges are marked with the

following on their handles for their identification:
(i) Nominal size,

(ii) Class of tolerance
(iii) The word Go on the Go side

(iv) The words NOGO (or Not- Go) on the Not-Go side
(v) The actual value of the tolerance
(vi) Manufacturer‘s trade mark.
(vii) A red colour band near the Not-Go end to distinguish in from the Go-end.
Snap, Gap or Ring Gauges
Snap gauges, Gap gauges or Ring gauges are used for checking the shafts or
male components. Snap gauges can be used for both cylindrical as well as non-
cylindrical work or compared to ring gauges which are conventionally used only for
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cylindrical work. To Go snap gauge is the size corresponding to the high limit of the
shaft, while the ‗NO GO‘ gauge corresponds to the low limit. Double – ended snap
gauges can be conveniently used for checking sizes from 3 mm to 100mm and
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single- ended progressive type snap gauges are suitable for sizes from 100mm to
250mm. The gauging surfaces of the snap gauges are hardened up to 750 HV and
are suitably stabilized, ground, and lapped. Ring gauges are available in two
designs, ‗GO‘ and ‗NO-GO‘. These are designated by ‗GO‘ and ‗NO-GO‘ as may be
applicable, the nominal size, the tolerance of the work piece to be gauged, and the
number of the standard allowed. ta s
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Adjustable Type Gap Gauges

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In case of fixed gap gauges, no change can be made in the size, range, whereas
in adjustable gauges the gauging anvils are adjustable endwise in the horse-shoe
frame. Thus, a small change within about 0.002mm can be made in the size range.
For example, suppose gauge is used to check a 50mm for shaft. If for some reason
the tolerance is changed to, say, a tolerance grade of f8 or f6, the same gauge can
be used after adjustment. Also the anvils of such gauges can be reset with the help
of slip gauges, by means of independent and finely threaded screws provided at the
back end. After resetting they can be finally locked in position by means of clamping
screw. Fixed gauges are less expensive initially, but they do not permit adjustment to

compensate for wear and can also be used over a small range of different setting.
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Fig9.29
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Fig9.30
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Fig.9.31

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Fig.9.32
Taylor‟s Principle of Gauge Design:

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It state that (1) GO gauges should be designed to check the maximum material
limit, while the NO-GO gauges should be designed to check the minimum material
limit.
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Now, the plug gauges are used to check the hole, therefore the size of the GO
plug gauge should correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of NO-GO plug
gauge corresponds to the high limit of hole.
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Similarly, the ‗GO Snap gauge‘ on the other hand corresponds to the high limit of
shaft, while ‗NO-GO Snap‘ gauge corresponds to the low limit of shaft.
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The difference in size between the GO and NOGO plug gauges, as well as the
difference in size between GO and NO-GO Snap gauges is approximately equal to
the tolerance of the tested hole or shaft in case of standard gauges.
(2) ‗GO‘ gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location
etc). Simultaneously whereas ‗NO-GO‘ gauge should check only one element of the
dimension at a time.
According to this rule, GO plus gauge should have a full circular section and be of
full length of the hole it has to check. This ensures that any lack of straightness, or

roundness of the hole will prevent the entry of full length GO-plug gauge. If this
condition is not fulfilled, the inspection of the part with the gauge may give wrong
give wrong results.
For example, suppose the bush to be inspected has a curved axis and a short
‗GO‘ plug gauge is used to check it. The short plug gauge will pass through all the
curves of the bent bushing. This will lead to a wrong result that the work pieces
(hole) are within the prescribed limits. Actually, such a bushing with a curved hole
will not mute properly with its mating part and thus defective. A GO plug gauge with
adequate length will not pass through a curved bushing and the error will be
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detected. A long plug gauge will thus check the cylindrical surface not in one
direction, but in a number of sections simultaneously. The length of the ‗GO‘ plug
gauge should not be less than 1.5 times the diameter of the hole to be checked.
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Fig. 9.34
Now suppose the hole to be checked has an oval shape While checking it with the
cylindrical ‗NOT GO‘ gauge the hole under inspection will over lap (hatched portion)
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the plug and thus will not enter the hole. This will again lead to wrong conclusion that
the part is within the prescribed limits. It will be therefore more appropriate to make
the ‗NOT GO‘ gauge in the form of a pin as shown in Fig. 9.35.
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The Johansson Mikrokator
This instrument was first devised by m/s C.F. Johansson and hence the
name. It uses a twisted strip to convert small linear movement of a plunger into a
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large circular movement of a pointer. It is therefore, also called as twisted strip

comparator. It uses the simplest method for obtaining the mechanical magnification
designed by H.Abramson which is known as ‗Abramson, movement‘.
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A twisted thin metal strip carries at the centre of its length a very light pointer
made of thin glass. One end of the strip is fixed to the adjustable cantilever strip and
the other end is anchored to the spring elbow, one arm of which is carried on
measuring plunger. The spring elbow acts as a bell crank lever. The construction of
such a comparator is shown in Fig.5.2.

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Fig.5.2.Johansson Mikrokator F.g.5.3 Twisted strip of Mikrokator
A slight upward movement of plunger will make the bell crank lever to rotate.
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Due to this a tension will be applied to the twisted strip in the direction of the
arrow. This causes the strip to untwist resulting in the movement of the point. The
spring will ensure that the plunger returns when the contact pressure between the
bottom tip of the plunger and the workpiece is not there, that is, when the workpiece
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is removed from underneath the plunger.
The length of the cantilever can be varied to adjust the magnification. In order
to prevent excessive stress on the central portion, the strip is perforated along the
centre line by per formation as shown in Fig.5.3. The magnification of the instrument
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is approximately equal to the ratio of rate of change of pointer movement to rate of

dQ
change in length of the strip, i.e., . It can be shown that the magnification of the
dL
dQ L
instrument  2 ,
dL  n
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Where, Q = twist of mid point of strip with respect to

the end
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L = length of twisted strip measured along its

neutral axis
 = width of twisted strip and,
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n = number of turns
It is thus obvious that in order to increase the magnification of the instrument

a very thin rectangular strip must be used.
Reed Type Mechanical Comparator
In reed type mechanical comparator, the gauging head is usually a sensitive,

high quality, dial indicator. The dial indicator is mounted on a base supported by a
sturdy column. Fig.5.4 shows a read type mechanical comparator.

The read mechanism is frictionless device for magnifying small motions of the
spindle. It consists of a fixed block. A which is rigidly fastened to the gauge head
case, and floating block B, which carries the gauging spindle and is connected
horizontally to the fixed block by read C.
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A vertical reeds are indicated by D. Beyond this joint extends a pointer. A
linear motion of the spindle moves the free block vertically causing the vertical reed
on the floating block to slide past the vertical reed on the fixed block. However, as
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the vertical reeds are joined at the upper end, instead of slipping, the movement
causes both reeds swing through an arc.
The scale may be calibrated by means of gauge block to indicate any
deviation from an initial setting. The mechanical amplification is usually less than 100
but it is multiplied by the optical lens system. It is available in amplification ranging
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from 500 to 1000.
Sigma comparator
This is a mechanical comparator providing magnification in the range of 300
to 5000. It consists of a plunger mounted on two flat steel strings
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Fig.5.5 Sigma of comparator

This is a mechanical comparator providing manificaton in the range of 300 to

5000. it consists of a plunger mounted on two flat steel string (diaphragms) this
provides a frictionless linear movement for the plunger. The plunger carries a knife
edge, which bears upon the face of the mounting block of a cross-strip hinge. The
cross strip hinge is formed by pieces of flat steel springs arranged at right angle and
is a very efficient pivot for smaller angular movements. The moving block carries a
might metal Y-forked arms. A thin phosphor bronze ribbon is fastened to the ends of
the forked arms and wrapped around a small drum, mounted on a spindle carrying
the pointer.
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Any vertical displacement of the measuring plunger and hence that of the
knife edge makes the moving block of the cross strip liver to pivot. This causes the
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rotation of the Y-arms. The metallic band attached to the arms makes the driving
drum and hence the pointer to rotate.
The ratio of the effective length (L) of the arm and the distance (a) of the knife
edge from the pivot gives the first stage magnification and the ratio of the pointer
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length (l) and radius ( r ) of the driving drum gives second stage magnification of the
L l
instrument. Total magnification of the instrument is thus    . The magnification
a r
of the instrument can be varied by changing the distance (a) of Knife edge of
tightening or slackening of the adjusting screws: The range of instruments available
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provides magnifications of x 300 to X 5000, the most sensitive models allowing scale
estimation of the order of 0,0001 mm to be made.
Some important features (advantages) of the sigma comparator are:

1. Safety: As the knife edge moves away from the moving member of the hinge
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and is followed by it, therefore, if too robust movement of plunger is made due
to shock load, that will not be transmitted through the movement.
2. Dead beat Readings: By mounting a nonferrous disc on the pointer spindle
and making it move in field of a permanent magnet, dead beat reading can be
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obtained.
3. Parallax: The error due to Parallax is avoided by having a reflective strip on
the scale.
4. Constant pressures: The constant measuring pressure over the range of the
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instrument is obtained by the use of magnet plunger. On the frame

5. Fine adjustments are possible
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Disadvantages: 1. Due to motion of the parts there is a wear in the moving parts. 2.
It is not sensible as optical comparator due to friction of the moving parts.
Fig.5.6 cross strip liver used in sigma comparator.

Advantages of Mechanical comparators
1. Cheaper, Mechanical comparators are less costly as compared to other

amplifying devices.
2. No need of external agency. These instruments do not require any external
agency such as electricity or air and as such the variations in outside supply
do not affect the accuracy.
3. Linear Scale. Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale.
4. Robust and compact: These instruments are robust and compact in design
and easy to handle.
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5. Portable: For ordinary workshop conditions, these instruments are very
suitable and being portable can be issued from the stores.
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Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparators
1. Less accuracy (a) Due to more moving parts, the friction is more which
reduces the accuracy.
2. Sensitive to vibrations: The mechanisms in mechanical comparators have
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more inertia and this may cause them to be sensitive to vibrations.
3. Faults magnified: Any wear backlash or dimensional faults in the mechanical
devices used will also be magnified.
4. Limited range: The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves
over a fixed scale.
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5. Parallax error: Error due to Parallax are more likely with these instruments as
the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
Electrical Comparators:
Principle: These comparators depend on their operation on an A.C. Whetstone
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bridge circuit incorporating a galvanometer. In these comparators, the movement of

the measuring contact is converted into an electrical signal. This electrical signal is
recorded by an instrument which can be calibrated in terms of plunger movement.
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Fig.5.11 Principle of electrical comparator
The principle of an electrical comparator is shown in Fig.5.11. An armature

supported on thin steel strips is suspended between two coils A and B. When the

distance of the armature surface from the two coils is equal, the Whetstone bridge is
balanced and no current flows through its galvanometer. Sight movement of the
measuring plunger unbalances the bridge resulting in the flow of current through the
galvanometer. The scale of the galvanometer is calibrated to give the movement of
the plunger. Electrical comparators have minimum moving parts and therefore give a
high degree of reliability. Magnification of the order of X30,000 are possible with
these comparators.
Visual Gauging Heads

The purpose of the visual gauging heads is to give visual inspection using
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small coloured signal lamps, of the acceptability of an engineering component with
regard to the dimension under test. Clearly an electrical principle is involved, which
may be simply described, as follows, with reference to Fig.5.12. Vertical
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displacement of an interchangeable plunger causes movement of the rod C either to
the left or right, as shown in the figure A and B are electrical contacts, capable of
precise adjustment in the direction of the arrows, a micrometer device is available.
In the position shown, that is to say with the rod in mid position between the
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contacts A and B, the dimension under test is within the limits. If the dimension is
oversize, the rod C moves to the right and makes contact with B. Immediately the top
red lamp is illuminated. Likewise if the dimension is undersize the rod moves to left,
making contact with A and illuminating the yellow lamp.
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It may, however, be noted that the actual magnifying device is not shown in
the figure; levers and thin steel strips, together with knife-edge seatings, are
employed.
With various detachable plungers, there is practically no limit to the

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application of this instrument. Fig.5.12 illustrates the visual gauging of a single

dimension, but the same principle can be applied in measuring the several
dimensions simultaneously.
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Fig.5.12. Visual gauging head

Advantages of electrical comparators:
1. Few number of moving parts: The electric and electronic comparators have
few number of moving parts, and there is less friction and wear.
2. High magnification: It has a wide range of magnification.
3. Not sensitive to vibrations: The mechanism carrying the pointer is very light
and not sensitive to vibrations.
4. Easy to set up and operate.
5. Less error due to sliding friction: operation of the instrument on AC supply
reduces sliding friction errors.
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6. The instrument is small and compact.
7. The indicating instrument need not be placed close to the measuring unit.
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(ii) Disadvantages:
1. Fluctuation in the voltage or frequency of the electric supply may affect the
results.
2. Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and alter the
calibration. ta s
3. When measuring unit is remote from the indicating unit, reliability is lower.
4. Cost is generally more than mechanical comparator.
5. If only a fixed scale is used with a moving pointer than with high magnification
a very small range is obtained.
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Solex pneumatic Gauges
This instrument was commercially introduced by solex Air Gauges Ltd. It is

generally designed for internal measurement, but with suitable measuring head it
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can be used for external gauging also.

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Fig.5.15 Solex Pneumatic Gauge

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It uses a water manometer for the indication of back pressure. It consist of a

vertical metal cylinder filled with water upto a certain level and a dip tube immersed
into it upto a depth corresponding to the air pressure required. A calibrated
manometer tube is connected between the cylinder and control artifice as shown in
Fig.5.15.
If the pressure of the air supplied is higher than the desired pressure, some
air will bubble out from the bottom of the dip tube and air moving to the control
volume will be at the desired constant pressure. The constant pressure air then

passes through the control orifice and escape from the measuring jets when there is
no restriction to the escape of air, the level of water in the manometer tube will
coincide with that in the cylinder. But, if there is a restriction to the escape of air
through the jets, a back pressure will be induced in the circuit and level of water in
the manometer tube will fall. The restriction to the escape of air depends upon the
variations in the dimensions to be measured.
Thus the variation in the dimension to be measured are converted into
corresponding pressure variations, which can be read from the calibrated scale
provided with the manometer.
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To find concentricity (roundness of any job at any section).the workpiece
may be revolved around measuring gauge. If no change in reading is there, then it is
perfectly round hole. Similarly the diameter can be noted down at several places
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along the length of bore and thus tapering of hole is determined. This is method is
therefore, best suited for measuring roundness and taper ness of cylinder bases and
gun barrel bores.
Differential Comparator
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It is the balanced circuit type of air gauge. Fig.5.16 shows a differential
comparator. Compressed air from a suitable source, after passing through air-drier
and filter is regulated for constant pressure by a pressure regulator. The air flows
into two channels each of which has control orifice O1 and O2. From the control
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artifice O1, air flows to the measuring head where it meets further restriction of
workpiece or the master setting. The restriction of the workpiece builds up back
pressure. At the same time, other half of the air is flowing through the other control
orifice O2 to the reference jet on. By closing or opening the valve of reference jet O m,
the pressure in the space between O2 and Om is regulated codjusted to match the
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back pressure from the measuring jets, which is sensed by the pressure indicating
device fitted across the two channels as shown. At this adjustment of the reference
jet, the preference indicator would indicate equal pressure in the two channels and
hence read zero on the scale. The zero setting (adjusting of reference jet Om) is
done with master workpiece whose dimension is exact nominal size.
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Fig. 5.16 Differential circuit.
Now, the variation of the dimension at the measuring head will cause change

of back pressure in channel A. This pressure will be different from the mean
pressure which has been already set in the channel B (by reference jet. Now the
difference of pressure of the two channels will be indicated device which can be
directly calibrated in terms of variation of dimension from the mean dimensions. The
instrument is thus based on the measurement of differential pressure and is called
as differential comparator.
Advantages of pneumatic Comparators
1. It is possible to obtain high degree of magnification (30,000 : 1) or more
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coupled with good stability and readability.
2. The gauging member does not come in contract with the part to be measured
and hence practically no wear takes place on gauging member.
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3. It has few number of moving parts and in some cases none. Thus the
accuracy obtainable is more due to absence of friction and less inertia.
4. Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in cleaning the dust,
if any, from the part to be measures.
5. The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit.
compared with the length.

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6. It is very suitable for measuring diameter of holes whose the diameter is small
7. It is probably the best method to determine the loyalty and taperness of

circular holes.
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Disadvantages:
1. Limited range of measurement is available with these comparators.

2. It gives low speed of response compared with electrical magnification system.
3. It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate pressure regulator.
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4. The scale is generally not uniform.

5. When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification is necessary
in order to avoid the meniscus errors.
6. The apparatus is not easily portable.
7. Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.
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Sine bar
1. Locating any work to a given angle: To set the given angle, the surface plate is
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assumed to be perfectly flat, so that the surface can be treated as horizontal. One
roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate and a combination of slip gauges
is inserted under the second roller. Let, h be the height of slip gauge combination
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and the sine is to be set at an angle .
Then sin  = h/l, where l is the distance between the centre of the rollers.
Thus knowing , h can be found out and any work could be set at this angle, as the
top face of the sine bar is inclined at angle  to the surface plate. For better results,
both the rollers could also be placed on slip gauges of height h 1 and h2 respectively,
h2  h1
sin  
l

Fig.6.9 SINE BAR
Checking or measuring unknown angle:
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(a) When component is of small size. For measuring unknown angle it is necessary
to first find the angle approximately with the help of a bevel protractor. The sine bar
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is then set up at that nominal (approximate) angle on a surface plate by suitable
combination of slip gauges. The component to be checked is placed over the surface
of the sine bar (if necessary the component may be clamped with the angle plate).
The dial gauge is then set at one end of the work and moved along the upper
surface of the component. If there is a variation in parallelism of the upper surface of
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the component and the surface plate, it is indicated by the dial gauge. The
combination of the slip gauges is so adjusted that the upper surface of the
component is truly parallel with the surface plate.
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Fig.6.10
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h
The angle of the component is then calculated by the relation   sin 1  
 L
The perfect adjustment of slip gauge combination requires too much time, so
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the variation in the parallelism of the upper surface of the component and the surface
plate indicated by the dial gauge is converted into corresponding angular variation. If
‗dx‘ is the variation in parallelism over a distance ‗x‘ the corresponding variation in
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h
angle   sin 1  
 L
b. When the component is of large size/heavy. In such cases, the component is

placed over a surface plate. The sine bar is placed over the component as shown in
Fig.6.11. The height over the rollers can then be measured by a vernier height
gauge; using a dial test gauge mounted on the anvil of height gauge to ensure
constant measuring pressure.

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The anvil of height gauge is adjusted with probe of dial test gauge showing
same reading for the topmost position of rollers of sine bar. The height gauge is thus
used to obtain two readings for either of the rollers of sine bar. If ‗h‘ is the difference
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in the heights and T distance between the roller centres of the sine bar, then
h
  sin 1   .
 L
Another method of determining angle of large size part is shown Fig.6.12. The
component is placed over a surface plate and the sine bar is set up at approximate
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angle on the component so that its surface is nearly parallel to the surface plate. A
dial gauge is moved along the top surface of the sine bar to note the variation in
parallelism. If ‗h‘ is height of the combination of the slip gauge and ‗dh‘ the variation
in parallelism over distance ‗L‘ then,
h
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  sin 1  
 L
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Fig.6.12
Iimitations of Sine Bars

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(i)
Sine bar is fairly reliable for angles less than 15 o, and becomes increasingly
inaccurate as the angle increases. It is impractical to use sine bars for angle
above 45o.
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(ii) It is physically clumsy to hold in position.

(iii) Slight errors of the sine bar cause larger angular errors.
(iv) A difference of deformation occurs at the point of roller contact with the surface
plate and to the gauge blocks.
(v) The size of parts which can be inspected by since bar is limited.
Sources of Error in Sine Bars
The difference sources of errors in angular measurement by a sine bar are:

1. Error in distance between roller centres.

2. Error in slip gauge combination used for angle setting.

3. Error in parallelism between gauging surface and plane of roller axes.
4. Error in equality of size of rollers and cylindrical accuracy in the form of the
rollers.
5. Error is parallelism of roller axes with each other.
6. Error in flatness of the upper surface of the bar.
Modifications of sine bar:
Sine Centre: Due to difficulty of mounting conical work easily on a conventional sine
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bar, sine centres are used. Two blocks as shown in Fig.6.13 are mounted on the top
of sine bar. These blocks accommodate centres and can be clamped at any position
on the sine bar. The centres can also be adjusted depending on the length of the
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conical work-piece, to be held between centres. Sine centres are extremely useful
for the testing of conical work, since the centres ensure correct alignment of the
work-piece. The procedure for its setting is the same as that for sine bar.
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Fig.6.13
Sine Table: The sine table is the most convenient and accurate design for heavy
work-piece. The equipment consist of a self-contained sine bar, hinged at one roller
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and mounted on its datum surface. The table is quite rigid one and the weight of unit
and work-piece is given fuller and safer support. The table may be safety swing to
any angle from 0 to 900 by pivoting it about it hinged end. Due to the work being held
axially between centres, the angle of inclination will be half the included angle of the
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work. The use of since centres and sine table provides a convenient method of
measuring the angle of a taper plug gauge.
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Angle Dekkor.
This is a type of auto-collimator. It consists of microscope, objective

(collimating) lens and two scales engraved on a glass screen which is placed in the
focal plane of the objective lens. One of the scales, called datum scale, is horizontal
and fixed. It is engraved across the centre of the screen and is always visible in the
microscope eye-piece. Another scale is an illuminated vertical scale fixed across the
centre of the screen and the reflected image of the illuminated scale is received at
right angles to this fixed scale, and the two scales, in the position intersect each
other. Thus the reading on illuminated scale measures angular deviations from one
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axis at 90o to the optical axis, and the reading on the fixed datum scale measures the
deviation about an axis mutually perpendicular to the other two.
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Figure. Angle dekkor
Thus, the changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes are
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indicated by changes in the point of intersection of the two scales. Readings from
scale are read direct to 1‘ without the use of a micrometer.
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Uses of angle dekkor in combination with angle gauges:-
(i) Measuring angle of a component:-
It may be made clear that angle dekkor is capable of measuring small

variations in angular setting, i.e. determining angular tilt. In operation the measuring
principle is that of measurement by comparison; the angle dekkor is set to give a
fixed reading form a known angle (i.e. using known angular standards to obtain a
zero reading). (Refer Figure)
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Thus first the angle gauge combination is set up to the nearest known angle
of the component and the angle dekkor is set, (using special attachment and link),
such that zero reading is obtained on the illuminated scale. The angle-gauge build
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up is then removed and replaced by the component under test, a straight-edge being
used to ensure that there is no change in lateral positions. The new position of the
reflected scale with respect to the fixed scale gives the angular tilt of the component
from the set angle (Refer Figure).
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Figure. Measuring angle of a component.

(ii) To obtain precise angular setting for machining operations.
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We will consider an example of milling a slot at a precise angle to a previously
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machined datum face. A parallel bar is used as a datum face, the component being
securely clamped when in close contact with it parallel bar is positioned on the table
of milling machine with the aid of angle dekkor. The setting-up technique is illustrated
in Figure. Wit the aid of this surface as reference, the angle dekkor is set up such
that zero reading is obtained; in other words, the axis of the optical beam is truly at
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90o to the table feed. Then build up the combination of angle gauges to the exact
value , i.e. the inclination of the slot to the milled on the component. The angle
gauges along with the parallel bar are placed on the table and adjusted in position
such that the angle dekkor shows zero reading when viewing the flat surface of the
angle gauge combination. It means that the angular inclination between the datum
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face of the parallel bar and the feed direction of the table is now o. The parallel bar
is firmly clamped in this position, a check being made to ensure that no movement
has taken place during clamping; a few gentle taps will soon allows a zero reading
on the angle dekkor to be regained. Finally, now the workpiece can be clamped on
milling machine table, in closed contact with this pre-set parallel bar.
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(iii) Checking the sloping angle of a V-block:-
The set up for checking the sloping angle of V-block is illustrated in Figure.
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The principle consists of comparing the reading obtained from the polished slip
gauge in close contact with the work-surface, and a zero reading obtained from the
angle-gauge build-up.
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Figure

(iv) To measure the angle of cone or taper gauge:-
A simple set-up for this purpose is shown in Figure. The instrument is first set
for the nominal angle of cone on a combination of angle gauges or on a sine bar set
to the nominal angle. The cone is then placed in position with its base resting on the
surface plate. A slip gauge or other parallel reflector is held against the conical
surface as no reflection can be obtained fro ma curved surface. Any deviation from
the set angle will be noted by the angle dekkor in its eye-piece and indicated by the
shifting of image of illuminated scale, whose reading while setting with angle gauge
is noted down before hand.
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Vernier Bevel Protractor:-
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Vernier bevel protractor is the simplest angle measuring instrument. It
consists of
1. Main body
2. Base plate stock
3.
4.
5.
Adjustable blade ta s
Circular plate containing Vernier scale
Acute angle attachment
Figure shows a Vernier bevel protractor with acute angle attachment. The
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body of the Vernier Bevel protractor is designed in such a way that its back is flat
and there are no projections beyond its back. The flatness of the body is tested by
checking the squareness of blade with respect to base plate when the blade is set at
90o.
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Figure. Vernier Bevel Protractor

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The base plate is attached to the main body, and an adjustable blade is
attached to a circular plate containing Vernier scale. The main scale graduated in
degrees is provided on the main body. The adjustable blade is capable of rotating
freely about the centre of the main scale engraved on the body of the instrument can
be locked in any position. An acute angle attachment is provided at the top as shown
in the figure for measuring acute angles. The base of the base of the base plate is
made flat so that it could be laid flat upon the work and any type of angle measured.
The blade can be moved along throughout its length and can also be
reversed. It is about 150 or 300 m long, 13 mm wide and 2 mm thick. Its ends are

beveled at angles of 45o and 60o. The acute angle attachment can be readily fitted
into the body and clamped in any position.
The bevel protractors are tested for flatness, squareness, parallelism, straightness,
etc.
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Figure. The principle of the vernier protractor
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As shown in Figure the main scale is graduated in degrees of arc. The Vernier
scale has 12 divisions each side of the centre zero. These are marked 0-60 minutes
of arc, so that each division equals 1/12 of 60, that is 5 minutes of arc. These 12
divisions occupy the same space as 23 degrees on the main scale. Therefore, each
1 11
division of the Vernier is equal to : of 23o or 1 .
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12 12
Since two divisions on the main scale equals 2 degrees of arc, the difference
between two divisions on the main scale equals 2 degrees of arc, the difference
between two divisions on the main scale and one division on the vernier scale is 2o -
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11 1 o
1 = or 5 minutes of arc.
12 12
Uses of the Vernier Bevel Protractor
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Figure shows the various uses of bevel protractors.

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Figure (a) Use of bevel protractor for checking inside beveled face of a ground
surface.

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Figure(b)Use of bevel protractor for checking „V‟ block
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(c) Use of Vernier protractor for measuring acute angle
Taper Measurement
Use of Precisions Balls and Rollers:-

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Precision balls and rollers are used to determine both linear and angular
dimensions in conjunction with gauge blocks. These are made of good quality steel
and are hardened and tapered. The length for the roller is equal to the diameter. The
balls and rollers are available in sizes ranging from 1 to 25 mm diameter. The use of
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precision balls and rollers for determining both linear and angular dimensions is
explained with the held of following examples:
1. Angle of the right – tapered piece can be measured by using two rollers of
different sizes, slip gauges and a dial indicator. The two rollers whose diameters are
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known and slip gauges are placed on a surface plate as shown in Figure. The rollers
(discs) may be clamped in position against an angle plate by c- clamps. The work is
then placed on top of rollers and clamped against the angle plate by C-clamp. If the
angle of the piece is all right, then the top edge will be parallel to surface plate and
the dial indicator will show no variation when traversed along its surface.
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Figure
With reference to Figure from triangle O1 A O2

d 2 d1

O1 A 2 2
tan /2 = 
AO2 1  d1  d 2
2 2
d 2  d1
i.e., tan /2 = …(i)
2l  d1  d 2
Where l = length of slip gauge pile and d1 and d2 are diameters of rollers.
m
From equation (i) the slip gauge length
d 2  d1
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2  d  d2 
L=  1  …(ii)
tan  / 2  2 
Thus, initially the length of the slip gauges is calculated by the above equation
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and the rollers are placed just in contact with the slip gauges.
Checking the angle of taper using rollers, micrometer and slip gauges.
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Figure
Figure shows the method of checking the angle of a taper plug gauge using
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rollers, micrometer and slip gauges. Taper plug is placed on a surface plate. First
two rollers of equal diameters are placed toughing on the opposite sides of the lower
surface of the plug on the slip gauge combinations of equal heights (H 1). The
distance (M1) between the ends of the roller is measured with a micrometer. Then
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the rollers are placed on slip gauge combinations of height (H 2) touching on the
opposite sides of the top portion of the plug. The distance (M 2) between the ends of
the roller in this new position is again measured by means of micrometer. The half
the taper angle of the plug is then calculated as follows:
If d = diameter of roller, then

 M 2  d   M 1  d  
 2    2  
   
tan   
2   d 
 H 2  d / 2    H1  2  
  
thus,
M 2  M1
tan  /2=
2  H 2  H1 
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To check the angle of a taper hole.
Figure shows the arrangement for checking the internal taper of a taper ring
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gauge using two precision balls of different sizes. The taper ring gauge is placed on
a surface plate and a small ball of radius ‗r1‘ is inserted in the ole close to the small
end of the taper.
Two piles of slip gauges of equal heights are then placed on the surface plate
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on either sides of tapered ring gauge. A depth micrometer is then used to determine
the distance from the top face of the gauge blocks to the surface of the precision
ball. Then, a bigger ball of radius r2 is placed in the hole near the big end of taper,
and the distance from the top face of the gauge blocks to the surface of the bigger
precision ball is determined with the depth micrometer. From Figure.
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Figure
O2O1S = /2
Where  = angle of tapered hole
02 S
sin  / 2 
0102

r2  r2

centre distance of balls (01  02 )
r2  r1 r2  r1
 
h2  r2  h1  r1 h2  h1  r2  r1
Measuring of included angle of an internal dovetail
Dovetail slides are widely used in machine tool construction. The sloping
sides of dovetail slide act as guide and prevent the lifting of the female mating part
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during sliding operation.
This angle can be measured by using two rollers of equal size, slip gauges
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and a micrometer. The two rollers of equal diameters are placed, one each at the
two corners and distance l1 is measured across the rollers with a micrometer. Then
the rollers are placed on two sets of equal size slip gauge blocks and the distance l2
is measured. It should be noted that the rollers do not extend above the top surface
of dovetail. Let the height of slip gauges be h, then
l l ta s
tan   2 1 .
2
h
Measuring External Dovetail Slide

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Figure shows an external dovetail slide with angle of dovetail . To check the
width of opening  as shown in figure, two rollers of equal diameter d are placed one
each in the two corners. Then the length l is obtained by trail and error with the help
of slip gauges or end bars if l I greater than 250 mm. Then the width ‗‘ can be
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calculated by the relation:
 = l + d + d cot /2
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Figure

use of sine bar for measurement of taper plug gauge:
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Figure
Figure illustrates the use of sine bar for measurement of angle of a taper plug
gauge. ta s
The sine bar is set up on a surface plate to the nominal angle of the taper plug
gauge and clamped to an angle plate. Taper plug gauge is placed on the sine bar
and prevented from slogging down by a stop plate. The axis of the taper plug gauge
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is aligned with the bar axis. A dial gauge, supported in a stand is set at one end of
the plug gauge and moved to the other end, and the difference in the readings is
noted.
Let ‗dx‘ be the difference in the readings of the dial gauge over a distance ‗x‘.
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Let ‗h‘ be the height of the combination of the slip gauges used and ‗L‘, distance
between the roller centres.
h
Then, nominal angle  = sin-1   and variation in the angle,
L
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 dx 
d  sin 1  
 x 
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Therefore, actual angle of the taper plug gauge,

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h  dx 
=   d = sin    s in 1  
L  x 

UNIT – III-ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
Errors in threads : In the case of plain shafts and holes, there is only one
dimension which has to be considered (i.e diameter) and errors on this dimension if
exceed the permissible tolerance, will justify the rejection of part. While in the case of
screw threads there are at least five important elements which require consideration
and error in any one of these can cause rejection of the thread. In routine production
all of these five elements (major diameter, minor diameter, effective diameter, pitch
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and angle of the thread form) must be checked and methods of gauging must be
able to cover all these elements.
Errors on the major and minor diameters will cause interference with the mating
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thread. Due to errors in these elements, the root section and wall thickness will be
less, also the flank contact will be reduced and ultimately the component will be
weak in strength. Errors on the effective diameter will also result in weakening of the
assembly due to interference between the blanks.
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Similarly pitch and angle errors are also not desirable as they cause a progressive
lightening and interference or assembly. These two errors have a special
significance as they can be precisely related to the effective diameter.
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Now will consider come errors in detail and define some terms.
Drunken Thread : This is the one having erratic pitch, in which the advance of the
helix is irregular in one complete revolution of the thread.
Thread drunkenness is a particular case of a periodic pitch error recurring at

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intervals of one pitch. In such a thread, the pitch measured parallel to the thread is
not but to a true helix. If the screw thread be regarded as an inclined plane wound
around a cylinder and if the thread be on wound from the cylinder. (i.e development
of the thread are taken) then the drunkness can be visualized. The helix will be a
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curve in the case of drunken thread and not a bright line as shown in fig.
True Thread
Drunken Thread
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Pitch
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Helix angle
II x Mean Dia
It is very difficult to determine such errors and moreover they do not have any
great effect on the working unless the thread is of very large size.
Pitch Errors in Screw Threads : Generally the threads are generated by a point

cutting tool. In this case, for pitch to be correct, the ratio of the linear velocity of tool
and angular velocity of the work must be correct and this ratio must be maintained
constant, otherwise pitch errors will occur. If there is some error in pitch, then the
total length of thread engaged will be either too great or too small, the total pitch
error in overall length of the thread being called the cumulative pitch error. Various
pitch errors can be classified as,
1. Progressive pitch Error : This error occurs when the tool work velocity ratios
incorrect though it may be constant. It can also be due to pitch errors in the lead
screw of the lathe or other generating machine.
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The other possibility is by using an incorrect gear or an approximate gear train
between work and lead screw e.g while metric threads are cut with an inch pitch lead
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screw and a translatory gear is not available. A graph between the cumulative pitch
error and the length thread is generally a straight line in case of progressive pitch
error.
2. periodic Pitch Error : this repeats itself at regular intervals along the thread.
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In this case, successive portions of the thread are either longer or shorter than the
mean. This type of error occurs when the tool work velocity ratio is not constant. This
type of error also results when a thread is cut from a lead screw which lacks
squareness in the abutment causing the lead screw to move backward and forward
once in each revolution. Thus the errors due to these cases are pitch increases to a
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maximum, then reduces and through normal value to minimum and so on. The graph
between the cumulative pitch error and length of thread for this error will, therefore
be of sinusoidal form.
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3. Irregular Errors : These arise from distributes in the machining setup

variations in the cutting properties of material etc. thus they have no specifics causes
and correspondingly no specific characteristics also.. these errors could be
summarized as follows.

Erratic Pitch : This is the irregular error in pitch and varies irregularly in magnitude
over different lengths of thread.
Progressive Error : When the pitch of a screw is uniform, but is shorter or longer
than its nominal value, it is said to have progressive errors.
Periodic Error : If the errors vary in magnitude and recur at regular intervals, when
measured from thread to thread along the screw are referred to as periodic errors.
Effect of pitch errors :
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An error in pitch virtually increases the effective diameter of a bolt or screw and
decreases the effective diameter of a nut. The meaning of the virtual change in
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effective diameter is that if any screw is perfect except for pitch error. It will not screw
easily into a perfect ring gauge of same nominal size until its effective diameter is
reduced.
For White worth thread, if sp is the error in pitch then the virtual increase
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(decrease) in the effective diameter of the thread in case of bolt (nut) is given by the
relation.
Virtual change in effective diameter = 1.921 X ςp. Similarly errors in flank angles
also require a corresponding reduction in the effective diameter if the screw is to fit a
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perfect ring gauge of the same nominal size.
It ςθ1 and ςθ2 are the errors flank angles in degrees (regardless of sign), the
corresponding virtual change (increase or decrease) in effective diameter of the
thread in case of a bolt or nut is given by (for Withworth thread) ςE=0.0105 X p (ςθ1+
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ςθ2), where p is the normal pitch.
It is assumed that the maximum pitch error over the length of engagement is equally
disturbed at each end of engagement. Increase in effective diameter will obviously
be the vertical movement of flanks necessary to produce coincidence.
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It may be mentioned here that effect, of long or short pitch will be same, i.e
increase of the interference between the mating threads, so each will lead to
increase in effective diameter nut.
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In ∆ABC
ABC = θ = half the angle of thread
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Cot θ = BC / AC = (ςEd/2)/( θ p/2), or ςEd = ςp cot θ

Increase in effective diameter = ςp X cot θ.
Since cot 55/2 = 1.921 (for Whitworth), its effect is nearly doubled when the
equivalent increase in effective diameter is calculated.
Similarly the effect of pitch error will be reduce the effective diameter of the screw.
Angle Errors : Angle errors on threads may be either due to errors on one or both
flanks. Any error in angle of thread results in interface between the bolt and nut and

to accommodate it, the effective diameter of nut has to be increased. Thus like pitch
errors, the angle errors also increase the virtual effective diameter of a bolt and
decrease that of a nut. Assuming that one of the pairs is correct, it is possible to
satisfactorily assemble the thread pairs by modifying the effective diameter. The
effective diameter of an incorrect bolt must be decreased to permit a correct mating
thread to make and similarly the effective diameter of an incorrect nut must be
increased.
If (ςθ1+ ςθ2) be equivalent to the errors in the adjoining flank angles of any thread,
then the corresponding correction = Cp((ςθ1+ ςθ2 )
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Where C = 0.0100 for unified thread = 0.0105 for Whitworth thread = 0.0091 for
British associated threads = 0.0115 for ISO metric thread p = basic pitch of thread,
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(ςθ1+ ςθ2 ) = sum of errors in adjacent flank angles in degrees (regardless of signs of
the errors)
Diameter Errors : Errors of major, minor and pitch diameter and their mutual non-
concentricity give rise to interference and strain in the joint. More forces is required
for fitting. ta s
Measurement of Various elements of thread : The methods discussed here are
from the point of view of measurement of gauges, but they can obviously be applied
to precise work, threading tools, taps and hobs etc. we will be dealing with the
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measurement of most important six elements i.e major, minor and effective
diameters, pitch angle and form of thread.
Measurement of diameter in screw threads : for the measurements of major

diameter of external threads, a good quality hand micrometer is quite suitable. In
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taking readings, a light pressure must be used as the anvils make contact with the
gauge at points only and otherwise the errors due to compression can be introduced.
It is however, also desirable to check the micrometer reading on a cylindrical
standard of approximately the same size, so that the zero error etc, might not come
into picture.
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For greater accuracy and convenience, the major diameter is measured by bench
micrometer. This instrument was designed by N.P.L to estimate some deficiencies
inherent in the normal hand micrometer. It uses constant measuring pressure and
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with this machine the error due to pitch error in the micrometer threads avoided. In
order to that all measurements be made at the same pressure, a fiducial indicator is
used in place of the all measurements machine there is no provision for mounting
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the work piece between the centers and it is to be held in hand. This is so because,
generally the centers of the work piece are not true with its diameter. This machine is
used as a comparator in order to avoid any pitch errors of micrometers, zero error
setting etc. a calibrated setting cylinder is used as the setting standard.
The advantage of using cylinder as setting standard and not slip gauges etc. is
that it gives greater similarity of contact at the anvils. The diameter of the setting
cylinder must be nearly same as the major diameter. The cylinder is held and the
reading of the micrometer is noted down. This is then replaced by threaded work
piece and again micrometer reading is noted for the same reading of fiducial

indicator. Thus, if the size cylinder is approaching that of major or diameter, then for
a given reading the micrometer thread is used over a short length of travel and any
pitch errors it contains are virtually eliminated.
If D1 =diameter of setting cylinder

R1 =reading of micrometer on setting cylinder
R2 =Micrometer reading on thread, then major diameter = D1
+(R – R1)
In order to determine the amount of taper, the readings should be taken at various
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positions along the thread and to detect the ovality, two or three readings must be
taken at one plane in angular positions.
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Major diameter of internal threads: The measurement of the elements of an
internal threads is more cumbersome. Since it is difficult to approach the elements of
internal thread, an indirect approach is followed by making a cast of the thread. The
main art thus lies in obtaining a perfect cast, because once good cast is available the
various elements can be measured as for external threads.
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Cast may be made by plaster of paris, dental wax, or sulphur. The part whose
internal thread is to be measured is first cleaned and brushed with a fine oil. The part
is then mounted between two wooden blocks whose upper surface lie about half way
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up the ring. Cast materials is then poured to depth less than the radius of part to
permit easy removal of cast without screwing it out. After the plaster is set, it should
be taken out without rotating, but by pulling up the middle portion of the cast. It may
be mentioned that taking out of sulphur cast is easier than the plaster. Oiling is not
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necessary in case of sulphur cast.
Measurement of Minor diameter : This is also measured by a comparative process

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using small Vee-pieces which make contact with root of the thread. The Vee pieces
are available in several sizes having suitable radii at the edges. The included angle
of the root of the thread. To measure the minor diameter by Vee pieces is suitable
for only Whitworth and B.A threads which have a definite radius at the root of the
thread. For other threads, the minor diameter is measured by the projector or
microscope.
The measurement is carried out on a floating carriage diameter measuring

machine in which the threaded work piece is mounted between centers and a bench
micrometer is constrained to move at right angles to the axis of the center by a Vee

ball side. The method of the application of vee pieces in the machine is shown
diagrammatically in fig. the dimension of vee piece play no important function as they
are interposed between the micrometer faces and the cylindrical standard reading is
taken.
It is important while taking readings, to ensure that the micrometer be located at

right angles to the axis of the screw being measured. The selected vee are placed
head is then advanced until the pointer of the indicator is opposite the zero marl, and
note being made of the reading of the micrometer is taken.
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If reading on setting cylinder with Vee pieces in position = R1 and reading on
thread = R2 and diameter of setting cylinder = D1 then minor diameter = D1 +(R2 –
R1).
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Readings may be taken at various positions in order to determine the taper ovality.
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Before proceedings to the measurement of effective diameter, the screw diameter
measuring machine is first described in brief here. The machine is shown. Also refer
this figure. For schematic sketch. If consists of three main units. A base casting
carries a pair of centers, on which the threaded work piece is mounted. Another
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carriage is mounted on it and is exactly at 90 to it.. On this is provided another

carriage capable of moving towards the centers. On this carriage one head having a
large thimble enabling reading upto 0.002mm is provided. Just opposite to it is
affixed anvil which is spring loaded and its zero position is indicated by a fiducial
indicator. Thus the micrometer elements are exactly perpendicular to the axes of the
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centers as the two carriages are located perpendicular to each other. On the fixed
carriage the centers are supported in two brackets fitted on either end. The distance
between the two centers the second carriage is adjusted depending upon the length
of the thread job. After job is fitted between the centers the second carriage is
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adjusted in correct position to take measurements and is located in position. The

third carriage is then moved till the fiducial indicator is against the set point. The
readings are noted from the thimble head. It is now obvious that the axes of the
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indicator is specially designed for this class of this work and has only one index line.
Against which the pointer is always to be set. This ensures constant measuring
pressure for all readings. Sufficient friction is provided by the conical pegs to restrain
the movement of carriage along the line of centers. The upper carriage is free to float
on balls and enables micrometer readings to be taken on a diameter without
restraint. Square ness of the micrometer to the line centers can be adjusted by
rotating the pegs in the first carriage which is made eccentric in its mounting.
Above the micrometer carriage, two supports are provided for supporting the wires
and vee pieces for measurement of effective diameter etc.

Minor diameter of internal threads : minor diameter of internal threads can be

measured conveniently by the following methods.
i) Using taper parallels : The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having radiuses
and parallel outer edges. The diameter across their outer edges can be changes by
sliding them over each other shown in fig. the taper parallels are inserted inside the
thread and adjusted until firm contact is established with the minor diameter. The
diameter over the outer edges is measured with a micrometer. This method is
suitable for smaller diameter threads.
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ii) Using rollers : For threads bigger than 10mm diameter, precision rollers are
inserted inside the thread and proper slip gauge inserted between the rollers as
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shown in fig.
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So that firm contact is obtained. The minor diameter is then the length of slip
gauges plus twice the diameter of rollers.
effective diameter measurement in screw threads by micrometer.

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The effective diameter or the pitch diameter can be measured by any of the following
methods.
i) Micrometer method
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ii) One wire, two wire or three wire (or rod) method.
Thread micrometer method : the thread micrometer resembles the ordinary

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micrometer, but it has special contacts to suit the end screw thread form that is to be
checked. In this micrometer, the end of the spindle is pointed to the Vee thread form
with a corresponding vee recess in the fixed anvil. When measuring threads only, the
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angle of the point and the side of vee-anvil i.e the flanks of the threads should come
into contact with the screw thread.

If correctly adjusted, this micrometer gives the pitch diameter.
This value should agree with that obtained by measurement by outside diameter
and pitch from the following relation.
Pitch dia = D-0.6403p (in case of Whitworth thread) where 0.6403p = depth of
thread, D = outside dia p = pitch.
m
Limitations of thread micrometer : The micrometer must be set to a standard
thread plug. If not done so in the first instance, there will be error due to helix angle
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of the thread being measured. When setting the instrument to a standard plug gauge
it will be observed that the reading is not exactly zero, as previously inferred, when
the spindle and anvil are brought together.
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For correct results it is necessary to use a separate thread micrometer for every
size of screw thread to be gauged, otherwise there will be a small amount of error
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inherent in thread micrometer.
A big advantage of thread micrometer is that is the only method which shows the
variation for the drunken thread.
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measuring effective diameter of screw threads:

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One wire method : In this method, one wire is placed between two threads at one
side and on the other side anvil of the measuring micrometer contacts the crests as
shown in fig. First the micrometer reading is noted on a standard gauge whose
dimension is nearly same as to be obtained by this method. Actual measurement
over wire on one side and threads on other side = size of gauge ± difference in two
micrometer readings.
This method is used for measuring effective diameter of counter pitch threads, and
during manufacture of threads.

The difficulty with his method is that the micrometer axis may not remain exactly at
right angles to the thread axis.
Two wire method : The effective diameter of a screw thread may be ascertained by
placing two wires or rods of identical diameter between the flanks of the thread, as
shown in fig. and measuring the distance over the outside of these wires. The
effective diameter E is then calculated as
E = T + P, where
T = Dimension under the wires = M -2d
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M =Dimension over the wires, d = diameter of each wire
The wires used are made of hardened steel to sustain the wear and tear in use.
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These are given a high degree of accuracy and finish by lapping to suit different
pitches.
Dimension T can also we determined by placing wires over a standard cylinder of

diameter greater that the diameter under the wires and noting the reading R1 and
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then taking reading with wires over the gauge, say R2 then = S-(R1-R2)
P = It is a value which depends upon the dia of wire and pitch of the thread.
If P = pitch of the thread, then
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P = 0.9605p – 1.1657d (for whitworth thread) P = 0.866p-d (for metric thread)
Actually p is a constant value which has to be added to the diameter under the
wires to give the effective diameter. The expression for the value P in terms of P
(pitch), d (diameter of wire) and x (thread angle) can be derived as follows.
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Since BC lies on the effective diameter line,
1
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BC  pitch  12 p
2
d cosecx/2
OP 
2
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d (cosecx/2-1)
PA 
2
P
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PQ  QC cot x / 2  cot x / 2
4
p cotx/2 d (cosecx/2-1)
AQ  PQ  AP  
4 2
AQ is half the value of P
p x  x 
P value =2AQ= cot  d  cos ec  1
2 2  2 
Two wire method can be carried out only on the diameter measuring machine
described for measuring the minor diameter, because alignment is not possible by 2

wires and can be provided only by the floating carriage machine. In the case of three
wore method, 2 wires on one side help in aligning the micrometer square to the
thread while the third placed on the readings.
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A simplified diagram of this measuring machine is shown in fig. as already pointed
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out the machine ensures that the axis of the micrometer is maintained at 90 to the
axis of the screw under test. The lower slide (wrongly indicated as lower side ) is
capable of movement parallel with the axis of thread while the top slide moves at 90
to thread axis.
Three wire method : This method of measuring the effective diameter is an
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accurate method, in this three wires or rods of known diameter are used one on one
side and two on the other side. This method ensures the alignment of micrometer
anvil faced parallel to the thread axis. This wires may be either held in hand or hung
from a stand so as to ensure freedom to the wires to adjust themselves under
micrometer pressure.
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M = distance over wires, E=effective diameter, r=radius of the wires, d=diameter of

wires, h=height of the center of the wire rod from the effective diameter, x=angle of
thread.
From fig. AD = AB cosec x/2 = r cosec x/2

CD = H/2 cotx/2 = cotx/2
h=AD-CD

r=cosecx/2 – p/4 cotx/2

distance over wires = M=E+2h+2r
=E+2(r cosec x/2 – p/4 cot x/2) + 2r
=E+2(1+ cosec x/2 – p/2 cot x/2)
M=E+d(r cosec x/2 – p/ cot x/2
i) In case of Whitworth thread :
x=55, depth of thread =0.64p, so that, E=D-0.64p and cosecx/2=2.1657,

cotx/2=1.921
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M=E+d(1+cosecx/2)-p/2cotx/2=D-0.64p+d(1+2.1657)-p/2(1.921) = D+3.1657d
– 1.605p
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M=D+3.1657d-1.6p, where D=outside dia
ii) In case of metric thread:
depth of thread = 0.6495p ta s

so, E=D-0.6495p, x=60, cosec x/2=2; cotx/2 = 1.732
M=D-0.6495p+d(1+2)-p/2(1.732)=D+3d-(0.6495+0.866)p=D+3d-1.5155p
We can measure the value of M practically and then compare with the theoretical
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values with help of formula derived above. After finding correct value of M and
knowing d, E can be found out.
If the theoretical and practical values of M(i.e measured over wires) differ, then
this error is due to one or more of the quantities appearing in the formulas.
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Effect of lead angle on measurement by 3 wire method. If the lead angle is large
(as with warms; quick traversing lead screw, etc) then error in measurement is about
0.0125mm when lead angle is 4.5 for 60 single thread series.
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For lead angles above 4.5 compensation for rake and compression must also be
considered.
There is no recommendation for B.S.W threads.

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Rake correction in U.S Standard.

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cot x / 2  x S2 x x
E  m  x 1  cos ec  cos cot 
2n  2 2 2 2
Where x/2 = half the included angle of threads, E = effective diameter, M=actually
measured diameter over wires, n=number of threads/inch, d=diameter of wire,
s=tangent of the helix angle in thread.
Best size wire: The wire is of such diameter that it makes contact with the flanks of
the thread on the effective diameter or pitch line. Actually effective diameter can be
measured with any diameter wire which makes contact on the true flank of the

thread. Bu the values so obtains will differ from those obtained with best size wires if
there is any error in angle or form of thread. It is recommended that for this condition
the wire touches the flank at mean diameter line within ± 1/5 of flank length (refer
solved problem) with best size wire, any error on the measured value of simple
effective diameter due to error in thread form or angle is minimized.
It can be shown that size of best wire diameter

p
d
2 cos x / 2
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With best size wire, P value = d (cosecx/2+1)cotx/2
 1  sin x / 2  cos 2 x / 2  p 1  sin x / 2
d   d (1  sin x / 2)  .
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 sin x / 2  2 cos x / 2
Measurement of effective diameter of tapered threads: The measurement of the

effective diameter of taper threads is not made perpendicular to the axis, but at an
angle depending on the taper. The measurement is made at a given point or
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distance from the end of the thread, and in the three wire method, the single wire is
placed at this point. The other two wires are placed in two opposite grooves and care
must be taken to ensure that the micrometer or measuring anvils make contact with
each of the three wires.
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The formula for the effective diameter of the taper thread is :
cot x / 2
E  ( M  d )sec h   d cos ecx / 2
2n
Where E=effective diameter, M=measurement over the wires, d=diameter of the
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wires, h=half the angle of taper, x/2=half the included angle of the thread form,
n=number of threads per inch.
Thread comparator : In this case a pair of a ball tips engage the flanks of the
threads in the work and measure the effective diameter only.
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The ball tip on the right is fixed at the end of a measuring jaw attached to a
floating head in the sliding brackets (B). the floating head has extension in contact
with the spindle of the dial indicator and the movement of floating head towards the
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indicator is constrained by a spring. (The set up in fig does not show the ball tips)
The instrument is set to a reference standard, with the dial pointer a zero. To use
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the gauge, the floating head is retracted to insert the ball tips in the internal threads
of the work, and released to allow the tips to engage the flanks of the thread under
the pressure of the spring. The dial indicator then shows the deviation from the
nominal size to which the gauge is set. The instrument may be used on work in the
machine, or on the working bench. The fixed head (A) carrying the left hand ball tip is
adjusted by a fine screw to set gauge to the reference standard. The reference
standard is built up from slip gauges as shown in fig. the two end pieces have V-jaws
of an angle of vee corresponding to the thread i.e 60 degree or 55 degree.

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The dimension J1 are marked on the pieces, and are the depths from the face to the
apex points of the vees. Assuming the effective diameter and pitch of the thread to
be known, the distance S is found from the formula.
S=X+y-Z
Where, X = mean effective diameter
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Y = Depth of the thread from apex to the apex of the V form
The value of y depends on the V-form, angle of the thread, and is equal to 0.9605p
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for 55 threads and 0.866p for 60 threads.
Z = J1 + J2 i.e, constants for the end gauge pieces.
The assembled slips are set in a holder with a slip equal to half the pitch, bench one
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end piece to compensate for the helix

angle.
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The reference gauge thus assembled is ready for setting the comparator. Ball tips
must be of suitable size for the thread. The size is not critical provided the ball point
first the thread so as to bear o the flack near the mean pitch line.
For threads from 4 to 7 t.p.i a ball of 0.095 inch dia is used, from 7 to 12 t.p.i 0.060
inch diameter and from 12 to 20 t.p.i. 0.035 inch diameter balls are used. A pair of
V-jaws, 55 or 60 covers all pitches from 4 to 20 t.p.i. The method of calculating the
value of S from the effective diameter excluded the radius OY at the creset and root
of the thread, as the form is considered to extend to the apex of the vee. In some
cases it may be necessary to accept the major diameter as it may be the basic

dimension of the thread, and the form at the root of the thread must then be taken
into account.
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For metric threads, S=D+0.2165p-Z; for whitworth threads, S=D+0.3202p-Z.
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Layman‘s method of finding the effective diameter (internal thread) is by taking the
impression of threads with the help of wax or any other material, say sulphur.
Sulphur is mostly used because it can be used many times.
Checking the “Thread form “ and “Angle by optical projection of thread”. This
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method is applicable only to external threads because internal threads cannot be
projected.
The standard type of projector is used, consisting of a projector lamp, a condenser

lens or collimator, the projection lens and the screen.
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The screw thread to be examined is placed in the parallel beam of light between
the condenser lens and the projector lens.
The modern projectors are quipped with work holding pictures, the projection lamp
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and the lenses situated on top of the cabinet, and the screen at the front. The light
rays from the lens are directed downwards into the cabinet, and hence to the screen
by a system of prisms and mirrors, bringing every thing within the reach of the
operator.
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The enlarged image of the thread form appears on the ground –glass screen on
which is mounted the template or drawing of the form made to scale equal to the
magnification of the lens. This way the two forms (i.e ideal and projected) are
compared.
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One of the difficult I projecting screw thread is the fact that form is specified on an

axial plane. So we must consider the correction for it.
Referring to fig. the normal pitch p is less than the axial pitch P and is given by the
relation; p = P cosθ; where θ is the helix angle.
Referring to fig.
IfA = half the included angle of thread on the axial plane.
X= half the included angle of the thread on normal plane

B= full depth of thread to apex and
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0.5P 0.5 P cos   0.5 p 
tan A  ; tan X   or tan X  
B B  B 
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Or we say tan X = tan A cosθ
Values of A and θ are known 2X is the included angle 2X and then compare it to the
theoretically calculated value 2X=2tan-1 (tan A cos θ )
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The included angle can be determined by two ball method.
measurement of pitch of screw threads:
Measurement of pitch : The accuracy of pitch in any form of thread is very

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important. Therefore it is very important to able to measure this element of thread to
high degree of accuracy, at least double that of the effective diameter measurement.
The measurement must be made in such a way that other features or dimensions
e.g diameter and thread angle do not influence the result.
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External Threads :
1. For less accurate methods, the zees pitch or lead measuring instrument may
be used. It utilizes contact members having two ball points which are applied to the
effective surface of the thread. These points are aligned parallel to the thread axis
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either by a thread pin at the back or a special back rest having a plane face parallel
to the thread axis. The instrument is adjusted to zero before making a measurement,
with the aid of a special micrometer gauge supplied for the purpose, or buying a
standard plug gauge. Upon applying the instrument to the thread it registers the pitch
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deviation from the standard measurement. The scale of the indicator has a range of
± 0.1mm and each division reads to 0.01mm. The measuring accuracy of the
indicator is ± 0.003mm.
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2. The pitch of external threads can be measured by using screw pitch or profile
gauge. Such a gauge consists of series of thread forms with varying pitch. The one
which coincides perfectly with the thread under test gives the pitch. The accuracy of
measurement depends on the method of sighting used to judge the perfect ness.
3. A more accurate method is the microscope method. Screw threads can be

inspected and their profile angles and linear pitches checked with the aid of a
goniometric microscope. The parts to be gauged are usually held between centers

and illuminated from below, their silhouettes appearing in the field of the viewing
eyepiece. Effective pitch diameters can also be measured by this method.
The method of measuring pitch is shown in fig. the microscope has two reticules
that can be oriented to the slopes of the thread and the point of intersection of these
is used as the measuring reference. The movement of the longitudinal carriage is
read off the linear scale, the micrometer microscope being employed for this
purpose.
The linear measuring accuracy is within 0.001mm and for angles, it is 10 sec of arc.
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A comparatively simple, method of testing the pitch of a screw thread with the
cooke tool room microscope fitted with its projection screen is as follows.
The screw to be checked is mounted in a cradle under the microscope objective

and the necessary adjustments made to project the sharp enlarged image of the
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thread on the screen. The appropriate thread form on the microscope thread
template is then brought into coincocide with the projected image, as shown in fig.
and a reading of the lon-gitudinal table micrometer screw taken; this can be done to
an accuracy of 0.0025mm. The table is then moved by means of the micrometer
screw until the image of the next thread on the screen under inspection fills the
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template profile and the reading of the micrometer again taken. The difference
between the readings gives the measured pitch of the screw. The procedure is
repeated for each in individual thread in order to find the separate pitch error, if any.
Finally, the difference between the initial and last readings of the micrometer when
divided by the number of threads that have been measured enables the ―mean pitch‖
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of the screw to be estimated.

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For still more accurate purpose it is necessary to employ a special screw pitch
measuring machine by which the actual pitch error of individual threads can be
measured. The Pitter and Matrix are typical examples of pitch measuring machines.
The Pitter screw measuring machine employs various stylus points to suit screw
threads that are to be checked. The screw under measurement is held stationary
between centers on the machine. The indicator unit, carrying the stylus which bears
on the flanks of each thread successively, is carried on a slide which is mounted on
balls. The slide is actuated by means of a micrometer. The act of rotating the
micrometer spindle causes the slide to move in relation to the fixed centers. i.e
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causes the indicator to move in relation to the work being measured. The stylus
which is mounted on a leaf spring, falls in and out of each thread; the pointer of the
indicator reads zero (it is adjusted to read zero in the first groove) when this stylus is
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in a central position in each successive thread. The micrometer reading is taken
each time the indicator reads zero; these readings then shown the pitch error of each
thread of the screw ordinary pitches whilst special can be provided for.
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It may be mentioned that is small hand wheel below the micrometer actuates
screw for the purpose of moving the indicator in relation to the slide so as to bring
the stylus opposite to the screw to be tested in any position between the centers.
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The total travel of the micrometer is 25mm.
As the pitch of the micrometer screw is checked accurately when the machine is
inspected and a curve of errors is provided, it is possible to attain a high standard of
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precision in measuring screws. The pitch errors are extremely small, being of the
order of 0.002mm for a thread. A test screw is also supplied with the machine and a
chart of itch error for this screw.
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The metric pitch measuring machine operates on a similar principle to the pitter
machine. It is robust in construction and sensitive in measurement, revealing pitch
accuracies of 0.0025mm for all thread forms. In this machine refer fig. a micrometer
head is provided on the headstock which is fixed on the base. The rotation of
micrometer head produces movement of the longitudinal carriage along the bed of
the base.

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Another carriage carrying the indicating and amplifying units comprising a
radiuses stylus and visual scale allowing a zero reading to be taken, and also
capable of moving at 90 longitudinally and locked in any position. A weight ensures a
unidirectional thrust at all times. The micrometer screw of 40 t.p.i has a 50 mm
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traverse and also has a compensator for any small residual pitch errors. In operation,
the screw thread to be checked is placed between centers and the correct stylus
mounted in the indicating head.
When the test screw is in position between the centers, and the correct stylus
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chosen i.e the one which makes contact at or near the diameter, the carriage
carrying the indicating unit is traversed until the stylus is located in the first thread of
the test screw and the indicator of coincident with the fiducial line; the second
carriage is then locked. The stylus, by virtue of an ingenious mounting device, is
capable of free movement riding up and down the thread flanks on linear movement
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of the screw thread by rotation of micrometer head. The stylus is now traversed
along the thread, pitch by pitch, reading being taken each time the indicator is set to
zero. The micrometer can be fitted with a series of graduated dials that can be
changes quickly. With the proper dial for the pitch that is to be measure the readings
of the error obtained from the displacement of the lines on the disc which is
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graduated in (0.002 mm) divisions. It is after making this test, to the turn to first
thread and repeat the readings, and the micrometer should read zero again.
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Additional description of pitch measuring machines: To correct any error pitch of

the micrometer screw a compensator bar is provided.
The instrument is checked periodically with a master reference screw which is

placed between centers and measured for the pitch over full range of micrometer. In
this case variation in the reading is taken to indicate errors in the micrometer screw,
and the compensator bar modified accordingly.
The micrometer screw has 40 t.p.i and with a graduated dial of 250 divisions
numbered every 10 divisions, the instrument is read as on ordinary micrometer
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calibrated to 0.0001inch. the micrometer dial may be replaced by any one of the five
alternative dials to simplify the measurement of the threads of certain pitches. Each
of the dials is marked with a number of divisions to suit a range of pitches as follows.
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No.of
Dial For measurement
div
6 6,12,24,48,15,30,60 t.p.i
A
9 4,5,9,18,36 t.p.i
B
C
7
11
8
11,2 t.p.i
4,8,16,32t.p.i
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7,14,28,56,5,10,20,40, t.p.i
13 13,26 t.p.i
D
19 19 t.p.i
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25 (Each 0.002mm numbered every fifth division pitch multiples of
E
20 0.025mm)
Dial C is for British association, metric or non-standard pitches. Dial E is for metric
machines only. The provision of a dial marked to suit a particular pitch simplifies
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pitch measuring, a division on the dial is opposite the zero mark for nominal pitch
each thread. Any variation of the division from the zero may then be read directly to
0.0001‖ on either side of the zero line.
Stylus points are available to suit any particular thread. Care should be taken to
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make the stylus point touch the thread at or near the pitch line. The stylus holder is
pivoted to allow the stylus point to follow in and out of the threads, as the carriage is
moved along, and is adjustable for pressure.
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expression for the best size wire:

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The best size wire is one, in which case the wire makes contact with the thread
flank. i.e the contact points of the wires should be, on the pitch line or effective
diameter. In other words, OP is perpendicular to the flank position of the thread. Let
half the included angle of thread be x.

Then in ∆OAP, sin POA

AP AP
SinPOA  , or sin (90  -x)=
OP OP
AP AP
OP    AP sec x
sin(90   x) cos x
Since AP = r, and wire diameter = 2r=2AP sec x

As AP lies on the pitch line, AP=p/4 (where p = pitch of the thread)
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2p p
dp  sec x  sec x
4 2
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Problem 1: Derive an expression from first principles for the limits of diameter for
‗best size‘ wires for measuring threads of BA form in terms of pitch
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Best wire size is d

p x
d sec
2 2
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here x=included angle of the thread

p  47 30  p 1
= sec     0.5465 p
2  2  2 0.9150
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1
(a ) upper limit/lower limit:
5
1
flank length   BF
5
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Refer fig please note that point B could not be shown in fig. Actually B lies on line OF
such that AB ┴OF. Point C lies on inter section of line AD and OF).
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BF = CE + BC + EF = CE + 2BC

BC = (OA sin x/2) tan x/2

= [(0.1808p + 0.2682p). sin 23 45] X tan 23 45 = 0.0378p
Hence upper limit for best wire size = 0.5465p + 0.0378p = 0.5843p and lower limit
for best wire size = 0.5465p – 0.0378p = 0.5087p.
corrections applied in the measurement of effective diameter by the method of

wires:
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The two corrections applied are : i) Rake correction, and ii) Compression correction.
i) Rake Correction : The rake correction becomes necessary because in the
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determination of formula for effective diameter by three wires method, a plane axial
section of the thread had been considered and it is assumed that the wore touches
each flank of the thread in this plane. This assumption is true for angular grooves
with zero helix angle, but not for screw threads which have a helix; and in the later
case wire lies on parallel to the helix at the radius of the point of contact. The points
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of contact on opposite flanks will lie on opposite sides of the mean axial plane. As a
result of this, the wire lies slightly father from the thread axis than what has been
assumed and a correction has to be applied to the effective diameter as measured
and calculate. This correction is different effective diameters being measured.
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A general formula for calculating rake correction is
cosx/2cotx/2 l2 2
C= A (1  A sin x / 2  A2 sin 2 X / 2)
2 2
d
Where C = Rake correction, X/2 = Half the included angle of thread, l=Lead of
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thread,
D = diameter of wire A= Constant
d
Constant 
T+d
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Where T = Diameter under the wires.
This correction is always subtracted from the measured diameter.

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ii) Compression Correction : As the micrometer exerts some force on the wires
while measuring the effective diameter of threads, some degree of comparison takes
place and as a result the diameter observed is less. This correction, is therefore
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added to the value of diameter obtained. This correction is more pronounced on fine
threads and those whose included angle is small e.g B,A threads, for measuring
forces upto about 350gm. The correction is within 0.0025mm for thread diameter
down to about 3.5mm and only 0.005mm at 1 mm diameter for larger threads, for
the some measuring force, the compression is less and can be ignored.
Formula for determining compression correction is

E 2/3
=0.001 1/3 mm.
E

Gear errors. Various possible types of error on spur, helical, bevel and worm gears
are described below:
(i) Adjacent pitch error Actual pitch – design pitch.

(ii) Cumulative pitch error Actual length between corresponding flanks of teeth
not adjacent to each other-design length.
(iii) Profile error The maximum distance of any point on the tooth
profile form and normal to the design profile when
the two coincide at the
reference circle.
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(iv) The tooth to tooth The range of difference composite error – single
flanks between the displacement
(Refer Fig. 15.13a) at the pitch circle of a gear and that of a master gear
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meshed with it at fixed centre when moved through
a distance corresponding to one pitch with only the
driving and driven flanks in contact.
(v) The total composite The range of difference errors – single flank
between the displacement at the pitch circle of a
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gear and that of a master gear meshed with it at
fixed centre distance when moved through one
revolution with it at fixed centre distance when
moved through one revolution with only the driving
and driven banks in contact (Refer Fig.15.3a).
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(vi) The tooth to tooth The range of variation in composite error – double
the minimum centre flank distance between a
gear and a master gear when rotated through a
distance corresponding to the pitch of the teeth
(Refer Fig. 15.13a)
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(vii)The total composite The range of variation in error-double flank.

The minimum centre distance between gear and a
master gear when the gear is rotated through one
revolution (Refer Fig.15.13b)
(viii) The tooth thickness error Actual tooth thickness measured along the surface
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of the reference cylinder – design tooth thickness.

(ix) Cyclic error An error occurring during each revolution of the
element under consideration.
(x) Periodic error An error occurring at regular intervals not
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necessarily corresponding to one revolution of the

component.
(xi) Run out It is the total range of reading of a fixed indicator
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with the contact point applied to a surface rotated,

without axial movement about a fixed axis.
(xii) Radial run out It is the run – out measured along a perpendicular to
the axis of ration.
(xiii) Eccentricity It is half the radial run-out.
(xiv) Axial run-out (wobble) It is the run- out measured parallel to the axis of
rotation, at a specified distance from the axis.
(xv) Undulation A periodical departure of the actual tooth surface
from the design surface (Refer Fig. 15.13b).
(xvi) Undulation height The normal distance between two surface from the

design surface (Refer Fig. 15.13c)

(xvii) Wave length of an The distance between two undulation adjacent
crests of an undulation (Refer Fig. 15.13c)
(xviii) Tooth alignment error The distance of any point on a tooth trace from the
design tooth trace passing through a selected
reference point on that tooth (Refer Fig.15.13c)
The presence of these errors caused interference in efficient

Operation of gears. These result in non-smooth and noisy
Operation which ultimately affect the working life.
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Gear Measurements:
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For proper inspection of gear, it is essential to pay attention to the raw
material, each process in the production cycle, machining the blanks, heat treatment,
the cutting and surface finish of the teeth.
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The gear blank should be tested for dimensional accuracy (face width, bore,
hub, length, and outside diameter), and eccentricity As outside diameter forms the
datum from where the tooth thickness is measured, it forms an important item to be
controlled. Concentricity of the blanks is also essential and the side faces should be
true to the bore. On very precise gears details like tip radius, shape of root provided
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and surface finish are also measured.
Concentricity of teeth is an important item and should be checked to ensure that

the set up and equipment is in good order. If teeth are not concentric then fluctuating
velocity will be noticed on the pitch line while transmitting motion. This also leads to
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inaccuracy of parts when being used for indexing purposes. Tooth concentricity can
be checked by (i) mounting the gear between the bench centres, placing a standard
roller in each tooth space and then using a dial indicator, (ii) using a projector in
which case the teeth are brought against a stop and each image of tooth on screen
should coincide with a line on the screen (iii) using a gear testing fixture fitted with a
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spring loaded slide and dial indicator, in which case the spring exerts a constant
pressure on the mating teeth and the movement of the dial indicator, in which case
the spring exerts a constant pressure on the mating teeth and the movement of the
dial indicator gives the measure of the eccentricity of teeth.
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Good alignment of each tooth on a gear is essential, as otherwise the load will not
be distributed evenly over its face. If teeth of a gear be machined poorly, it is quite
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probable that the load may be carried by one edge only introducing high bearing
stresses. Tooth alignment can be checked by placing a standard roller in the tooth
space and checking for parallelism off a surface plat. In the other method, the teeth
on one gear are lightly marked with Prussian blue and mounted in a testing machine
having a master gear. The contacts made on the mating gear give good idea of
tooth alignment.
Hardness of gear tooth should be tested to ensure that heat treatment is proper and
that the desired harness due to provision of adequate thickness and grain size have
been attained.

The method employed for measuring and testing of gears depends upon
various factors, such as the precision of gears, method of manufacturing equipment
available etc.
The accuracy of any gear mainly depends upon the cutter accuracy and the
setting of the machine. Thus for most of the gears, optical projection and rolling tests
will suffice. But in manufacture of high precision gear, it is necessary to determine
the accuracy of individual elements e.g., tooth thickness, pitch of teeth and form of
teeth etc.
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Accuracy of measurement. While the accuracy of measuring of gear depends upon
the measuring equipment available, it must be emphasized that there are some in-
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built limitations in the gear itself, such as the inability of a gear to define its own axis
of rotation. Thus if the reference circle of gear is eccentric, it would be reflected in
pitch error. Similarly the errors in tooth surface finish such as undulation would
jeopardize the validity of a signal point measurement on a tooth flank.
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The inspection of gear is mainly of two types (a) Analytical, and (b) functional.
By analytical inspection of gears we mean that all the individual elements of the gear
teeth are checked. This method is slow and tedious and not of much use for
industry. The discrete error values of pitch, tooth profile etc. cant give a true overall
assessment of the accuracy of a gear. It is not easy to asses accurately how these
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elemental values combine in practice to give a prescribed performance under
operational conditions. How ever this method is of great understanding of the subject
to student. Nevertheless it may be stressed that all errors in pitch profile cause
variations in the uniformity of rotary motion and the errors in tooth alignment or helix
angle result in the concentration at small areas instead of being distributed uniformly.
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The analytical inspection of the gears consists in determination of the

following teeth elements in which the errors are caused due to manufacturing errors.
(A) Profile. (B) Spacing. (C) Pitch (D) Run out or eccentricity or
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concentricity. (E) Thickness of tooth (F) Lead. (G) Backlash.
The functional type of inspection consists of carrying out the running test of
gear with another gear which is more accurate and is known as control gear or
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master gear, to determine composite vibration, noise level, or variation in action. If a

pair of gears work together at the designed speed and under load with little noise,
they are considered satisfactory for many purposes. If drive is noisy, then individual
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elements have to be measured. However master gear has to be measured on

elemental basis only.
Rolling Tests
This is the most commonly used test under production conditions. This
consumes much less time and gives quite accurate results. In rolling test, the gear
to be tested is actually compared with a hardened and ground master gear. This test
is generally performed on a most commonly used machine Parson Gear Tester.
This test reveals any errors in tooth form, pitch and concentricity if pitch line, When

two gears are in mesh with each other, then any of the above errors will cause the
variation of centre distance. This fact is utilized for testing the errors in gear by this
machine.
It essentially consists of a base. Two carriages, one fixed and the other
movable are mounted on the base. The position of the fixed carriage can be
adjusted in order to accommodate a wide range of diameters. While in use, this
fixed carriage is locked in one position. The movable carriage is spring loaded
towards the fixed carriage. Two spindles are mounted in a parallel plane on each
carriage and these are made to suit the bore of the gears.
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The distance between the centre of two spindles is adjusted to be equal to the
centre distance by slip gauges. A dial gauge is made to rest against the movable
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carriage and its reading is adjusted at zero at this time. The master gear is mounted
on the spindle on fixed carriage and gear to be tested on the movable carriage. The
gears when in mesh are then rotated by hand and the variations in the dial gauge
readings are observed. If it falls outside the set limits, then gear is rejected. The
variations might also be recorded by some electrical pick up in which the movement
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of carriage is first converted into electrical impulse which is magnified further and
trace of variation obtained on a graph paper. The trace obtained will be depicting the
compound errors i.e., all errors like eccentricity and tooth form errors etc., which
occur together and the trace will be as shown in Fig.15.8.
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The machine could also be used to carried out more complex tests by suitable
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modification in its operation, e.g., by locking the movable carriage at the running
centre distance of the gears, and by fixing the master gear, the black flash can be
determined by setting a dial gauge at the pitch line of the production gear. It is also
possible to check the gears for smooth running at this setting and this is very
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essential for gears. This is judged by the noise produced.
For these tests, if master gear is not available, then any two mating gears are
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mounted on the spindle and they are tested twice at relative angular positions of
1800 to each other so that any compensating errors in one angular position in gears
are also revealed.
measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth Vernier method:
Measurement of tooth thickness. The permissible error or the tolerance on

thickness of tooth is the variation of actual thickness of tooth from its theoretical
value. The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and is therefore, the
pitch line thickness o tooth. It may be mentioned that the tooth thickness is defined

as the length of an arc, which is difficult to measure directly. In most of the cases, it
is sufficient to measure the chordal thickness i.e., the chord joining the intersection of
the tooth profile with the pitch circle,. Also the difference between chordal tooth
thickness and circular tooth thickness is very small for gear of small pitch. The
thickness measurement is the most important measurement because most of the
gears manufactured may not undergo checking of all other parameters, but thickness
measurement is a must for all gears. There are various methods of measuring the
gear tooth thickness.
(i) Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth venire caliper. (ii) Constant
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chord method. (iii) Base tangent method. (iv) Measurement by dimension over
pins.
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The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by a gear tooth
venire. Since the gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the
tooth, the instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified
position on the tooth. Further this is possible only when there is some arrangement
to fix that position where the measurement is to be taken. The tooth thickness is
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generally measured at pitch circle and is, therefore, referred to as pitch-line
thickness of tooth. The gear tooth vernier has two vernier scales and they are set for
the width (w) of the tooth and the depth (d) from the top, at which w occurs.
Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical of values of w and d can be found
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out which may be verified by the instrument. In Fig. 15.14, it may be noted that w is
a chord ADB, but tooth thickness is specified as an arc distance AEB. Also the
distance d adjusted on instrument is slightly greater than the addendum CE, w is
therefore called chordal thickness and d is called the chordal
addendum.
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In Fig.15.14, w = AB = 2AD
w
Now, AOD =  = 3600/4N, where N is the number of teeth,

W = 2AD = 2xAO Sin  = 2R Sin 360/4N (N = pitch circle radius)
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P.C.D 2R N .m.
Module m =  , R 
No. of teeth N 2
Nm  360   90 
 w2 Sin    N .m.Sin   ---- (1)
2  4N  N
Also from Fig 15.14, d = OC –OD

But OC = OE + addendum = R + m = (Nm/2) + m

Nm  90 
and OD  RCos  Cos  
2 N
Nm Nm  90  Nm  2  90 
d  m Cos    1   Cos   --- (2)
2 2 N 2  N  N 
Any error in the outside diameter of the gear must be allowed for when
measuring tooth thickness.
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In the case of helical gears, the above expressions have to be modified to
take into account the change in curvature along the pitch line. The virtual number of
teeth Nv for helical gear = N/cos3 
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Hence in Eqs. (1) and (2), N can be replaced by N/cos 3  and m by mn
(normal module).
Nmn  90 
w  Sin  Cos 3   , and
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Cos 
3
N 
Nmn  2Cos 3   90 
 1  Cos  Cos 3   
Cos  
3
N N 
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these formulae apply when backlash is ignores. On mating gears having equal tooth
thickness and without addendum modifications, the circular tooth thickness equals
half the circular pitch minus half the backlash.
Gear Tooth Caliper.

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It is used to measure the thickness of gear teeth at the pitch line or chordal
thickness of teeth and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. The
thickness of a tooth at pitch line and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord.
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The thickness of a tooth at pitch line and the addendum is measured by an

adjustable tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by adjusting screw on
graduated bars. The effect of zero errors should be
taken into consideration.
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This method is simple and inexpensive. However it needs different setting for
a variation in number of teeth for a given pitch and accuracy is limited by the least

count of instrument. Since the wear during use is jaws, the caliper has to be
calibrated at regular intervals to maintain the accuracy of measurement.
Constant Chord Method. In the above method, it is seen that both the chordal
thickness and chodral addendum are dependent upon the number of teeth. Hence
for measuring a large number of gears for se, each having different number of teeth
would involve separate calculations. Thus the procedure becomes laborious and
time – consuming one.
The constant chord method does away with these difficulties. Constant chord
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of a gear is measured where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic rack. Are
straight and inclined to their centre line at the pressure angle as shown in Fig.
15.16.
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Also to pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear and, by
definition, the tooth thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the are tooth
thickness of the gear round its pitch circle. Now, since the gear tooth and rack space
are in contact in the symmetrical position at the points of contact of the flanks, the
chord is constant at this position irrespective of the gear of the system in mesh with
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rack. This is the property utilized in the constant chord method of the gear
measurement.
The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem

for all number of teeth. If an involutes tooth is considered symmetrically in close
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mesh with a basic rack form, then it will be observed that regardless of the number of
teeth for a given size of tooth (same module), the contact always occurs at two fixed
point A and B. AB is known as constant chord. The constant chord is defined as the
chord joining those points, on opposite faces of the tooth, which make contact with
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the mating teeth when the centre line of the tooth lie on the line of the gear centers.
The value of AB and its depth from the tip, where it occurs can be calculated
mathematically and then verified by an instrument, The advantage of the constant
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chord method is that for all number of teeth (of same module) value of constant for
all gears of the meshing system. Secondly it readily lends itself to a form of
comparator which is more sensitive than the gear tooth venire.
In Fig 15.16, PD = PF = are PF = ¼  circular pitch =

1  P C  D 
  1/ 4    m
4 N
Since line AP is the line of action, i.e.it is tangential to the base circle,

ÐCAP=Φ
in right angled ΔAPD,=PDcosΦ=  π/4  mcosΦ
in triangle PAC,AC=APcosΦ=  π/4  mcos 2Φ
c=constant chord=2AC=  π/2  mcos 2Φ
where  is the pressure angle (from Fig.15.16)

For helical gear, constant chord = (  / 2 ) m cos 2  n
m
Where mn = normal module i.e. module of cutter used and  n=normal pressure
angle.
π  π 
mcosΦsinΦ=m 1- cosΦsinΦ   4 
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4  4 .......
Now PC = m -
  π 
 For helical gear,d=m n 1- 4 cosΦ n sinΦ n  
  
m m
Also height of AB above pitch line = PC= ta s sin  cos   sin 2.........  5
4 8
Base pitch.
This is defined as the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base circle.
In Fig.15.17,AB represents the portion of a gear base circle, CD and EF the sides of
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two teeth, FD being the base pitch. From the property of involutes if any line as GH
is drawn to cut the involutes and tangential to the base circle, the GH=FD.
Thus base pitch could also be defined as equal to the linear distance between
a pair of involutes measured along a common generator.
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2 RB
Base circumference =
 Basepitch  2 RB / N
If  is the pressure angle, then

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 cos    P.C.D./ 2  cos 

RB = P.C.R.
 Basepitch  (2 N )   P  C  D  / 2   cos 
  m cos 
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This is the distance between tangents to the curved portions of any two
adjacent teeth and can be measured either with a height gauge or on an enlarged
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projected image of the teeth. This principle is utilized in ‗David Brown‘ tangent
comparator and it is the most commonly used method.

Base pitch measuring

instrument.
This instrument has
three tips. One is the fixed
measuring tip, other one is the
sensitive tip whose position can
be adjusted by a screw and the
further movement of it is
transmitted through a
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leverage system to the dial
indicator.; and the third tip is
the supplementary
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adjustable stop which is
meant for the stability of the
instrument and its position can
also be adjusted by a
screw. The distance
between the fixed and
sensitive tip is set to the
equivalent to the base pitch
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the gear with the help of slip gauges. The properly set-up instrument is applied to the
gear so that all the three tips contact the tooth profile. The reading on dial indicator
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is the error in the base pitch.
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The Base Tangent Method.:

(‗David Brown‘ tangent comparator). In this method, the span of a convenient
number of teeth is measured with the help of the tangent comparator. This uses a
single venires caliper and has, therefore the following advantages over gear tooth
venires scales:
(i) The measurements do not depend on two venires readings, each being
function of the other.

(ii) The measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the
face.
Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a base
circle (Fig.15.19). Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A 2 AA1 and C2 CC1
respectively. Thus the measurements made across these opposed involutes by
span gauging will be constant (i.e. AC = A1C1=A2 C2 = A0 C0) and equal to the are
length of the base circle between the origins of involutes.
Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as they are
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parallel and on an opposed pair of the true involutes. As the tooth from is most likely
to conform to a true involutes at the pitch point of the gear, it is always preferable to
choose a number of teeth such that the measurements is made approximately at the
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pitch circle of the gear.
The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the dimension over
parallel faces is equal to the distance round the base circle between the points
where the corresponding tooth flanks cut i.e. ABC in fig.15.19. It can be derived
mathematically as follows: ta s
The angle between the points A and C on the pitch circle where the flanks of the
opposed involutes teeth of the gear cut this circle can be easily calculated.
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Let us say that the gear has got ‗N‘ Number of teeth and AC on pitch circle
corresponds to ‗S‘ number of teeth. (Fig.15.20);  Distance AC = (S – ½)pitches
 Angle subtended by AC   S 1/ 2  2 / N radians.

Angles of arcs BE and B D.
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In volute function of pressure angle    tan   

 1  2
 AngleofarcBD   S    2  tan    
 2 N
 BD = Angle of arc BD  Rb
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 1  2 
 S  2   N  2  tan       RP cos  becauseRb  RP cos  
  
mN  1  2  mN 
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 cos   S     tan      becauseRP 

2  2 N  2 
 S  
 Nm cos     tan    
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 N 2N 
As already defined, length of arc BD = distance between two opposed involutes and
thus it is.
  S
 Nm cos   tan     
 2 N N 
It may be noted that when backlash allowance is specified normal to the tooth
flanks this must be simply subtracted from this derived value.

Tables are also available which directly give this value for the given values of S,N
and m.
This distance is first calculated and then set in the ‗David Brown‘ tangent
comparator (Fig.1521) with the help of slip gauges. The instrument essentially
consists of a fixed anvil and a movable anvil. There is a micrometer on the moving
anvil side and this has a very limited movement on either side of the setting. The
distance is adjusted by setting the fixed anvil at desired place with the help of looking
ring and setting tubes.
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Composite Method of Gear Checking.
Composite testing of gears consists in measuring the variation in centre
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distance when a gear is rolled in tight mesh (double flank contact) with a specified or
mast gear. In composite gear checking two types of checking‘s are made :
(a) Total Composite Variation, (b) Tooth to Tooth Composite Variation.
Total composite variation is the centre distance variation in one complete revolution
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of the gear being inspected; whereas tooth to tooth composite variation is the centre
distance variation as the gear is rotated through any increment of 360º/N.A uniform
tooth to tooth variation shows profile variation whereas a sudden jump indicates the
pitch variations.
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Composite type of checking takes care of all the errors in the gears. It is
specially very much suited for large gears as it also ensures control over the tooth
spacing. The composite method of checking is very much suitable for checking worn
gears.
Tolerance for Composite Errors. The following table gives the tolerance on
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total composite errors and tooth to tooth composite error.

Here factor F  M  0.25 D
Master Gears. Master gears are made with sufficient accuracy capable of
being used as the basis for comparing the accuracy of other gears. These are mostly
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used in composite errors determination in which the master gears are rotated in
close mesh (double flank) or in single contact with the gears under test. These can
also be used for calibration of gear checking instruments used in shop-floor Master
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gears are generally of two types; i.e. Master gears type A used for checking
precision gears of accuracy class up to 7and type B master gears used for checking
gears from 8 to 12. Master gears are made from chromium –manganese tool steel or
good quality gauge steel and are hardened to 62HRC These are properly stabilized to
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relieve internal stresses. The master gears should preferably have lower module
values because with coarse pitches the master gear would have either a very few
teeth or else it will be quite big making it difficult to handle besides high-production
cost.

Parkinson Gear Tester:

The principle of this device is to mount a standard gear on a fixed vertical
spindle and the gear to be tested on another similar spindle mounted on a sliding
carriage, maintaining the gears in mesh by spring pressure. Movement of the sliding
carriage as the gears are rotated are indicated by a dial indicator, and these
variations are a measure of any irregularities in the form of a waxed circular chart
and records made of the gear variation in accuracy of mech.
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Tooth or Tooth
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Class or Grade of Total Composite
Composite Errors in
Gear Error in Microns
Microns
1 4+0.32F 2+0.16F
2 6+0.30F 3+0.224F
3 10+0.08F 4+0.32 F
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16+1.25F 6+0.45 F
25+2.0 F 9+0.56 F
40+3.2 F 12+0.90F
56+4.5 F 16+1.25F
4 71+5.6 F 22+1.8F
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5 90+7.1 F 28+2.24F
6 112+9.0F 36+2.8F
7 140+11.2F 45+3.55F
8 180+14.0F 56+4.50F
9
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10
11
12
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Fig. shows a gear tester for testing spur gears. (Testers are available for
bevel, helical and worm gears also)The gears are mounted on the two mandrels, so
that they are free to rotate without measurable clearance. The left spindle can be
moved along the table and clamped in any desired position. The right mandrel slide
is free to move, running on steel balls, against sprint pressure and it has a limited
movement. The two mandrels can be adjusted so that their axial distance is equal to
the designed gear. Centre distance. The spring pressure can be regulated. There
are also screws for limiting the movement of the sliding carriage. A scale is attached

to one carriage and a vernier to the other; this enables centre distances to be
measured to within 0.025mm. The dial indicator on the right contacts the right end of
the sliding carriage and therefore indicates any radial variations of the gear under
test as the gears are rotated.
When the waxed paper recorder is fitted, the chart makes a revolution for
each one of the gears mounted on the sliding carriage. As the char moves or
rotates, the line traced records the movements of the floating carriage, a circle is
drawn at the same time as the record. The figures shown in Fig. 15.28 are
reproduction of a few typical charts with a reduced scale and the radial errors
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magnified about 50 times. The gear shown by No.1 record is a fully satisfactory one,
that at No.2 is a moderate gear at No.3 is an unsatisfactory one.
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It may be noted that the method described above is dual flank method, i.e.,
both tooth flanks come in contact which is seldom the case in actual practice. The
chart records obtained by this test do not give a clear indication of true cumulative
pitch error. This test is an expedient test for accepting or rejecting a gear but not for
finding out detailed causes for rejection. It is used mainly to detect poor tooth form
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caused by worn or inaccurate cutting tool, and pitch circle eccentricity arising from
inaccurate centering of the gear blank prior to tooth cutting, etc.
Technically more correct method of mesh testing is single –flank method in

which, instead of measuring centre distance variation the angular variation is
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measured. The mesh tester is a complex system and more costly. The simplest
machine of this type consist of two shafts each carrying a gear and a plain disc
having diameter equal to the nominal pitch diameter of the gear. One shaft has a
rotary joint between the gear and its associated pitch disc. An indicator is used to
measure angular variation between the gear and disc on this shaft. In use, the two
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discs are brought into frictional contact so that one can drive the other without slip.
This method is not popular because it requires these manufacture of two very
accurate pitch discs for every gear pair of different size. Present day‘s single – flank
mesh testers do not require different pitch discs. The two shafts carrying the gears
are fitted with radial gratings having angular band of accurately spaced clear radial
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lines (one line for one minute of arc). When two such gratings (inclined at very small
angle ) rotate in close proximity, interference bands known as Moire fringes are
formed moving in radial direction which generate electric pulses. These pulse trains
are continuously phase –compared to provide a detailed chart record of gear
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transmission errors.
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Fig. Gear testing centre.

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Base circle dia. Range 0.550mm

Max. outside dia. Of gear 600mm
Module range(DP) 0.2-20
Helix angle range 0-90º
Max gear width 150mm
Additional vertical probe travel 150mm
Setting accuracy of base circle 1μm
Adjustable error magnification
Of electronic printer 100x,200x,500x,1000x,2000x
Steady Centre Attachment

Center distance 20-570mm

Throat depth 300mm
The Tomlinson Surface Meter. This instrument was designed by Dr. Tomlinson.
This instrument uses mechanical –cum-optical means for magnification (Fig.11.8).
The diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is held by spring pressure
against the surface of a lapped steel cylinder. The stylus is also attached to the body
of the instrument by a lead spring and its height is adjustable to enable the diamond
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to be positioned conveniently. The lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the
stylus and on the other side by two fixed rollers as shown in Fig. 11.
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The stylus is restrained from all motions except the vertical one by the
tensions in coil and leaf spring. The tensile forces in these two springs also keep the
lapped steel cylinder in position between the stylus and a pair of fixed rollers. A light
spring steel arm is attached to the horizontal lapped steel cylinder and it carries at its
tip a diamond scriber which bears against a smoked glass.
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When measuring surface finish, body is traversed across the surface by a
screw rotated by a synchronous motor. Any vertical movement of the stylus caused
by the surface irregularities, causes the horizontal lapped steel cylinder to
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roll. By its rolling, the light arm attached to its end provides a magnified movement
on a smoked glass plate. This vertical movement coupled with the horizontal
movement produces a trace on the glass magnified in vertical direction and there
being no magnification in horizontal direction. The smoke glass trace is the, further
projected at 50or 100 magnification for examination. This instrument is
comparatively cheap one and gives reliable results.

The Taylor-Hobson Talysurf.
The talysurf is an electronic instrument working on carrier modulating principle.

This instrument also gives the same information as the previous one records the
static displacement of the stylus and is dynamic instrument like profilometer.
The measuring head of this instrument consists of a diamond stylus of about

0.002mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of
a motorized driving unit (gearbox), which provides three motorized speeds giving
respectively 20and 100 horizontal magnification and a speed suitable for average
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reading. A natural position in which the pick-up can be traversed manually is also
provided. In this case the arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots
about the centre piece of E- shaped stamping as shown in Fig. 11.9 On two legs of
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(outer pole pieces ) the E-shaped stamping there are coils carrying an a.c. current.
These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator.; As the armature. Is
pivoted about the central leg any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary
and thus the amplitude of the original a. c. current flowing in the coils is modulated.
The output, of the bridge thus consists of modulation only as shown in Fig. 11.9 This
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is further demodulated so that the current now is directly proportional to the vertical
displacement of the stylus only.
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The demodulated output is caused to operate a pen recorder to produce a

permanent record and a meter to give a numerical assessment directly. In recorder
of this statement the marking medium is an electric discharge through a specially
treated paper which blackens at the point of the stylus, so this has no distortion due
to drag and the record strictly rectilinear one.
Now-a-days microprocessors have made available complete statistical multi-

trace systems measuring several places over a given area and can provide standard

deviations and average over area-type readings and define complete surface
characterization. These systems lend themselves to research applications where
specialized programming can achieve auto correlation, power spectrum analysis and
peak curvature.
Analysis of Surface Traces.

A numerical assessment is assigned to indicate the degree of smoothness
(roughness) a number of ways. In practice three roughness measures have shown
themselves to be particularly useful.
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1. Maximum Peak to Valley Height of Roughness. This is obviously the
most common measure of roughness but is not by any means a complete definition
of roughness, e.g. the two cases in fig11.13peak to valley height is same, but
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frequencies of irregularities are different and second surface is more rough in
comparison to first one but since, this is a relatively simple method of analysis, this
will be a satisfactory measure there it is desired to control the cost of finishing for
checking the rough machining. This method is also very advantageous in cases
where the condition of surface is likely to exert an important influence on such
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properties as fatigue resistance and it is intended to clear the surface of the
irregularities left by a previous operation.
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2. Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S. Value). This measure was in use previously
and now – a- days superseded by Centre Line Average measure, as latter has the
properties of bring easily measured. R.M. S. blue is defined as the square lot of the
mean of the squares the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line.
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Referring to Fig. 11.14, be selected length L is divided to n equal parts.

Ordinates corrected at the points 1,2, 3,4,………,n, whose heights are (by)
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h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 ,......., hn
h1  h22  h32  ......  hn2
thenhr ,m,s. 
n

3. Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A. Value). This is defined as the average
height from a mean line of all ordinates of the surface regardless of the sign.
h1  h2  h3  h4  .......hn
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Thus referring to Fig.11.14, C.L.A. =
n
But of find C.L.A. value like this will be laborious job. Also by this method,
spacing chosen may be such that important ordinates are likely to be missed.
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Things can be much simplified by using a plain meter which can find out the
area of any curve. Referring to Fig. 11.15, let us say that somehow or other the
mean line is exactly known. The C.L.A. value
A1  A2  A3  ....... A
=
L

L
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One has to take care of units carefully to find the C.L.A. value in micron.
How to determine Mean Line. For it first the mean line is estimated by eye-
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judgement. Then total area above and below the assumed mean line are measured
and a correction is applied to the assumed mean line to get the correct mean line.
Error [(  A (above) -  A (below)]/L is applied to the assumed mean line to get the
correct, mean line. Thus in Fig.11.16,x‘y‘ is assumed mean line.
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( A1 A3  A5  A7 )  ( A2  A4  A6  A8 )
Thencorrection  and this correction added to the
L
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assumed line algebraically gives the actual mean line. The C.L.A. value can be
found out as described previously.
―Talysurf‖ has got built in arrangement for integrating the areas and the
average value is directly given.
C.L.A. value does not give any idea regarding the greatest extent and the
nature of the surface irregularities It is likely to give identical values for surface of
vastly different characteristics. So this is the main disadvantage of C.L.A value, but
when the characteristics of a surface have been found out to be satisfactory and

such conditions are produced which do not allow the surface to change radically in
manufacturing, then C.L.A. value provides a workable control.
Procedure for determining flatness (Fig.7.5). The procedure for determining

flatness is as follows:
(1) Carry out the straightness test already described on all the lines AB,BC,AC
etc., and tabulate the readings up to the cumulative error column.
(2) Let a plane passing through the points A,B and D be assumed to be an
arbitrary plane, relative to which the heights of all other points may be
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determined. For it, the ends of lines AB, AD and BD are corrected to zero and
thus the height of points A, B and D are zero.
(3) The height of point I is determined relative to the arbitrary plane ABD=000. As
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I is the mid-point of line AC also, all the points on AC can be fixed relative to the
arbitrary plane by assuming A=0 and correcting Ion AC to coincide with the mid-
point. A hint could be taken here that Cis twice as far from A as the mid-point, the
correction for C will be double that of I.
(4) Point C is now fixed relative to the arbitrary plane and points Band Dare set at
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zero, all intermediate points on BC and DC can be corrected accordingly.
(5) The positions of Hand G, E and F are known, so it is now possible to fit in
lines HG and EF. This also provides a check on previous evaluation since the
mid-point of these lines should coincide with the known position of mid-point I.
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In this way, the height of all the points on the surface relative to the arbitrary plane
ABD are known.
One thing to be noted here is that according to definition of flatness error,
departure from flatness is determined by the minimum separation of a pair of parallel
planes which will just contain all the points on the surface. Here it is possible to
determine two points at either extreme of the reference plane to define the
separation but the reference plane chosen may not be the best plane. Therefore, in
order to determine the minimum separation some correction has to be made. The
calculation for a final correction to determine for a final correction to determine the
minimum separation of a pair of parallel planes which just contain all the points on
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the surface is made by graphical method as given below.
The various points on the surface have been determined with reference to
ABD as reference plane as described previously. Two points on opposite sides
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having maximum positive and maximum negative values are selected and jointed
together by a line xx. Let these points in Fig.7.6 be R and. Draw a line yy parallel to
xx to represent the plane ABD as shown in fig 7.6 set of to scale the height of all
points relative to YY by taking projections from all the points on the surface.
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In fig 7.6, Projections from all points have not been shown for the sake of
clarity. Next by inspection, draw a closest pair of parallel lines zz, which will contain
all of the points. It may be noted that one line will have two points on it, and the other
line, one point only. The distance between these two lines is a measure of the error
in flatness. Although it is not exact value but for practical purpose it gives sufficiently
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accurate results.
The optical flatness testing method for very flat and polished surface has
already been discussed in the chapter of interferometry.
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Devices for measurement of roundness. The most commonly used devices for
measurement of roundness are:
(1) Diametral. (2) Circumferential confining gauge – shaft is confined in a ring gauge
and rotated against a set indicator probe. (3) Rotating on centres. (4) V-Block.(5)
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Three-point probe (120º spacing )Accurate spindle.

(a) Part fixed, exterior spindle with probe rotates, (b) probe fixed, Part rotates
with spindle.
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1. Diametral Method. In this method, the measuring plungers are located 180º
apart and the diameter is measured at several places. This method is suitable only
when the specimen is elliptical or has an even number of lobes. Diametral check
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does not necessarily disclose effective size or roundness. This method is unreliable
in determining roundness.
2. Circumferential confining Gauge. Fig. 7.35 shows the principle of this method.
It is useful for inspection of roundness in production. How ever, this method
requires a separate highly accurate master for each size part to be measured. The
clearance between part and gauge is critical to reliability. This technique does not
allow for the measurement of other related geometric characteristics, such as
concentricity, flatness of shoulders, etc. The values obtained are dependent on the
shape of the specimen.

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3. Rotating on centres. (Refer
Fig.7.36). Some parts, (such as shafts ) may be inspected for roundness while
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mounted on centres. In this case, reliability is dependent on many factors like angles
of centres, alignment of centres, roundness and surface condition of the centres and
centre holes, and run out of piece. Out-of-straightness of the part will cause a
doubling run out effect and appear to be roundness error.
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Any or all of these factors may combine, creating a high degree of uncertainty as to
exact nature of the error.
For workshop purpose, the V-block method is quite accurate as it is capable

of indicating normal requirements of accuracy. However for very precise job where
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more reliable and more accurate results are desired, the second method is
recommended which is quicker and also eliminates the effects of angle of the block
and the number of lobes on part, but of course, is a very costly one.
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4. Assessment using a V-block. The set up employed for assessing the circularity
error (lobing) by using a V-block is shown in Fig.7.37, i.e., the vee-block is placed on
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a surface plate and the work to be checked is placed upon it. A sensitive dial
indicator is firmly fixed in a stand and its feeler made to rest against the surface of
the work. The work is rotated to measure the rise and fall of the work-piece. For
determining the number of lobes on the work – piece is first tested in a 60ºV-block
and then in a 90º V-block. The number of lobes is then equal to the number of times
the indicator pointer deflects during rotation of the work piece through 360º. The
idea of testing the work – piece in two V-blocks is that when an elliptically shaped
part is rotated on a V-block is that when an elliptically shaped part is rotated on a V-
block of angle 60º, no change in reading is indicated, whereas if the same part is
rotated on a90º angle Vee –block, two maximum and two minimum readings are

indicated on the indicator.
The method of determination of the circularity error by V-block has certain

limitations and, therefore, the following points should be born in mind.
(a)The error of circularity measured on a V-block is greatly affected by the following

factors:
(i) Angle of V-block very much influences in the determination of circularity error, i.e.
if the circularity error is say ∆e, then it is possible that the indicator shows no
variation, or same as ∆e, or twice ∆e ,or thrice ∆e, or some other value for each
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position of the instrument when V-blocks of different, angles are used, This is
because of the fact that as the angle of V changes the place where the workpiece
rests also changes, Ultimately it will be noted that the same work – piece rests at
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higher place in V-block of smaller angle and at lower place in V-block of larger angle
and thus the indicator will show different readings for same work-piece kept in same
position on different angle V-blocks.
(ii) Position of the instrument, i.e. whether measured from top or bottom.
(iii)
(b)
pentagonal etc.)
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Number of lobes on the rotating part (e.g., elliptical, triangular, quadrilateral,
The instrument‘s position should be in the same vertical plane as the point of
contact of the part with the V-block. If the error is measured at a point far from the
V-block, The error of circularity will be influenced by the radial run out of the part.
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(c) A leaf spring should always be kept below the indicator plunger and the
surface of the part, otherwise readings are likely to be affected by minute
undulations of the surface, such as surface roughness.
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It is obvious that with different angle of V-blocks, dial indicator shows different
readings for the same work-piece placed in the same position. If this problem is
studied further by analyzing an elliptical work piece on different angle V-blocks, it
will be found that some solution can be arrived at. Let us consider an elliptical work
piece whose major axis if 2∆more than the minor axis as shown in Fig.7.38.

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We will place this work –piece on different angle V-blocks first with major axis
placed along the direction of dial movement and then with minor axis along the
direction of dial –movement. This is so because the work-piece has two number of
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lobes.
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It may be noted that it is possible to take dial readings both from top as well
as bottom. Consider the case when work-piece is placed at flat. Surface in two
positions as shown in Fig.7.39. It will be noted that the error of circularity when
measured from top = 2∆ and when measured from bottom =0, whereas the actual
error of circularity in the work-piece =∆.

Similarly, if the work-piece is placed on a V-block of angle 120º it will be found

by calculation or otherwise that the error of circularity in this case when measured
from bottom =0.42∆.
In the same way, it will be found that when work-piece is tested on the 108º V-
block, the circularity error measurement when measured from top=1.38∆ and 0.62∆ if
measured from bottom. The corresponding values for 90º and 60º V-block will be ∆,
∆ and 0, 2∆ respectively.
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Thus for an elliptical work-piece which has got 2 numbers of lobes, the ratio of
circularity error measurement by dial indicator on different V-blocks and the actual
error is as given below
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Measured value of error of circularity
such values of the constant k=
Actual value of error of circularity
can be determined for different shapes of work –pieces, i.e. having different number
of lobes. ta s
V-Block. (a) Fixed angle. Depending on the number of lobes on a part, the following
angles of V-blocks are recommended for measurement of correct roundness by V-
block method.
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Lobes Angle of V-block
Three-point out of roundness 60º
Five – lobed part 180º

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Seven – lobed part 128º34
(b) Adjustable V-Block. It is usually difficult to ascertain the number of lobes of a

part and have large number of fixed angle V-Blocks. V-block which can be adjusted
to correct angle to show out-of roundness is better choice.
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V-Block method is limited in the determination of roundness of part because it is

suitable only when the number of lobes is known and is uniformly arranged, which is
never the case.
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Screw thread terminology.

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1. Screw Thread. A screw thread is a continuous helical groove of specified cross-

section produced on the external or internal surface of a cylinder or a cone.
2. Multiple Start Thread. This is produced by forming two or more helical grooves,
equally spaced and similarly formed in an axial section on a cylinder. This gives a
quick traverse without sacrificing core strength.
3. Crest. Crest is the prominent part of thread i.e. top surface joining the two sides
of thread.

4. Root. Root is the bottom of the groove between the sides of two adjacent
threads.
5. Flank. The straight surface between the crest and root (which connects the
corresponding point on the next (adjacent) thread is called pitch of the thread.
6. Pitch. The distance measured parallel to the axial from a point on a thread to the
corresponding point on the next (adjacent) threads is called pitch of the thread.
7. Lead. Lead is the distance through which a screw advances axially in one
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complete revolution. For a single start thread. It can also be defined as a distance
measured radically between the major and minor diameters.
8. Depth of thread. It is the distance between the crest and root of the thread
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measured perpendicular to the axis of the thread. It can also be defined as a
distance measured radially between the major and minor diameters.
9. Thread Angle (included angle). It is the angle included between the flanks or
slopes of a thread measured in an axial plane.
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10. Flank angle. The angle made by the flank of a thread with the perpendicular to
the thread axis is called flank angle. It is equal to half the thread angle.
11. Lead Angle. On a straight thread, lead angle is the angle made by the helix of the
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thread at the pitch line with plane perpendicular to the axis.
12. Helix Angle. On a straight thread, the helix angle is the angle made by the helix of
the thread at the pitch line with the axis.
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13. Major diameter. It is the diameter of an imaginary c0-axial cylinder which would
touch the crests of an external thread or roots of an internal thread. It is also
called as external diameter, core diameter, outside diameter or full diameter of
external threads.
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14. Minot diameter (Core diameter or root diameter). It is the diameter of an

imaginary co-axial cylinder which would touch the roots of an external thread or
crests of an internal thread.
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15. Effective diameter (pitch diameter). It is the diameter of an imaginary co-axial

which intersects the flanks of the threads such that the width of the threads
(metal) and widths of the spaces between the threads are equal, each being half
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the pitch.
16. Virus effective diameter (functional diameter). The functional diameter of an

external thread is the pitch diameter of the enveloping thread of perfect thread
elements having full depth of engagement but clear at crests and roots, and of
specified length.
When added to (for external threads) the pitch diameter, the cumulative effects of
deviations from specified profile for a specified length of engagement gives the
functional diameter.

To find out the Radius of Circle of any job having a portion of a Circle:
This method requires the use of surface plate, Vernier Caliper, C-clamp and two
pins of equal size. This method could be best applied to jobs like cap of a bearing.
The job is first clamped to surface plate with the help of C-clamp. It should be
clamped in such a way that central position of the circular part is in contact with the
surface plate as far as possible. Then two pins of equal diameter are placed on each
side of the work as shown in figure and the reading over the balls is taken with the
Vernier caliper. Let the reading be / let the diameter of pins be d and radius of job R.
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ta s
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Let ‗O‘ be the assumed centre of the circle. Then in rt. d OAB. In figure
OB2 = OA2 + AB2

2 2 2
 d  d   1 d 
or  R+    R    
 2  2   2 
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d2 d (1  d)2
or R 2   Rd  R  2  Rd 
4 2 4
1
or 2Rd= (1  d)2
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4
(1-d)2 (1  d)2
and R = 
4  2d 8d
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To find out the Radius of a Concave surface
i) When the edges are well-defined

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ii) When the edges are rounded up.

iii) When the edges are well-defined, his method is applicable to those parts
which have large radius to curvature. This required the use of a surface plate,
angle plate, height gauge, depth micrometer, slip gauges and a C-clamp.
The part to be tested is kept one surface plate and with the help of a depth
micrometer the maximum depth of the cavity is determined. Let is be h. Next the part
is kept in such a way that cavity is resting against an angle plate and the part is then
clamped in this position. The hole is then measured from edge to edge with a height
gauge having a sharp scribing arm. Let the maximum dreading, i.e. diameter of the

hold be d (fig).
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Let O be the assumed centre of the cavity
and R the radius of curvature.
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Then in rt. d OAB,
OA2 = AB + BO2
2
 d
or R     (R  h)2
2
 2 ta s
d2
=  R2  h2  2Rh
4
2
 d
or 2Rh =    h2
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 2
2
 d
 2 h
2
d2 h
R=     .
2h 8h 2
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ii) When he edges are rounded up. When the edges of the cavity are rounded up,
then the radius of curvature can be measured by a depth micrometer and slip gages.
The width of the depth micrometer base is measured with the help of slip gauges.
Let is be d, then it is placed in the cavity ill it fully rests in the cavity, its frame
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touching all the sides of cavity (fig). The measuring tip is then lowered down till it
touches the base. The reading is then noted on the thimble and let it be h. now the
case is similar to previous one and the radius of curvature R can be found out be the
same formula.
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Other method to note down d and h is by using a heavy steel block, a steel
ball and slip gauges as shown in figure in this method, the steel ball is placed in the

cavity and the heavy steel block also put into the cavity. The space between the
block and ball is filled up by a suitable length of slip gauges so that L lock is just
touching the sides of cavity.
Here length of block is d and length of slip gauges and diameter of ball
constitute h. The formula for finding the radius of curvature remains the same.
Profilometer:
Profilometer is an indicating and recording instrument used to measure
roughness in microns. The principle of the instrument is similar to gramophone pick
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up. It consists of two principal units: a tracer and an amplifier. Tracer is a finely
pointed stylus. It is mounted in the pick up unit which consists of an induction coil
located in the field of a permanent magnet. When the tracer is moved across the
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surface to be tested, it is displaced vertically up and down due to the surface
irregularities. This causes the induction coil to move in the field of the permanent
magnet and induces a voltage. The induced voltage is amplified and recorded.
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This instrument is best sited of measuring sauce finish of deep bores.

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straightness measurement of :
The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum

deviation in relation to the reference straight line going the two extremities of the line
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under examination.
A line is said to be straight over a given length, if the distance of its points
from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the generation direction
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of the line remains within the specified tolerance limits.
The straightness error of a line is defined as the distance ‗e‘ between two
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lines drawn parallel to the mean true line and enveloping the actual contour by
passing through the highest and lowest points on the measured line as shown in
figure.

The mean true line should be chosen such that it passes through the
maximum number of points measured and the sum of the areas above it must be
equal to the sum of areas below it.
The maximum straightness error can then the graphically determined by

measuring the normal distance (e) between the two straight lines drawn parallel to
the mean true line, enveloping all measured points.
For measuring the straightness of a line and its error, the following
instruments are used.
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(i) Straight edge
(ii) Spirit level
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(iii) Auto-collimator
Measurement of straightness
(i) By using a spirit level. The most convenient method of testing straightness of
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a surface of any length to a high degree of accuracy is by using spirit level or auto-
collimator.
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A straight line is drawn on the surface whose straightness is to be checked. A

sensitive spirit level. Fitted with two feet at a convenient distance apart is moved
along this line in steps equal to the pitch distance between centre lines of the feet.
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For each position, the reading is noted. Variations in the bubble position represent
angular variations in the surface and these are converted into differences in high of
the feet above or below the starting point.
(ii) Auto collimator method. The main principle of this method is same as that of the
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spirit level method. In this method a block fitted with feet at convenient distance apart
and carrying a plane reflector is moved along the surface in steps equal to the pitch
of the feet. Angular variations at each position are used to plot the graph of errors.
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When testing vertical surface an optical square may be interposed so that

auto collimator can be used in the horizontal position. This is usually more
convenient that arrange the instrument with its axis vertical.
A particular feature of this method is that it can be used for vertical side of
horizontal slide ways where the level cannot be used.
(ii) Straight edge method. This is simplest method of testing straightness of a

surface. A straight edge of know accuracy is applied to the surface to be tested and

degree of contact is determined by marking, feelers or light gap. The more accurate
method of measuring straightness by a straight edge is wedge method.
A straight edge is supported at the points for minimum deflection on two

unequal piles of slip gauges so that it is at a slight inclination to the surface to be
tested. The distance between the supports is divided into number of equal parts and
marked on the straight edge. If both straight edge and surface are perfectly straight,
the gap at each point will very uniformly.
Assume that the slip gauges used have values 10mm and 10.1 mm as shown
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in the figure. Let the distance between the slip values be divided into 5 numbers of
 0.1 
equal parts. The gap at each point will, therefore, vary by 0.02mm   now we can
 5 
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determine the value of pile of slip required for exact contact at each position. Eg. At
the first position it is 10 mm; at the second position it will be 10.02 mm; at the third it
will be 10.04 mm and so on. Insert the lip gauges of appropriate value at each
marked position. If there is no error, the slip will make contact with both the surfaces
exactly at the marked positions. If however, there are errors in straightness, the slips
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will not fit exactly at their marked positions, but will be displaced one way or other
along the straight edge by amounts proportional to the errors.
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This is very sensitive method of measurement and can be made as sensitive

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as desired by choosing a small wedge angle and large number of measuring

positions. Care must be taken to see that the slips do not wring to the surface
otherwise the whole sensitivity will be lost.
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methods of measurement of roundness:
The most commonly used methods of measurement of roundness are :

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1.Using V block and Dial indicator

2.Roundness measuring machine
3.Bench center method
1. V-block and dial indicator method. A very simple and most commonly used
method of measuring out of roundness is by using a V block and dial indicator. The
set up employed for this purpose is as shown in figure.

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The V-block is placed on the surface plate and the work to be checked is
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placed upon it.
A sensitive dial indicator is firmly fixed in a stand and its feeler made to rest
against the surface of the work. The work is rotated about the diameter to be
checked the dial indicator records any variation in dimensions due to out-of-
roundness. ta s
This method converts the diameter measurement to a chordal-height
variation, and presents a new set of measurement peculiarities which are dependent
upon the included angle of the V-block and the number of lobes present on the
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circumstance of the work piece to be measured.
Plotting Polar Graph
The ideal about the actual shape of the work piece can be obtained by
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actually plotting the polar graph. Equally spaced 12 markings (at angles of 30) are
made on the face of the work piece to be measured. The work piece is properly
cleaned and then placed on the V-block against a rigid block with a steel ball in
between as shown in figure the dial indicator is placed just above the work piece so
that it touches the work piece nearly at the centre of the V-block. The work piece is
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then rotated such the marking on the work piece is below the indicating plunger. The
readings of the dial indicator are noted down for all the markings. This procedure is
repeated three times to take the average value.
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For plotting the polar graph, a suitable scale is chosen depending upon the
maximum value of the reading. Then a circle of diameter nearly four times the
maximum reading of the dial indicator is drawn and divided into twelve equal
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numbers of angular divisions as shown in figure. Inside the outer circle, another
concentric circle of suitable diameter is drawn. Then the values of the indicator are
plotted in radial direction taking the smaller circles as the reference circle in order
that both the positive and negative readings are plotted with the prepared graph.

For obtaining the actual profile of the work piece in individual points are then
joined by straight lines. The error is measured as the radial distance between the
minimum inscribing circle for the profile obtained. This is done by hit and trial method
such that this distance is minimum.
The actual value of the error of roundness is given by,
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measured error from polar graph
Error =
k
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where, k is a constant, value of which depends upon the shape of the
workpiece and angle of V-block (as indicated in table).
For determining the number of lobes (for selecting the constant value k from
the table, the work piece is first tested in a 60 V-block and then in a 90 V-block).
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The number of lobes is then equal to the number of times the indicator pointer
deflects during rotation of the work piece through 360 the reason for testing the
work piece part is rotated on a V-block of angle 60, no change in reading is
indicated, whereas if the same part is rotated on a 90 V-block, two maximum and
two minimum readings are indicated on the indicator.
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Work on an axis against a fixed indicator can be use to obtain results of less
precision. In this type the work is placed on a circular table with its centre set, as
from a fixed base, is placed with its plunger in contact with the edge of the disc.
This method is more accurate a record of the exact profile of the job is made
automatically and thus the waviness is also superimposed upon the profile of the job.
A permanent polar chart record is usually provided and the method leads itself to
standardization. The sophisticated machines have the provision to check
concentricity roundness, alignment, squareness, parallelism and flatness.
2. Bench centre method. In this method bench centres and a precision mechanical

(dial gauge), air or electronic indicator may be used to measure out of roundness of
a work piece on a radial basis. The accuracy of the result is, however, effected by
shape and angle of centres and the centre holes, lubrication of centre etc. in the part
under test.
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alignment tests conducted on a lathe:
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1. Test for level of installation
(a) In longitudinal direction (b) In transverse direction
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Measuring instruments. Spirit level, gauge block to suit the guide ways of the lathe
bed.
Procedure. The gauge block with the spirit level is placed on the bed ways on the
front position, back position and in the cross wise direction. The position of the
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bubble in the spirit level is checked and the readings are taken.
Permissible error. Front guide ways 0.02 mm/meter convex only. Rear guide ways,
0.01 to 0.02 convexity. Bed level in cross-wise direction  0.02 meters. Straightness
of slide ways (for machines more than 3m turning length only measurement s taken
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by measuring taught wire and microscope or long straight edge). Tailstock guide
ways parallel with movement of carriage 0.02mm/m. no twist is permitted.
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The error in level may be corrected by setting wedges at suitable points under the
support feel or pads of the machine.
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3. Straightness of saddle in horizontal plane.
Measuring instruments. Cylindrical test mandrill (600 mm

long), dial indicator.
Procedure. The mandrel is held between centres. The dial indicator is

mounted on the saddle. The spindle of the dial indicator is allowed to touch the
mandrel. The saddle is then moved longitudinally along the length of the mandrel.
Readings are taken at different places Permissible error. 0.02 mm over length of

mandrel.
4.Alignment of both the centres in the vertical plane.
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Measuring instruments. Cylindrical mandrel 600mm long, dial gauge.
Procedure. The test mandrel is held between centres. The dial indicator is mounted
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on the saddle in vertical plane as shown in figure. Then the saddle along with the dial
gauge is traveled longitudinally along the bed ways, over the entire length of the
mandrel and the readings are taken at different places.
Permissible error 0.02 mm over 600 mm length of mandrel (tail stock centre is to lie
higher only). ta s
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5.True running of taper socket in main spindle.

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Instruments required. Test mandrel with taper shank and 300 mm long cylindrical
measuring part, dial gauge.
Procedure. The test mandrel is held with its taper shank in a head stock spindle
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socket. The dial gauge is mounted on the saddle. The dial gauge spindle is made
touch with the mandrel. The saddle is then traveled longitudinally along the bed ways
and readings are taken at the points A and B as shown in figure.
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Permissible error. Position A, 0.01 mm, position B 0.02 mm.

6. Parallelism of main spindle to saddle movement.
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(a) Ina a vertical plane (b) In horizontal plane
Measuring instruments. Test mandrel with taper shank and 300 mm long cylindrical
Procedure. The dial gauge is mounted on the saddle. The dial gauge spindle is
made to touch the mandrel and the saddle is moved to and fro. It is checked in
vertical as well as in horizontal plane.
Permissible errors. (a) 0.02/300 mm mandrel rising towards free and only. (b)

0.02/300 mm mandrel inclined at fee end towards tool pressure only.
7. Movement of upper slide parallel with main spindle in vertical plane.
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Measuring instrument. Test mandrel with taper shank and 300mm long cylindrical
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Procedure. The test mandrel is fitted into the spindle and a dial gauge clamped to
the upper slide. The slide is traversed along with the dial gauge plunger on the top of
the stationery mandrel. Permissible error-0.02 mm over the total movement of the
slide.
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8. True running of locating cylinder of main spindle.
Measuring instrument. Dial gauge.

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Procedure. The dial gauge is mounted on the bed, touching at a point on main
spindle.
The main spindle is rotated by hand and readings of dial gauge are taken.
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Permissible error -0.01 mm.

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9. True running of head stock centre.

Measuring instrument. Dial indicator.
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Procedure : Tailstock sleeve is fed outwards. The dial gauge is mounted on the
saddle. Its spindle is touched to the sleeve at one end and then saddle is moved to
and fro, it is checked in H.P. and V.P. also.
Permissible error. (a) 0.01/100 mm (Tailstock sleeve inclined towards tool pressure
only). (b) 0.01/100 mm (Tailstock sleeve rising towards free end only).

10. Parallelism of tail stock sleeve taper socket to saddle movement (a) in V.P (b) in
H.P.
Measuring instruments. The mandrel with taper shank and a cylindrical measuring
part of 300mm length, dial gauge.
Procedure. Test mandrel is held with its taper shank in a tail stock sleeve taper
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socket. The dial gauge is mounted on spindle. The dial gauge spindle is made touch
with the mandrel. The saddle is the traversed longitudinally along the bed way and
readings are taken.
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Permissible error.
(a) 0.03/300 mm (mandrel rising towards free and only)

(b) 0.03/300 mm (mandrel inclined towards tool pressure only)
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various alignment test on a milling machine:
Alignment tests on milling machine.

(1) Flatness of work table.
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(a) in longitudinal direction
(b) in transverse direction.
Measuring instruments spirit level.

Procedure. A spirit level is placed directly on the table at points about 25 to 30 cm
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apart, at A B C for longitudinal tests and D E and F for the transverse test.
The readings are noted.

Permissible error.
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Direction A – B – C  0.04 mm
Direction D – E – F  0.04 mm
(2) Parallelism of the work table surface to the main spindle.

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Measuring instrument. Dial indicator test mandrel 300 mm long, spirit level.
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Procedure. The table is adjusted in the horizontal plane by a spirit level and is then
set in its mean position longitudinally. The mandrel is fixed in the spindle taper. A dial
gauge is set on the machine table, and the feeler adjusted to touch the lower surface
of the mandrel. The dial gauge readings at (A) and (B) are observed, the stand of the
dial gauge being moved while the machine table remains stationery.
Permissible error. 0.02/300 mm.

(3) Parallelism of the clamping surface of the work table in its longitudinal motion.
Instruments. Dial gauge, straight edge.
Procedure. A dial gauge is fixed to the spindle. The gauge spindle is adjusted to
touch the table surface. The table is then moved in longitudinal direction and
readings are noted. If the table surface is uneven it is necessary to place a straight
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edge on its surface and the dial gauge feeler is made to rest on the top surface of
the straight edge.
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Permissible error. 0.02 up to 50 mm length of traverse, 0.03 up to 1000 mm and 0.04
above 1000 mm length of traverse.
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(4) Parallelism of the cross (transverse) movement of the worktable to the main
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spindle.
(a) in a vertical plane
(b) in horizontal plane
instruments. Dial gauge, test mandrel with taper shank.
Procedure. The table is set in its mean position. The mandrel is held in the spindle. A
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dial gauge field to the table is adjusted so that its spindle touches the surface of the
mandrel. The table is moved cross-wise and the error is measured in the vertical
plane and also in the horizontal plane.
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Permissible error. 0.02 for the overall traverse movement of the work table.
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(5) rue running of internal taper of the main spindle.
Instrument 300mm long test mandrel, dial gauge
Procedure. The test mandrel with its taper shank is held in the main spindle. Dial
gauge is kept scanning the periphery of the mandrel. Spindle is rotated and dial
gauge readings are noted at different points say A and B as shown.
Permissible error. A: 0.01 mm, position B: 0.02 mm.
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(6) Squareness of the centre T-slot of worktable with main spindle.
Instruments. Dial gauge, special bracket.

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Procedure. To check the perpendicularity of the locating slot and the axis of the main
spindle. The table should be arranged in the middle position of its longitudinal
arranged in the middle position of its longitudinal movement, and a bracket with a
tenon at least 150 mm long inserted in the locating slot, as shown in figure.
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A dial gauge should be fixed in the spindle taper, the feeler being adjusted to
touch the vertical face of the bracket. Observe the reading on the dial gauge when
the bracket is near one end of the table, the swing over the dial gauge and move the
bracket so that the corresponding readings can be taken near the other end of the
table.

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(7) Parallelism of the T-slot with the longitudinal movement of the table.
Instrument. Dial gauge special bracket.
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Procedure. The general parallelism of the T-slot with the longitudinal movement of
the table is checked by using 150 mm long braked having a tennon which enters the
slot. The dial gauge is fixed to the spindle taper and adjusted so that its feeder
touches the upper surface of the bracket. The table is then moved longitudinally
deviations from parallelism are noted down.

Permissible error. 0.0125 mm in 300 mm.
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while the bracket is held stationary by the hand of the operator and dial gauge
(8) Parallelism between the main spindle and guiding surface of

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the overhanging arm.
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Instruments. Dial gauge, mandrel

Procedure. The overhanging arm is clamped in its extreme extended position. The
dial gauge is fixed to the arbor support.
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The feeler of the dial gauge is adjusted to touch the top or ride of the test
mandrel. The arbor support can then be moved along the overhanging arm and the
deviations from parallelism observed on the dial gauge.
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Tests on shaping machine:
The use of shaping machine is to create flat surfaces accurately. Therefore,

the chief requirements of the shaping machine are that it should cut straight, parallel
and face flat.
The important alignment tests on shaping machine are described below:
1. Straightness and flatness of the table.

The straightness and flatness of the table is the fundamental requirement of the
shaping machine to produce accurate work pieces.
Instruments. Spirit level, gauge block.
Procedure. The table is brought in the central position. The spirit level is placed
over the gauge block at several points on the table parallel to and perpendicular to
the direction of the table feed and in all the positions the bubble in the spirit level
must be central.
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2. Parallelism of top surface of table to its transverse movements.
Instruments. Dial gauge, straight edge.
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Procedure. The table is brought to one side end. Dial gauge is then moved in
transverse direction below dial gauge and readings are taken.
3. Parallelism of table top to ram movement (parallelism of the table feed under the
tool) ta s
Instrument. Dial gauge, straight edge.
Procedure. The ram is brought to the end of its edge. The dial gauge is placed on
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the table top in the direction of movement of the ram. The ram is then moved
backward and forward and reading are taken.
Permissible error. 0.015 per 300 mm.

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4. Trueness and parallelism of vertical ways of column.
Instruments. Dial gauge.
Procedure. The table is brought to its lowest position. The dial gauge is placed on
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the table so that its feeler will touch the vertical ways of the column as shown in
figure.
The table is then moved up and if the side ways are perfectly parallel and leveled
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straight, the dial gauge touching to it will not shows any
5. The accuracy, squareness, and parallelism of T-slots on the label.

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Instrument. Dial indicator, angle plate.
Procedure. The angle is inserted in the slot lengthwise and the dial gauge is set
in the adjacent parallel slot as shown in the figure the dial gauge is adjusted so that
its feeler just touches the angle plate. The reading is adjusted to zero and then the
dial indicator is moved through the slot lengthwise and the deflection is noted.

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Checking accuracy of T - slots
Alignment tests on pillar type drilling machine:
Before carrying out the alignment tests, the machine is properly leveled in
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accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
The various tests performed on pillar drilling machine are:

Instruments. Straight edge, two gauge blocks; feeler gauges.
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1. Flatness of clamping surface of base. The test is performed by placing a
straight edge on two gauge block on the base plate in various positions and the error
is noted down by inserting feeler gauges.
Permissible error. The error should not exceed 0.1/1000mm clamping surface and
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the surface should be concave only.
2. Flatness of clamping surface of table
The test is performed in the same manner as test (1), but not on the label. The
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permissible error is also same.

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3. Perpendicularity of drill guide to the table base plate.
Instruments. Frame level.

The squareness (perpendicularity) of drill head guide to the table is tested.
(a) In a vertical plane passing through the axes of both spindle and column,
and
(b) In plane at 90 to the plane at (a).
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The test is performed by placing the frame level (with graduations from 0.03 to
0.05 mm) on guide column and table and the error is noted by noting the difference
between the readings of the two levels.
Permissible error. The error should not exceed 0.25/1000mm guide column for (a)
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and the guide column should be inclined at the upper end towards the front, and
0.15/1000mm for (b).
For testing the perpendicularity of drill guide to the base plate the test is similar as
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above, the only difference being that the frame level is to be placed on the base
instead of a table.
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4. Perpendicularity of spindle sleeve with base plate.
This test is performed in both the place as specified in test (3) and in the similar
manner. The only difference is that the frame levels are to be placed on spindle
sleeve and base plate.
Permissible error. The error (i.e. the difference between the readings of the two
levels) should not exceed 0.25/1000mm for plane (a) and the sleeve should be
inclined towards column only, and 0.15/100mm for plane (b).

5. True running of spindle taper
Instruments: Test mandrel, dial gauge
Procedure: The test mandrel is placed in the tapered hole of spindle and a dial
indicator is fixed on the table and its feeler made to scan the mandrel. The spindle is
rotated slowly and readings on indicator noted down.
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Permissible error. The error should not exceed 0.03/100mm for machines with taper
up to Morse No.2 and 0.04/300mm for machines with taper larger than Morse No.2.
6. Parallelism of the spindle axis with its vertical movements.

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Instruments. Test mandrel, dial gauge.
Procedure. This test is performed into two planes (A) and (B) at right angles to each
other. The test mandrel is fitted into the taper hole of the spindle and the dial gauge
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is fixed on the table with its feeler touching the mandrel. The spindle is adjusted in
the middle position of its travel. The spindle is moved in upper and lower directions
of the middle position of its travel. The spindle is moved in upper and lower
directions of the middle position with slow vertical feed mechanism and the readings
of the dial gauge are noted down.
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Possible error. For plane (A) and (B) both 0.03/100 mm, 0.05/300mm.
7. Squareness of clamping surface of table to its axis.
Instruments. Dial gauge.

Procedure. The dial indicator is mounted in the tapered hole of the spindle and its
feeler is made to touches the surface of table. The table is then moved slowly and
the readings of dial gauge noted down.
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Permissible error. The permissible error should not exceed 0.05/300am diameter.
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8. Squareness of the spindle axis with table.
Instruments. Straight edge, dial gauge.
Procedure. This test is performed by placed the straight edge in position AA‘ and
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BB‘. The work table is arranged in the middle of its vertical travel. The dial gauge is
mounted in the tapered hole of the spindle and its feeler is made to touch the straight
edge first at A and readings are taken. Then the spindle is rotated by 180 so that
the feeler touches at point A‘ and again the reading is taken. The difference of these
two reading is the error in squareness of spindle axis with table. Similar readings are
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taken by placing the straight edge is position BB‘.

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Permissible error: The permissible errors are 0.08/300mm with lower end of spindle
inclined towards column only for set up AA‘ and 0.05/300mm for set up BB‘.

UNIT – IV-FORM MEASUREMENTS
The machine vision system involves following four basic steps.
Image formation
Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer
Defining and analysing the characteristics of image
Interpretation of image and decision making.
We will now discuss these four steps in more details.
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Image formation. For formation of image suitable light source is required. It may
consist of incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber-optic bundle, arc lamp, or
strobe light. Laser beam is used for triangulation system for measuring distance.
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Polarised or ultraviolet light is used to reduce glare or increase contrast. It is
important that light source is placed correctly since it influences the contrast of the
image. Selection of proper illumination technique, (viz, back lighting, front lighting-
diffused or directed bright field, or directed dark field, or polarised, structured light)
is important. Back lighting is suited when a simple silhouette image is required to
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obtain maximum image contrast.
Front lighting is used when certain key features on the surface of the object are to be
inspected.
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If a three-dimensional feature is being inspected, side lighting or structured lighting
may be required.
The proper orientation and fixturing of part also deserve full attention.
An image sensor like vidicon camera, CCD or CID camera is used to generate the
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electronic signal representing the image. The image sensor collects light from the
scene through a lens and using a photosensitive target, converts it into electronic
signal. Most image sensors generate signals representing two-dimensional arrays
(scans of the entire image).
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Vidicon Camera used in closed – circuit television systems can be used for
machine vision systems. IN it, an image is formed by focussing the income light
through a series of lenses onto the photoconductive face plate of the vidicon tube.
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An electron beam within the tube scans the ph to conductive surface and produces
an analog output voltage proportional to the variations in light intensity for each scan
line of the original scene.
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It provides a great deal of information of a scene at very fast speeds.

However they tend to distort the image due to their construction and are subject to
image burn-in on the photo conductive surface. These are also susceptible to
damage by shock and vibration.
Solid State Cameras. These are commonly used in machine vision systems.
These employ charge coupled device (CCD) or change injected device (CID) image
sensors. They contain matrix or linear array of small, accurately spaced photo
sensitive elements fabricated on silicon chips using integrated circuit technology,

Each detector converts the light falling on it, through the camera lens, into analog
electrical signal corresponding to light intensity. The entire image is thus broken
down into an array of individual picture elements (pixels).
Typical matrix array solid state cameras may have 256 x 256 detector
elements per array. Solid-state cameras are smaller, rugged and their sensors do
not wear out with use. They exhibit less image distortion because of accurate
placement of the photodetectors. CCD and CID differ primarily in how the voltages
are extracted from the sensors.
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ii) Image processing : The series of voltage levels available on detectors
representing light intensities over the area of the image need processing for
presentation to the microcomputer in a format suitable for analysis. A camera may
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typically from an image 30 times per sec i.e. At 33 m sec intervals. At each time
interval the entire image has to be captured and forzen for processing by an image
processor. An analog to digital converter is used to convert analog voltage of each
detector into digital value.
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If voltage level for each pixel is given either 0 or 1 value depending on some
threshold value, it is called Binary System. On the other hand gray scale system
assigns upto 256 different values depending on intensity to each pixel. Thus in
addition to black and white, many different shades of gray can be distinguished.
This thus permits comparison of objects on the basis of surface characteristics like
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texture, color, orientation, etc. All of which produce subtle variations in light intensity
distributions. Gray scale systems are used in applications requiring higher degree of
image refinement. For simple inspection tasks, silhoutte images are adequate and
binary system may serve the purpose. It may be appreciated that gray-scale system
requires huge storage processing capability because a 256 x 256 pixel image array
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with upto 256 different pixel values will require over 65000-8 bit storage locations for
analysis, at a speed of 30 images per second. The data processing requirements
can thus be visualised. It is, therefore, essential that some means be used to reduce
the amount of data to be processed. Various techniques in this direction are :
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a) Windowing. This technique is used to concentrate the processing in the desired

area of interest and ignoring other non-interested part of image. An electronic mask
is created around a small area of an image to be studied.
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Thus only the pixels that are not blocked out will be analysed by the computer.
a) Image Restoration. This involves preparation of an image in more suitable

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form during the pre-processing stage by removing the degradation suffered. The
image may be degraded (blurring of lines/ boundaries; poor contrast between image
regions, presence of background noise, etc.) due to motion of camera / object
during image formation, poor illumination /poor placement, variation in sensor
response, poor contrast on surface, etc.).
The quality may be improved, ( i ) by improving the contrast by constant

brightness addition,( ii ) by increasing the relative contrast between high and low
intensity elements by making light pixels lighter and dark pixels darker (contrast
stretching ) or ( iii ) by fourier domain processing.

Other techniques to reduce processing are edge detection and run length
encoding. In former technique, the edges are clearly found and defined and rather
than storing the entire image, only the edges are stored. In run-length encoding,
each line of the image is scanned, and transition points form black to white or vice
versa are noted, along with the number of pixels between transitions. These data
are then stored instead of the original image, and serve as the starting point for
image analysis.
iii) Image Analysis. Digital image of the object formed is analysed in the
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central processing unit of the system to draw conclusions and make decisions.
Analysis is done by describing and measuring the properties of several image
features which may belong to either regions of the image or the image as a whole.
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Process of image interpretation starts with analysis of simple features and then more
complicated features are added to define it completely. Analysis is carried for
describing the position of the object, its geometric configuration, distribution of light
intensity over its visible surface, etc.
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Three important taks performed by machine vision systems are measuring the
distance of an object from a vision system camera, determining object orientation,
and defining object position.
The distance of an object from a vision system camera can be determined by

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stadimetry (direct imaging technique, in which distance is judged by the apparent
size of an object in the field of view of camera after accurate focussing), or by
triangulation technique, or by stereo vision (binocular vision technique using the
principle of parallax).
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The object orientation can be determined by the methods of equivalent ellipse

(by calculating an ellipse of same area as the image of object in two- dimensional
plane, and orientation of object being defined by the major axis of the ellipse), the
connecting of three points (defining orientation by measuring the apparent relative
position of three points of image), light intensity distribution (determining orientation
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based on relative light intensity), structured light method (in which the workpiece is
illuminated by the structured light and the three dimensional shape and the
orientation of the part are determined by the way in which the pattern is distored by
the part).
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Image can be interpreted by analysis of the fundamental geometric properties

of two-dimensional images. Usually parts tend to have distinct shapes that can be
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recognized on the basis of elementary features. For complex three-dimensional

objects, additional geometric properties need to be determined, including
descriptions of various image segments (process being known as feature extraction).
In this method the boundary locations are determined and the image is segment into
distinct regions and their geometric properties determined. Then these image
regions are organised in a structure describing their relationship.
An image can also be interpreted on the basis of difference in intensity of light

in different regions. Analysis of subtle changes in shadings over the image can add
a great deal of information about the three-dimensional nature of the object.

Advantages and Limitations of computer in processing:
The advantages of using computer for processing of acquired data and control are
as under :
 A particular measurement sequence is strictly adhered to since computer

accepts the information in a sequential manner and also provides necessary
guidance to operator in this regard.
 Inspection time is reduced considerably
 The calculation of final result in available immediately on completion of the last
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measurement.
 Rejected readings can be repeated straight away, before the set up is
disturbed.
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 Scope for copying and calculation errors is virtually eliminated.
 The checking of the result is made much more simple.
 Time for calibration is reduced considerably.
 New Operation can be trained quickly and they need not be highly qualified.
The limitations on use of computers for this application could be :

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Computer adheres to a given criteria rigorously and thus all the qualifying
requirements and ability of operator in accepting / rejecting a reading need to
be told to computer clearly without any ambiguity.
 Sometimes a number may be entered incorrectly due to transposing error or
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key-bounce.
 Strict control is needed over the use, amendment and copying of programme
tapes to ensure that unauthorised modifications are not made.
 Checking procedure to ensure correct loading of program from tape needs to be
followed.
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 Measurement process gets remote from the operator.

 It is difficult to locate the source of problem by normal operator.
 While the effects of drifts, environment influences are hidden or not noticed; but
operator may not get that confidence.
 While human eye and memory are extremely good at detecting drifts and
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averaging high frequency noise on signals, careful programming has to be

undertaken to give a computer a similar facility.
Co – ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM) – Principle.

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These machine have precise movements in x-y-z coordinates which can be

easily controlled and measured. Each slide in three directions is equipped with a
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precision linear measurement transducer which gives digital display and sense +vd/ -
ve direction. These are manufactured in both manual and computer-controlled
models and come in a wide range of sizes to accommodate a variety of applications.
The measuring head incorporates a probe tip, which can be of different kinds like
taper tip, ball tip etc. Various type of CMMs are shown in Fig. 17.11. The cantilever
type is easiest to load and unload, but is most susceptible to mechanical error
because of sag or deflection in y -axis beam. Bridge type is more difficult to load but
less sensitive to mechanical errors. Horizontal boring mill type is best sited for large
heavy workpieces. Vertical bore mill type is highly accurate but usually slower to
operate. A floating bridge type machine is also available in which the complete

bridge can slide in y-direction on the slides. It has the compromises of both
cantilever and bridge type, and is thus fast to operate, simple in alignment, and
rugged construction affords consistent accuracy.
For measuring the distance between two holes, the workpiece is clamped to
the worktable and aligned with the machine's three mutually perpendicular x, y and z
measuring slides. The tapered-probe tip is then seated in first datum hole and the
probe position digital readout is set to zero. The probe is then moved to successive
holes, at each of which the digital readout represents the coordinate part print hole
location with respect to the datum hole. Machine is also equipped with automatic
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recording and data processing units which are essential when complex geometric
and statistical analysis is to be carried out. In fact, in modern machines, automatic
on -line processing of measurement data is possible when the part is still on the
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worktable.
In a special coordinate measuring machine, both linear ( x and z axes) and

rotary axes are incorporated. The machines can measure various features of parts
whose shapes are objects of revolutions like cones, cylinders and hemispheres.
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R-0 machines having motions of their measuring head in R, 0 and
direction are used for inspecting parts that are basically spherical.
As it is impossible to manufacture a mechanically perfect machine it is

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important to be able to analysee the geometry errors associated with each individual
CMM and determine their effects on the machine's measurement accuracy. The
result of such analyses can be used to compensate for these effects and thus
provide a high degree of accuracy that could not otherwise be achieved.
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The prime advantage of co-ordinate measuring machine is the quicker

inspection coupled with accurate measurements.
The co-ordinate measuring machine with mechanical gauge makes use of

two-axis X and Y positioning tables to bring the work to the probe that engages the
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holes to be inspected.
Some machines are equipped with an optical comparator as well as travel dial
indicator.
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Present day co-ordinate measuring machines are three-axis digital read-out

type and work up with an accuracy of 10 microns and resolution of 5 microns. These
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utilise a measuring element called inductory data element which uses inductive
coupling between conductors separated by a small air gap. As this element is not
subjected to wear, it does not develop inaccuracy. It does not require reference
standards or any other external device for its operation. The workpiece is aligned by
a probe and by a switching adjustment on the worktable.
Many machines utilize More fringe concept for measurement.
Some coordinate measuring machines are available with accessories like

optical viewing screen, (optical comparator), microscope attachment for the

inspection of thin, soft, or delicate workpieces, and automatic print out. Some
machines, it addition to measuring in three axes, are also designed to permit the
checking of angularity, roundness, taper, and concentricity. Provision of rotary table
makes such co-ordinate measuring machine more versatile because setting of a part
need not be changed and all areas can be approached due to positioning of rotary
table. The errors likely to occur in multiple set-ups are thus avoided.
Some co-ordinate measuring machines utilise electronic indicator probe

(mounted on the end of the spindle) which can reach over and under the workpiece
to check squareness in a single set up. Some machines are provided with linear air
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bearings on the horizontal slide motions to achieve finer slide position resolution.
Features of Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)
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In order to meet the requirement of faster machines with higher accuracies,
the stiffness to weight ratio has to be high in order to reduce dynamic forces. To
give maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight, all the moving
members, the bridge structure, Z- axis carriage, and Z – column are made of hollow
box contraction. ta s
Principles of kinematic design are used in the three master guide ways and
probe location. Even whole machine with its massive granite worktable is supported
on a three-point suspension.
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A map of systematic errors in machine is build up and fed into the computer
system so that error compensation is built up into the software.
All machines are provided with their own computers with interactive dialogue
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facility and friendly software.
Thermocouples are incorporated throughout the machine and interfaced with

the computer to be used for compensation of temperature gradients and thus provide
increased accuracy and repeatability.
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With the advent of three-axis programming, computers enable CMM to

measure three-dimensionally object from variable datums.
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The real benefit of today's CMM is its total flexibility and programmability,
which makes it capable of handling virtually any measuring requirement within its
physical size limit, thus rendering dedicated or specially designed gauging
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unnecessary.
Design improvements allied to a rapid growth in software for 3 and 4 axis

movements enable CMMS to measure straight line relationships between basic
features, i.e., hole centre distances, etc. and also a variety of form measurements,
such as turbine blades, cam profiles etc.
Accuracy Specification for Co-ordinate Measuring Machines:

Two types of accuracies are defined in connection with coordinate measuring

machines; viz geometrical accuracy (determined by independent measurement
because they make major contribution to overall accuracy of machine)and ii) total
measuring accuracy (determined by utilising the entire measuring machine system
as applied to master gauges ).
Geometrical accuracy concerns the straightness of axes, squareness of axes,

and position accuracy. Total measuring accuracy concern s axial length measuring
accuracy, and volumetric length measuring accuracy.
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Straightness of axes : Straightness of axes is defined as deviation from a
straight line in two orthogonal planes for each axis of movement, and thus following
six measurement parameters need to be considered : Straightness of x-axis
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measured in y and z direction ; of y -axis in x and z direction; of z-axis in x and y
directions. Measurement is effected against a suitable straightness reference e.g.
Laser beam and taking at least 10 readings at different points in each direction over
full travel of each axis. Straightness is defined as the distance A (deviation
bandwidth) between the two parallel lines containing the two graphs (Refer Fig.
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Squareness of axes: It is defined as deviation from 90o of the straightness
bandwidth lines of two orthogonal axis movements. Three measurement parameters
(squareness between x and y axes, between y and z axes, and between x and z
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axes). Measurement is effected against a suitable squareness reference, e.g. Laser
beam, taking at least 10 measurements over full travel of each axis. Squareness is
then defined as the deviation from 90o of the angle between the straightness
bandwidth lines of two axes and is given as an absolute value in arc seconds (Refer
Fig. 17 .14).
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Position accuracy : It is defined as difference between position readout of

machine along an individual axis and value of a reference length measuring system.
Following three measurement parameters are needed for position accuracy.
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Position accuracy of x axis, of y axis, and of z axis. Measurement is effected along

one measuring line for each machine axis located approximately at centre of
measuring travel of remaining two axes. For this purpose, a suitable reference
length measuring system, e.g. Laser interferometer, is aligned to each machine axis
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within a permissible deviation of 1 arc minute (minimum 20 points measured over full
travel of each axis). Fig. 17.15 shows a typical deviation record in which position
accuracy F is defined as the distance between the two parallel lines containing the
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two graphs for the two directions.
Axial Length Measuring Accuracy : It is defined as difference between the

reference length of gauges, freely oriented in space, and the corresponding
measured results from the machine. Three reference gauges are measured, their
lengths corresponding to approximately 1/3, 1/2 and ¾ of full travel of respective axis
(upto a maximum of 1000 mm). Length measuring accuracy G is defined as the
absolute value of the difference between the calibrated length of the gauge block
and the actual measured value.

Volumetric Length Measuring Accuracy : It is defined as difference between the

reference length of gauges, freely oriented in space, and the corresponding
measured results from the machine. Three reference gauges are measured, their
lengths corresponding to approximately 1/3, ½ and ¾ of the full travel of the longest
axes (upto maximum of 100 mm). Volumetric length measuring accuracy M is
defined as the absolute value of the difference between the calibrated length of the
gauge block and the actual measured values.
Performance of CMM:
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In evaluating the performance of a coordiante measuring machine, the following
major aspects need consideration.
1.Definition and measurements of "geometrical accuracies", such as positioning
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accuracy, straightness and squareness.
2.Master gauge measurement methods to define "total measuring accuracy" in
terms of "axial length measuring accuracy, volumetric length measuring
accuracy, and length measuring repeatability, i.e., the coordianted
measuring machine has to be tested as complete system. Measuring
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systems can be characterised by the combination of "mode of operation" and
probe type. Modes include free floating manual, driven manual, and direct
computer controlled. Probe types are passive, switching, proportional and
nulling. The CMM is tested in the mode and with the probe that is commonly
used.
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3.Since environmental effects have great influence, explicit specification on
environmental conditions for the accuracy testing, including thermal
parameters, vibrations and relative humidity are required.
It is usually difficult to establish a quantitative relationship between any

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particular environmental specification and the effect in machine's performance.

Thus it is better to define what level of environmental enfluence is acceptable, and
maintain those conditions.
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The thermal effects dominate the environmental influences affecting a CMM.

The sources of thermally induced errors include deviations of surrounding air
temperature from 20oC, temperature gradients, radiant energy (e.g. Sunlight), utility
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air temperature, and self-heating in machines with drive motors. Thermal effects
may take the form of differential expansion between the workpiece and the machine
scale system, drift between a workpiece origin and the machine scale system origin,
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and distortion of the machine structure leading to significant changes in the

calibration and adjustment of the machine. The dominant effect of vibration is to
degrade the repeatability of a machine. If the indicated relative motion between the
machine table and the ram exceeds 50% of the working tolerance for repeatability,
the vibration environment is deemed unacceptable.
It is important that suitable performance tests capable of testing the machine

as a complete system are performed. It may be mentioned that use of parametric
testing (straightness, squareness, angular motion) does not test the system
performance test is carried out by measuring a mechanical artifact which provides
some similarity between the machine testing and actual measurement of

workpieces. Such testing must sample throughout the work zone. For performance
test, linear displacement accuracy is checked by a step bar or a laser interferometer.
These measurements are made along three orthogonal lines through the centre of
the work zone to provide a thorough sampling of many combinations of x, y, and z
errors that occur throughout the work zone of a machine.
Using the socketed ball bar provides a means of sweeping out the surface of
a (nearly) perfect hemispheres with a physical object (ball). The CMM is used to
measure the location of the centre of this ball at many locations on the hemisphere.
The actual measurement data is compared to an ideal hemisphere simply by
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recording the range of the length of the ball bar computed from the data. The
procedure calls for moving the socket defining the centre of the hemisphere to
several locations in the work zone and repeating the measurements. Three different
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lengths of the bar also are used. The performance is specified independently for the
different lengths.
Three Dimensional Measuring Machine : - Construction and working principle.

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3-D measuring machines are very useful in modern sophisticated industry.
These machines are designed for 3-dimensional calibration of certifiable accuracy.
Fig. 17.16 shows the schematic diagram of such a machine. Such a machine is
adaptable for computer control. Laser interferometers are provided as scales. A
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cooling system is incorporated to reduce the temperature rise when the machine is in
operation. The workpiece (gauge) is mounted on the table which moves to provide
the x-measurement. y-motion is obtained by movement of the large carriage
(carrying probe on z-slide) across the bridge. z slide mounted on y-carriage moves
vertically up and down. Axes movement is controlled by stepping motors attached to
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lead-screws. The three carriages are mounted upon double-V ways, the x and y
slides with roller bearings and the z-slide with plain ways.
Fig. 17.16 shows a typical y-z measuring machine. The axi-symmetric part is
centered upon the rotary table or the "c" axis. The rotary table is mounted on the
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horizontal (y) slide. The electronic gauge stylus is typically a ball-tipped, single axis,
linear varible displacement transducer (LVDT) carried and positioned by the vertical
(z) slide. The axis of the LVDT is typically mounted at a 45 degree angle with
respect to the y and z axes. A correction is provided for the cosine error introduced
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when the direction of travel of LVDT is not normal to the part surface.
Displacement accuracy is achieved by laser interferometers operating in

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helium shielded pathways. The interferometers are located in strict accordance with
the Abbe principle, i.e., the extension of the laser interferometer axis passes through
the centre of the stylus ball at its null position (the centre of stylus ball being
"functional point"). Refer Fig. 17.17.
On the y-axis slide, two laser interferometers suitably separated are provided.
The difference in readings between these two lasers is used as a servo input to drive
a piezoelectric crystal that supports one end of the y-axis table, thereby correcting
the angular motion or pitch of the table.

Straightness accuracy is achieved by mounting straight edges parallel to each

slide to measure and correct for slide way straightness errors. For instance any
error in the straightness of travel of z-slide will cause unwanted movement in the y
direction. The LVDT gauge head that contacts the straight edge detects this
movement and corrects it by zero shifting the y-slide. Similarly when nonstraighness
of y-slide travel is detected, the z-axis is zero shifted in the proper direction to correct
the travel.
However stiff a machine may be made, it deflects and distorts owing to the
effects of changing and moving loads on the structure. The metrology system must
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therefore be made independent of the machine base, i.e., the external forces upon
the metrology system must be constant. The metrology base is thus designed so as
not to be influenced by the machine base (Refer Fings. 17.17 & 17.18). The frame is
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supported on kinematic mounts inside the machine base. The plane of the supports
is coincident with the bending neutral axis of the machine base, and its influence on
the metrology frame is thereby minimised. The metrology frame houses the laser,
laser pathways and remote interferometers and also supports the two straight edges.
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Because of low coefficient of expansion of granite, it is chosen for building the
machine base. The base is supported on three pneumatic isolators. The metrology
frame is built of steel because temperature controlled oil shower is included.
For stability of the laser ( which depends on the stability of the medium in the
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pathways ), helium at a pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure ( Maintained
at constant value by a regulator ) is provided in path ways. The effect of helium
pressure change on the laser wavelength is taken into account.
y-axis and z-axis slides ride on and are guided by hydrostatic bearings.
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A portion of each bearing is evacuated and the evacuated section acts like a vacuum
chuck to hold the bearing against the way (similar to preloading the bearing). The
balance of the bearings are externally compensated to enhance the stiffness. The
slide drive system (Fig. 17.19) can be considered as a rack and pinion drive without
gear teeth. The capstan is connected directly to the drive motor. The steel traction
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bar is squeezed between the capstan and the idler roller. One end of the traction bar
is fastened to the slide with spherical bearing. A coil spring supports the weight of
the bar at the opposite end. Both the capstan and the idler are supported on
hydrostatic bearings.
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This type of drive system has minimum cost, minimum heat generation,
maximum stiffness, minimum sliding friction, maximum linearity of displacement, no
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backlash, high reliability, compactness and minimum influence on slide straightness.
The thermal environment of the measuring machine and the part is controlled
by showering adequate quantity of oil controlled at 25 oC. The shower is carefully
sculptured to maintain machine temperature and to minimise splash. The primary
advantages of liquid shower are its greater heat removal capability and the fact it is
easily directed to the critical areas of the machine and workpiece surfaces. Liquids
also have higher heat capacity than gases and accordingly it is possible to remove
heat with corresponding lower temperature differences.

Michelson interferometer:
Michelson Interferometer. This is the oldest type of interferometer, which has

subsequently been modified in several respects and lot of sophistication introduced.
However, Michelson using this interferometer, established exact relationship
between meter and red wavelengths of cadmium lamp; so understanding of its
working will be of interest to all.
The basic Michelson interferometer consists of a monochromatic light source, a

beam splitter and two mirrors. It relies on the principle of constructive and destructive
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interference as one mirror remains fixed and the other is moved.
In schematic form, Michelson interferometer is shown in Fig. 6.16, which utilizes
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monochromatic (or single wavelength) light from an extended source. This light falls
on a beam
Splitter (which is a plain parallel plate having a semi-transparent layer of silver at
its back) which splits the light into two rays of equal intensity at right angles. One ray
is transmitted to Mirror M1 and other is reflected through beam splitter to Mirror M2.
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From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these reunite at the semi-
reflecting surface from where they are transmitted to the eye as shown in Fig. 6.06.
Mirror M2 is fixed and the reflected ray from M1 serves as reference beam, Mirror M1
is movable, i.e., it is attached to the object whose dimension is to be measured.
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If both mirrors are at same distance from beam splitter, then light will arrive in
phase and observer will see bright spot due to constructive interference. If movable
mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then beam will return to observer 180  out of
phase and darkness will be observed due to destructive interference.
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Each half wavelength of mirror travel produces a change in the measured optical
path of one wavelength and the reflected beam from the moving mirror shifts through
360 phase change. When the reference beam reflected from the fixed mirror and the
beam reflected from the moving mirror rejoin at the beam splitter, they alternately
reinforce and cancel each other as the mirror moves. Thus each cycle of intensity at
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the eye represents /s of mirror travel.
It may be noted that when monochromatic light source is used then fringes can be
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seen over a range of path difference that may vary from a few to a million
wavelengths, depending on the source. However, when white light is used, then
fringes can be seen only if both ray paths are exactly equal to a freq. wavelengths in
total length in glass and air. The lengths themselves are not important, but only their
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differences affect fringe formation. So when white light source is used then a
compensator plate is introduced in the path of mirror M1 so that exactly the same
amount of glass is introduced in each of the paths. (In the path of mirror M2, the
glass was coming due to rays passing through beam splitter back surface). The
various sophistications which have undergone to improve the Michelson‘s basic
apparatus are:
(i) Use of laser as the light source, which means that the measurements can
be made over longer distances; and also the beam laser compared to
other monochromatic sources has exact and pure wavelength thus

enabling highly accurate measurements.

(ii) Mirrors are replaced by cube-corner reflectors (ratio-reflectors) which
reflect light parallel to its angle of incidence regardless of retro reflector
alignment accuracy.
(iii) Instead of observing the interference phenomenon by eye, photocells are
employed which convert light-intensity variations in voltage pulses which
are processed by electronic instruments to give the amount and direction
of position change.
Single Frequency DC Interferometer System.
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It is much improved system over the Michelson simple interferometer. It uses a
single frequency circular polarized laser beam. On reaching the polarizing beam
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splitter, the beam splits into two components. The reflected beam being vertically
polarized light and the transmitted beam being horizontally polarized light. These two
beams referred to as reference are and measurement are respectively travel to their
retro reflectors and are then reflected back towards the beam splitter.
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The recombined beam at beam splitter consists of two superimposed beams of

different polarization; one component vertically polarized having traveled around
reference arm and other component horizontally polarized having traveled around
the measurement arm. These two beams being differently polarized do not interface.
The recombined beam then passes through a quarter wave plate which causes the
two beams to interfere with one another to produce a beam of plane polarized light.
The angular orientation of the plane of this polarized light depends on the phase
difference between the light in the two returned beams.

The direction of plane of polarization spin is dependent on the direction of

movement of the moving retro reflector. The beam after quarter wave plate is split
into three polarization sensitive detectors. As the plane of polarized light spins, each
detector produces a sinusoidal output wave form. The polarization sensitivity of the
detectors can be set so that their outputs have relative phases of 0, 90, and 180.
The outputs of there detectors can be used to distinguish the direction of movement
and also the distance moved by the moving retro reflector attached to the surface
whose displacement is to be measured.
For linear measurements (positional accuracy of velocity), the retro reflector is
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attached to the body moving along the linear axis. For angular measurement. For
pitch and yaw), the angular beam splitter is placed in the path between the laser
head and the angular reflector. In this way it is possible to measure flatness,
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straightness, rotatory axis calibration. Arrangements also need to be made for
environmental compensation because the refractive index of the air varies with
temperature, pressure and humidity. Heterodyne interferometer, an a.c. device
avoids all the problems encountered in above d.c. device, i.e. effect of intensity level
change of source, fringe contrast changes and d.c. level shifts which can cause
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Interferometer is now an established and well developed technique for high accuracy
and high resolution measurement.
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Twyman – Green Specialization of Michelson Interferometer:
In the Michelson interferometer shown in Fig. 6.18, the rays actually describe a cone,
giving rise to various types of fringe patterns which may be hard to interpret.
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Twynman-Green modified Michelson interferometer utilizes a pin-hole source

diaphragm and collimating lenses. In this way, all rays are rendered parallel to the
central rays and thus all rays describe the same path . All modern tow-beam
interferometers are based on this arrangement. The mirrors M 1 and M2 are arranged
perpendicular to the optical axis. If mirror M1 is kept fixed, and M2 is moved slowly
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exactly parallel to itself, the observer will note periodic changes in the intensity of the
field being viewed, from bright to dark for every /2 movement of the mirror. In fact
intensity variation is found to be sinusoidal. It may also be noted that if one of the
mirrors is even slightly inclined to the optical axis then parallel fringes will be seen
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moving parallel to themselves by just one fringe for every \2 (half the wavelength of
the light source used) mirror motion. Usually it is quite difficult to count such fringes
by eye. However, photo detectors connected to high speed counters can do this job
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very accurately (accuracy of one part in million being obtainable). It is possible to

calibrate the output of counter directly ion terms of the linear movement of the mirror
M2, but several conditions must be met to achieve these results.

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Fringe counting interferometer:
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A simple arrangement of fringe counting system based on Kosters prism is shown
in Fig.6.19. With the use of Koster‘s prism, the two interfering paths can be arranged
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parallel instead of at right angles. At big advantage is using Koster‘s prism, is that if
slight vibrations exist, then vibration tends to affect the arms equally and the
annoying effect of vibration is nullified. In order to be able to count the fringes, the
following
must be
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taken
care of:
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(i) It has been indicated that mirror should travel exactly parallel to itself and no
machines have ways sufficiently straight to maintain uniform fringe fields. The recent
trend is to use corner-cube reflectors which are not all sensitive to their own
orientation and return the reflected ray exactly parallel to the incident beam.
(ii) It is observed that the wavelength of light source is modified by the refractive
index of air which is dependent on pressure, temperature and humidity of air
(wavelength is fixed only in vacuum). The slight changes in wavelength may be
immaterial in case of flatness or from measuring systems, but not in fringe counting
and gauge block interferometers. So pressure, temperature and humidity should be
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measured and correction factors applied for. If optical paths are longer then the air
currents between optical elements exert more and more influence; and the system
should, therefore, be properly shielded with insulating, and radiation reflecting
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enclosures.
(iii) It has already been indicated that the signal strength becomes poor if the path
difference between the rays corresponding to two mirror systems is high. Thus it
limits the range of movement of movable mirror because its movement means
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change in path length. It is found that using cooled mercury 198 lamps, speeds of
12.5 mm/sec. are possible when path lengths are nearly equal, but the traversing
speed has to be reduced to 0.0025 mm/sec., when path difference is about 250 mm
due to poor signal to noise ratio.
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working of AC interferometer :
This article is based on a similar article appearing in magazine ―Machine Design‖

Vol. 47 No.4. The measuring capacity in interferometers with lamp as source of light
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is limited because it is not possible to maintain the sharpness of interference fringes

beyond certain distance due to the size of the lamp. Laser interferometer uses A..C.
laser as the light source and thus enables the measurements to be made over longer
distance because it is possible to maintain the quality of point interference fringes
over long distances when lamp is replaced by a laser source. It must be understood
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that white light emitted by a lamp is combination of waves at different frequencies but
laser generates a continuous train of light waves, resulting into high coherence.
Laser represents a source of intensely monochromatic optical energy, which can be
collimated into a directional beam, Also laser beam wavelength is exact and pure for
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highly accurate measurements. It utilizes the principles of both optical techniques

and digital electronics; and is a highly accurate and versatile measuring system that
can cope with industrial environments. In case of AC laser interferometer (ACLI)
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position information is carried as phase deviation rather than as a signal amplitude

deviation, thus giving a much improved signal to noise ratio over amplitude
modulation, because the noise sources that affect signal amplitude have little effect
on phase. In this way, ACLI is much more tolerant of environmental factors that
attenuate the intensity of a laser beam, such as dust, smoke, air turbulence etc. It
requires no warm-up time or standby power.
Thus ACLI has the following advantages: high repeatability and resolution of
displacement measurement (0.1m), high accuracy,, long-range optical path (60m),
easy installation, and no change in performance due to ageing or wear and tear. A

single laser source can be used for as many as six simultaneous measurements in
different axes. However, it is very much expensive; since the basic instrument
measures physical displacement in terms of wavelength instead of traditional units,
conversion instrumentation is required for conventional read out. Highest possible
accuracy is obtainable only by compensating changes in air pressure and
temperature which affect wavelength of the laser beam.
Fig. 6.31 explains the operation of AC Interferometer.
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It uses two frequency laser system, thus overcoming the shortcoming of d.c. laser
interferometer. Whereas the d.c. system mixes out of phase light beams of the same
frequency, the a.c. system mixes beams of two different frequencies thus permitting
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the distance information to be carried on a.c. waveform. Use is made of the fact that
the AC amplifiers are insensitive to d.c. variation of a.c. inputs.
Two frequency Zee man laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies
with opposite circular polarizations. These beams get split up by beam splitter B 1;
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one part travels towards B2 and from there to external cube corner where the
displacement is to be measured. It may be noted that mirror is not employed here
like Michelson Interferometer, because mirror alignment is a critical procedures.
Thus interferometer, instead, uses cube-corner reflectors (retro reflectors) which
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reflect light parallel to its angle of incidence regardless of retro reflector alignment
accuracy. Beam splitter B2 optically separates the frequency f 1 which alone is sent to
the movable cube-corner reflector. The second frequency f 2 (optically separated)
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from B2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f 1 at the beam splitter B2 to
produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega cycles per
second. Now if the movable reflector (external cube corner) moves, then the
returning beam frequency will be Doppler-shifted slightly up or down by ∆f1. Thus the
light beams moving towards photo-detector P2 have frequencies f2 and (f1 ± ∆f1) and
P2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal. (Photocells convert light-intensity
variations into voltage pulses which can be processed by electronic instruments to
give the amount and direction of position change).
Photo detector P1 receives signal from beam splitter B1 and changes the

reference beam frequencies f1 and f2, into electrical signal. An A..C. amplifier A1
separates frequency difference signal [(f2- (f1 ± ∆f1). The pulse converter extracts ∆f1,
one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The up-down pulses from the pulse
converter are counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital form on the
indicator. It may be noted that output in case of ACLI is in the form of pulses,
whereas in d.c. systems, the output is in the form of a sinusoidal wave, the amplitude
(intensity) of which depends upon laser aging, air turbulence or air pollutant and thus
the change of amplitude leads to improper triggering and counting errors (Refer Fig.
6.32).
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1) Counter operating, if amplitude wave is above counter trigger level.
2) Counter disabled by small amplitude change of sinusoidal wave.
Heterodyne Interferometer Technique:

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Simple d.c. fringe counting techniques suffer from problems of intensity level
changes in source and also on account of motion of source or object. Fringe contrast
changes and d.c. level shifts result in miscounting of the fringes. Heterodyne
interferometer is an a.c. device and the problems of d.c. fringe counting techniques
are overcome. In this type of interferometer, a zeeman laser source emits two
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closely spaced orthogonal polarization frequencies separated by around 1 MHz. A

beam splitter placed in front of laser source separates off part of the signal
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from both polarizations which are mixed on detector D1 to provide a reference beat
f1-f2. The transmitted component travels up to polarizing beam splitter where it is
splitter. Part of it travels to reference fixed arm and other to measurement arm
connected with target movement. The two signals are recombined at the polarizing
beam splitter and detected by detector D2. If target is stationary, the detected beam
is f1-f2. When it moves, then detected beat is f 1-f2 ∆f. The reference and Doppler-
shifted beats are counted by two independent counters and subtracted to give ∆f.
Integration of the count over time t measures 2d/.
Dual-frequency Laser Interferometer:
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This instrument is used to measure displacement, high-precision measurement of
lengths, angles, speeds and refractive indices as well as derived static and dynamic
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quantities. It operates on heterodyne principle. The two resonator modes
(frequencies f1 and f2) are generated in a laser tube such that f1-f2=640MHz. These
are controlled so that their maxima are symmetrical to the atomic transition. This
permits a long reliable stability. The frequency stability of He-Ne laser is responsible
for outstanding performance of the interferometer.
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An amplitude beam splitter branches off part of the laser output create a reference
beam, which an optical fibre cable relays to a photo detector 1. This detects the beat
signal of 640MHz frequency difference produced by the heterodyning of the two
modes. The other portion of the light serves as measuring beam. Via an
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interferometer arrangement it is directed to a movable measuring mirror and a
stationary reference mirror, which reflects it on to a photo-detector 2. The two
frequencies in the measuring beam are separated by a polarization-sensitive beam
splitter so that the measuring mirror receives light of frequency f 1 only, whereas the
light that strikes the reference consists exclusively of frequency f 2. With the
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measuring mirror at rest, detector 2 also senses the laser differential frequency of f1-
f2 = 640MHz. If the measuring mirror is being displaced at a speed v, the partial
beam of frequency f1 reflected by it is subjected to a Doppler shift df 1; where df1 =
(2v)1.
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Accordingly, detector 2 now receives a measuring frequency of f1-f2 ± df1 (+ df1 or –

df1) depending on the direction of movement of the measuring mirror. The reference
frequency f1-f2 and the measuring frequency f 1-f2 ± df1 are compared with each other
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by an electronic counting chain. The result is the frequency shift ± df1 due to the
Doppler effect, a measure of the wanted displacement of the measuring mirror. In a
fast, non-hysteric comparator, the
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Doppler frequency df1 is digitized and then fed to a counter, which registers the
number of zero passages per unit time.
The forward and return movements of the measuring mirror can be distinguished
by out coupling the measuring signal f 1—f2 ± df1 at ‗n‘ phase angles, via a delay line
and feeding to ‗n‘ mixers. The mixers are connected with the reference signal f1—f2
(common feeding point for all mixers). Thus n Doppler frequencies get shifted in
phase by /n at the mixer outputs. They are symmetrical relative to zero. After
comparison they are made available to low-frequency counting logic as TTL signals.

The n phase angles and their tolerances are implemented by the geometry of the
delay line.
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This system can be used for both incremental displacement and angle
measurements. Due to large counting range it is possible to attain a resolution of
2.nm in 10 m measuring range. Means are also provided to compensate for the
influence of ambient temperature, material temperature, atmospheric pressure and
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atmospheric humidity fluctuations.
characteristics.
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A wide variety of light sources is available for interferometer work but the
selection of proper source for any application depends on the requirements of results
to be obtained by interferometer, cost and convenience. For simple applications like
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testing of surface geometry, where the difference between interfering paths is of the
order of a few wavelengths only, tungsten lamp with a filter, transmitting only a
narrow band of wavelengths would be adequate.
However, sophisticated applications require the use of light sources such as

mercury 198, cadmium, krypton 86, thallium, sodium, helium, and neon and gas
lasers. In these sources, the discharge lamp is charged with one particular element
and contains means to vaporize them. The atoms of these elements are excited
electrically so that they emit radiation at certain discrete wavelengths.

Characteristics of various light source are summarized below:
i) Mercury. It is les expensive source having high intensity, and green line can
be easily isolated with filters. Since natural mercury contains several isotopes,
each isotope emits light whose wavelength is very slightly different from each
other. As a result, natural mercury light source radiates a mixture of
wavelengths which can be treated as monochromatic only for short path
difference.
ii) Mercury 198. It is a pure isotope produced by neutron bombardment of gold. It
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is considered to be one of the best sources of very sharply defined
wavelengths, and fringes are visible with path difference up to 500 mm. Light
is emitted when mercury 198 is excited by microwave produced electric field.
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It is the international secondary standard of wavelength.
iii) Cadmium. This is the only natural material producing a spectral line (red)
almost completely symmetrical, having useful path difference of about 200
mm. Cadmium 114 is the official secondary international standard of length.
iv)
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Krypton. It has the advantage of being easily excited, so used in some
instruments. It is not as monochromatic as Krypton 86 because natural
krypton is a mixture of isotopes. It can be used up to path difference of 375
mm.
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v) Krypton 86. Krypton 86 lamp produces spectral lines of different wavelengths
and, therefore, a fairy elaborate monochromatic is required to separate them.
Further its excitation takes place at very very low temperatures, therefore, this
lamp is used only in standardizing laboratories. Next to laser, this enables the
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fringes to be observed with maximum path difference (about 800 mm).
The orange-red line of krypton 86 isotope, produced under specified

conditions, and at a temperature of 63.3 K temperature of nitrogen triple point,
is the new basic international standard of length-meter being defined as
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exactly 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of this source, measured in vacuum.
vi) Thallium. As 95% of its light is emitted at one green wavelength, it can be
used over a reasonable path difference without the use of my filter.
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vii) Sodium. It is used only in applications where interference path difference

does not exceed a few hundred wavelengths. Usually yellow sodium light is
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used which contains two separate but closely spaced lines of equal intensity;
and because of this the interference fringes wash out fad because of this the
interference fringes wash out for higher path difference.
viii) Helium. Orange line of helium is used where path difference is not great.
ix) Neon. As conventional neon lamp has too many closely spaced lines (in red
part of the spectrum) and not sharply defined, it does not find many
applications. Neon in gas laser, however, has assumed a uniquely important
role.

x) Gas lasers. In metrology work gas lasers which produce highly

monochromatic and intense light (1000 times more intense than others) are
used to great advantage, enabling interference fringes to be observed with
enormous path differences, up to 100 million wavelengths. (It may be noted
that high-power, intermittently operating ruby laser is not of interest in
metrology). Gas lasers are produced by exciting (by an electric discharge or a
high-frequency field) a mixture of neon and helium
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UNIT – V-MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE
direct methods of measurement of force:
Force is very basic engineering parameter the measurement of which can be

done in many ways as follows:
(i) Direct Methods: Involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational force
on a standard mass, say by a balance.
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(ii) Indirect Methods: Involves the measurement of effect of force on a body, such
as acceleration of a body of known ma subjected to force.
(i) Direct Methods
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(a) Use of Analytical Balance
Analytical balance consists of an arm that rotates about a pivot. Two forces
W1 W 2 (or) weights are added at the two ends as shown in figure.
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Let W 1 be the know force and W 2 be the unknown. Let ‗G‘ be the gravity
center of the arm and W G be its weight. When W 1 = W 2, the arm is unbalanced. This
unbalance is indicated by angle the pointer making with the vertical.
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For equilibrium, the requirement is

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WG.XG = W 1 W 1 – W 2 W2
(b) Use of Pendulum Scale
This uses the Principle of multiple leverage. The input, a direct force or a force
Proportional to weight is transmitted from a suitable agency and applied to the lord
rod. As the load is applied, the sectors rotate about A (Figure) moving the counter
weights outward. This movement increases the counterweight effective moment until
the load and balance moments are equalized. Motion of the equalizer bar is
converted to indicator movement by a rack and pinion.

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indirect methods of measurement of force :

(a) Use of Acceleration
A force will make a body accelerate. By measuring the acceleration, the force
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may be determined, from the equation F=ma, when m – mass of the body used. To
measure acceleration, accelerometers are used.
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(b) Use of Elastic Loaded Members
This uses the principle of finding strain produced in a body to measure the
force applied. For measuring displacement, strain gauges are mounted as shown in
figure. The body is subjected to a force and the gauges measure the strain so
produced.

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From basic mechanics of materials, force F produces a displacement  
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Where
l – Length of the specimen

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A – Cross-sectional area
E – Young‘s modulus
F
And strain 1,  2 
AE
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F
2 , 4 
AE
 being poison‘s ratio. If the output of the circuit is e, it is given by

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V.GF
e= (1  2  3   4 )
4
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V.GF F
e= (l  )
2 AE
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(c) Use of Cantilever Elastic member
In a cantilever beam, if the point of application of load is known, the bending

moment caused by it can be interpreted as force applied.

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It is established that due to force, F, deflection of a cantilever at a length ‗l‘ from the
point of application of force, is given as

W I3
3 EI
where E – Young‘s modulus of beam material,
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bd3
I – Moment of inertia of beam section =
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12
From bending equation,
Moment at section x Mx   x x z (z-section modulus)

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bd2
Mx   x x
6

Strain  x is given by  x  x
E
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6.Fl1
i.e., x 
E.bd2
Gauges R1, R3 measure tensile strain and

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R2, R4 measure compressive strain.

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(d) Use of proving Rings
Proving rings are steel rings used for calibration of material testing machines
in situations where, due to their bulkness, dead weight standards cannot be used.
P ring is a circular ring of rectangular section and may support tensile or

comprehensive force across its diameter.

 the change in radius in the direction of force, is given by
  4  F.d
3
K
   
16  2   EI
where d is the outer diameter of the ring and
K is stiffness.
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Deflection of the ring is measured using a precision micrometer. To get precise
measurements, one edge of the micrometer is mounted on a vibrating reed which is
plucked to obtain a vibratory motion. The micrometer contact is then moved forward
until a noticeable damping of the vibration is observed.
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Maximum deflection is typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the

ring. Proving rings are normally used for force measurement within the range of 2 kN
to 2 mN.
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(e) Use of Load Cell
Force transducers intended for weighing purposes are called load cells. Instead of
using total deflection as a measure of load, strain gauge load cells measure load in
terms of unit strains. A load cell utilizes an elastic member as the primary transducer
and strain gauges as secondary transducer. Figure shows one such load cell
arrangement.

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Mechanical Dynamometer:
These come under the absorption type. An example for this kind is prony
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brake.
In Prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction
between the wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine. One
block carries a lever arm. An arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is
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connected to the arm. Rope is tightened so as to increase ht frictional resistance

between the blocks and the pulley.
If F – Load applied and

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2NT 2NFr
Power dissipated P  
60 60
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r - Lever arm
N – Speed of flywheel (rpm)
Torque T = F.r
The capacity of Prony brake is limited because:
1. Due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient varies. So, unsuitable for
large powers when used for long periods.
2.To limit temperature rise, cooling is to be ensured.

D.C. Dynamometer
D.C. dynamometer is usable as an absorption as well as transmission

dynamometer. So, it finds its use in I.C. Engines, steam turbines and pumps. A d.c.
dynamometer is basically a d.c. motor with a provision to run it as a d.c. generator
where the input mechanical energy, after conversion to electrical energy, can either
be dissipated through a resistance grid or recovered for use. When used as an
absorption dynamometer it acts as d.c. generator. (figure) Cradling in trunnion
bearings permits the determination of reaction torque.
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The torque is measured by measuring a balancing force (by means of a load

cell, for example) at a fixed known torque arm. When used as a transmission
dynamometer it performs as a d.c. motor. It then measures the torque and power
input to the machine, for example, a pump that absorbs power.
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Its good performance at low speeds and ease of control makes it an efficient means
of torque measurement.
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Eddy Current or Inductor Dynamometers:
This is an example for absorption type dynamometers.

Principle: When a conducting material moves through a magnetic flux field, voltage
is generated, which causes current to flow. If the conductor is a wire forming a part of
a complete circuit will be caused to flow through that circuit, and with some form of
commutating device a form of a.c. or d.c. generator may result.

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An eddy current dynamometer is shown in figure. It consists of a metal disc or
wheel which is rotated in the flux of a magnetic field. The field if produced by field
elements or coils excited by an external source and attached to the dynamometer
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housing which is mounted in trunnion bearings. As the disc turns, eddy currents are
generated. Its reaction with the magnetic field tends to rotate the complete housing
in the trunnion bearings. Water cooling is employed.
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Classification the measuring instruments:
Temperature measuring instruments may be classified on the basis of:
1. Nature of change produced in the temperature sensing elements.

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2. Electrical and non-electrical operation principle.

3. Temperature range of the instrument.
Classification based on the Nature of Change Produced.

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1. Glass thermometers
2. Pressure gauge thermometers
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3. Differential expansion thermometers

4. Electrical resistance thermometers
5. Thermo couples
6. Optical pyrometers
7. Radiation pyrometers
8. Fusion pyrometers
9. Calorimetric pyrometers
Based on Electrical and non-electrical Principles

1. Primarily electrical or electronic in nature

2. Not primarily electrical or electronic in nature.
Bimetallic Thermometers:
Principle Involved : These use the principles of metallic expansion when temperature
changes.
A bimetallic strip is shown in figure which is straight initially. When

temperature changes, its shape also changes into an arc.
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Fig. Deformation of bimetallic Strip
The displacement of the free end can be converted into an electric signal
through use of secondary transducers like variable resistance, inductance and
capacitance transducers. Figure shows a strip of bimetal in the form of a spiral. The
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curvature of the strip varies with temperature. This causes the pointer to deflect. A
scale is provided which has been calibrated to show the temperature directly.
This kind of spiral is mostly used in devices measuring ambient temperature

and air-conditioning thermostats.
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Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers
1. Simple
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2. Inexpensive
3. Accuracy of 
0.5% to 2%
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Limitations
1. Not usable above 400C because of possibility of warping
Application Areas of Bimetal Thermometers
1. Refineries
2. Vulcanizers
3. Oil burners, etc.
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working of thermocouples and thermistors :
i) Thermocouples
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Principles Involved : When heat is applied to the junction of two dissimilar metals, an
e.m.f. is generated. (Figure)
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The e.m.f. produced E can be written as,

E = k. 
Where  - Difference in temperature of two junctions
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This means that the e.m.f. produced is directly proportional to the temperature
difference. So, if the conjunction is maintained at constant temperature the
thermocouple reading will be a direct measure of temperature. (figure)

ii) Thermistors:
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable resistor made of a ceramic like

semiconducting material. They are made of metal oxides and their mixtures like
oxides of cobalt, copper, nickel, etc. Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to
temperature. They behave as resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient
of resistance. Typically, for each 1 C rise in temperature, the resistance of a
thermistor decreases by about 5%. This high sensitivity to temperature changes
makes the thermistor useful in precision temperature measurements. The resistance
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of thermistors vary from 0.5 to 0.75M . Variation of resistivity with temperature is
shown in figure.
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The temperature vs resistance relation is given by

l 1
R  R0e   
 T T0 

Where R – Resistance at temperature TK

R0 - resistance at temperature T0K
B – Constant (3400 K to 4600 K)
Thermistors come in different configurations some of which are shown in figure.
Application Area of Thermistor
1. Measurement of thermal conductivity

2. Measurement of gas composition
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3. Measurement of flow and pressure of liquids.
FLOW MEASUREMENTS:
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i) Orifice Meter:
Let a1 – Area at section I-I

a0 – Area of orifice
Cd – Discharge coefficient ta s
Cd  a1  a0
Then, Flow rate Q 
A 21  a2o
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ii) Venturimeter:
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This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts, namely convergent
cone, throat and divergent cone. A manometer measures the pressure difference
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between two sections as shown in figure.
Let a1 - Area at the inlet (1-1)

A2 - Area at the section (2-2)
x - Pressure head difference
Cd - Discharge coefficient
Cd  a1  a2 2 g x
Then, Q =
a21  a22

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iii) Rotameter:
ta s
A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It consists of a vertical tapered
tube with a float which is free to move within the tube. The fluid goes from the bottom
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to the top. When no fluid flows, the float rests at the bottom of the tube. The float is
made of such a diameter that it completely blocks the inlet. When flow starts in the
pipeline and fluid reaches the float, the buoyant effect of fluid makes the float lighter.
The float passage remains closed until the pressure of the flowing material plus the
buoyance effect exceeds the downward pressure due to the float weight. Thus,
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depending on flow, the float assumes a position. Thus the float gives the reading of
flow rate.
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iv) Pitot Tube:
Principle: ―Transformation of kinetic energy of a liquid into potential energy in the

form of a static head‖.
Figure shows a pitot tube installed in a pipeline where it acts like a probe. The tube
consists of two concentric tubes, the inner tube with its open ends ‗faces‘ the liquid.
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The outer tube has a closed end and has four to eight holes in its wall. The
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pressure in the outer tube is the static pressure in the line. Total pressure is sum of
static pressure and the pressure due to the impact of fluid.
If P - Pressure at inlet (Stagnation pressure)

Ps - Static pressure
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 - Density, then
Velocity v = 2/ (P  P0 ), from which flow rate is determined.

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Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems:

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If a force is applied to one side of a piston or diaphragm, and a pressure,

either hydraulic or pneumatic, is applied to the other side, some particular value of
pressure will be necessary to exactly balance the force. Hydraulic and pneumatic
load cells are based on this principle.
For hydraulic systems, conventional piston and cylinder arrangements may be

used. However, the friction between piston and cylinder wall and required pickings
and seals is unpredictable, and thus good accuracy is difficult to stain. Use of the
floating piston with a diaphragm-type seal practically dominates this variable.

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Figure shows a hydraulic cell in section. This cell is similar to the type used in
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some materials-testing machines. The piston does not actually contact a cylinder
wall in the normal sense, but a thin elastic diaphragm, or bride ring, of steel is used
as the positive seal, which allows small piston movement. Mechanical stops prevent
the seal from being overstrained.
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When force acts on the piston, the resulting oil pressure is transmitted to
some form of pressure – sensing system such as the simple Bourdon gage. If the
system is completely filled with fluid, very small transfer or flow will be required.
Piston movement may be less than 0.002 in at full capacity. In this respect, at least,
the system will have good dynamic response; however, overall response will be
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determined very largely by the response of the pressure sensing element.
Very high capacities and accuracies are possible with cells of the type.
Capacities to 5,000,000 Ibf (22.2MN) and accuracies of the order of  ½ % of
reading or  1/10% of capacity. Whichever is greater, have been attained. Since
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hydraulic cells are somewhat sensitive to temperature change, provision should be

made for adjusting the zero setting. Temperature changes during the measuring
process cause errors of about ¼ % per 10F change.
Pneumatic load cells

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Pneumatic load cells are quite similar to hydraulic cells in that the applied load
is balanced by a pressure acting over a resisting area, with the pressure becoming a
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measure of the applied load. However, in addition to using air rather than liquid as
the pressurized medium, these cells differ from the hydraulic ones in several other
important respects.
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Pneumatic load cells commonly use diaphragms of a flexible maternal rather

than pistons and they are designed to regulate the balancing pressure automatically.
A typical arrangement is shown in figure.

Air pressure is supplied to one side of the diaphragm and allowed to escape
through a position – controlling bleed valve. The pressure under the diaphragm,
therefore, is controlled both by source pressure and bleed valve position. The
diaphragm seeks the position that will result in just the proper air pressure to support
the load, assuming that the supply pressure is great enough so that its value
multiplied by the effective area will at least support the load.
We see that as the load changes magnitude, the measuring diaphragm must
change its position slightly. Unless care is used in the design, a nonlinearity may
results, the cause of which may be made clear by referring to figure.
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As the diaphragm moves, the portion between the load plate and the fixed
housing will alter position as shown. If it is assumed that the diaphragm is of a
perfectly flexible material, incapable of transmitting any but tensile forces, then the
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division of vertical load components transferred to housing and load plate will occur
at points A or A‘, depending on diaphragm position. We see then tat the effective
area will change, depending on the geometry of this portion of the diaphragm. If a
complete semicircular roll is provided, as shown in figure (b) this effect will be
minimized.
Since simple pneumatic cells may tend to be dynamically unstable, most

commercial types provide some form of viscous damper to minimize this tendency.
Also additional chambers and diaphragms may be added to provide for tare
adjustment. Single-unit capacities to 80,000 Ibf (356 kN) may be obtained, and by

use of paralleled units practically any total load or force may be measured. Errors as
small as 0.1% of full scale may be expected.
Pressure Thermometers:
Figure shows the essentials of the practical pressure thermometer. The

necessary parts are bulb A, tube B, pressure – sensing gage C, and some sort of
filling medium. Pressure thermometers are called liquid-filled, gas – filled, or vapor
filled, depending on whether the filling medium is completely liquid, completely
gaseous, or a combination of a liquid and its vapour. A primary advantage of these
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thermometers is that they can provide sufficient force output to permit the direct of
recording and controlling devices. The pressure-type temperature – sensing system
is usually less costly than other systems. Tubes as log as 200ft may be used
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successfully.
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Expansion (or contraction) of bulb A and the contained fluid or gas, caused by
temperature change, alters the volume and pressure in the system. In the case of
the liquid-filled system, the sensing device C acts primarily as a differential volume
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indicatory, with the volume increment serving as an analog of temperature. For the
gas-or vapour-filled systems, the sensing device serves primarily as a pressure
indicator, with the pressure providing the measure of temperature. In both cases, of
course, both pressure and volume change.

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Ideally the tube or capillary should serve simply as a connecting link between
the bulb and the indicator. When liquid or gas-filled systems are used, the tube and
its filling are also temperature – sensitive, and any difference from calibration
conditions along the tube introduces output error. This error is reduced by increasing
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the ratio of bulb volume to tube volume. Unfortunately, increasing bulb size reduces
the time response of a system, which may introduce problems of another nature. On
the other hand, reducing tube size, within reason, does not degrade response
particularly because, in any case, flow rate is negligible. Another source of error tht
should not be overlooked is any pressure gradient resulting from difference in
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elevation of bulb and indicator not accounted for by calibration.
Temperature along the tube is not a factor for vapour-pressure systems,

however, so long as a free liquid surface exists in the bulb. In this case, Dalton‘s law
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for vapours applies, which states that if both phases (liquid and vapour) are present,
only one pressure is possible for a given temperature. This is an important
advantage of the vapour-pressure system. In many cases, though, the tube in this
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type of system will be filled with liquid, and hence the system is susceptible to error
caused by elevation difference.
working principle of thermistors.
Resistance elements sensitive to temperature are made of metals generally

considered to be good conductors of electricity. Examples are nickel, copper,
platinum and silver. A temperature – measuring device using an element of this type
is commonly referred to as a resistance thermometer, or a resistance temperature
detector, abbreviated RTD. Of more recent origin are elements made from

semiconducting materials having large – and usually negative – resistance

coefficients. Such materials are usually some combination of metallic oxides of
cobalt, manganese, and nickel. These devices are called thermistors.
One important difference between these two kinds of material is that, whereas
the resistance change in the RTD is small and positive (increasing temperature
causes increased resistance), that of the thermistor is relatively large and usually
negative. In addition, the RTD type provides nearly a linear temperature – resistance
relation, whereas that of the thermistor is nonlinear. Still another important difference
lies in the temperature ranges over which each may be used. The practical operating
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range for the thermistor lies between approximately - 100 C to 275C (-150F to
500F). The range for the resistance thermometer is much greater, being from about
- 260C to 1000C (-435 F to 1800F). Finally, the metal resistance elements are
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more time stable than the semiconductor oxides; hence they provide better
reproducibility with lower hysteresis.
Resistance Thermometers (RTDs)

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Evidence of the importance and reliability of the resistance thermometer may
be had by recalling that the International Temperature Scale of 1990 specifies a
platinum resistance thermometer as the interpolation standard over the range from -
259.35C to 961.78C (-484.52F to 1763.20F).
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Certain properties are desirable in material used for resistance thermometer
elements. The material should have a resistivity permitting fabrication in convenient
sizes without excessive bulk, which would degrade time response. In addition, its
thermal coefficient of resistivity should be high and as constant as possible, thereby
providing an approximately linear output of reasonable magnitude.
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The material should be corrosion – resistant and should not undergo phase
changes in the temperature range of corrosion – resistant and should not undergo
phase changes in the temperature range of interest. Finally, it should be available in
a condition providing reproducible and consistent results. In regard to this last
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requirement, it has been found that to produce precision resistance thermometers,

great care must be exercised in minimizing residual strains, requiring careful heat
treatment subsequent to forming.
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As is generally the case in such matters, no materials is universally

acceptable for resistance-thermometer elements. Undoubtedly, platinum, nickel, and
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copper are the materials most commonly used, although others such as tungsten,
silver and iron have also been employed. The specific choice normally depends
upon which compromises may be accepted. The temperature – resistance relation of
an RTD must be determined experimentally. For most metals, the result can be
accurately represented as
   
R(T)  R0 1  A T  To  B T  T0 2  
where
R(T) = the resistance at temperature T,
R0 = the resistance at a reference temperature T 0

A and B = temperature coefficients of resistance depending on material.
Over a limited temperature interval (perhaps 50C for platinum) a linear

approximation to the resistance variation may be quite acceptable.
R(T) = R0 (1+ A(T – T0))
But for the highest accuracy, a high – order polynomial fit is required.
The resistance element is most often a metal wire wrapped around an
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electrically insulating support of glass, ceramic or mica. The latter may have a variety
of configurations, ranging from a simple flat strip, as shown in figure to intricate ―bird-
cage‖ arrangement (3). The mounted element is then provided with a protective
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enclosure. When permanent installations are made and when additional protection
from corrosion or mechanical abuse is required, a well or socket may be used, such
as shown in figure.
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More recently, thin films of metal-glass slurry have been used as resistance
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elements. These films are deposited onto a ceramic substrate and laser trimmed.
Film RTDs are less expensive than the wire RTDs and have a larger resistance for a
given size; however, they are also somewhat less stable (4). Resistance elements
similar in construction to foil strain gages are available as well. The resistance grid is
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deposited onto a supporting film, such as Kapton, which may then be cemented to a
surface. These sensors are generally designed to have low strain sensitivity and high
temperature sensitivity. Table describes characteristic of several typical
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commercially available resistance thermometers.

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ME 6504 - ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

UNIT I .BASICS OF METROLOGY 5

Introduction to Metrology – Need – Elements – Work piece, Instruments – Persons

UNIT II LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS 10

UNIT III ADVANCES IN METROLOGY 12

Basic concept of lasers Advantages of lasers – laser Interferometers – types – DC

Principles and Methods of straightness – Flatness measurement – Thread

UNIT V MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE 8

measurement: Venturimeter, Orifice meter, rotameter, pitot tube – Temperature:

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UNIT – I-BASICS OF METROLOGY

Basic units in SI system

under normal atmospheric pressure, supported by two rollers of at least 1 cm

equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per unit length.

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1) For Plane angle: Radian (rad)

Variations in the ambient conditions from internationally agreed standard value of

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(a) Systematic or controllable errors: ta s

2. Ambient Conditions: Variations in the ambient conditions from internationally

the deformation of the workpiece surface and deflection of the workpiece

(b) Random Errors:

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Characteristics of random errors:

(errors which greatly distort the results and need to be ignored).

maximum measuring error, is the standard deviation.

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In the precision measurements, various methods of measurement are

The various methods of measurement are classified as follow :-

Direct method of measurement

In the comparative method, only the deviation of the measured dimension

In contact methods of measurement, the measuring tip of the instrument

In Contact less method of measurement, no contact is required. Such

According to the functions, the measuring instruments classified as.

According to the accuracy of measurement, the measuring instrument are

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Measuring instrument are also classified in accordance with then metrological

It is the accuracy that may be attained in using a measuring instrument.

actual value of the dimension being measured.

Mention a few important precautions for use of instruments towards achieving

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the instruments should be periodically checked against the appropriate standards.

Sources of errors in precision measurement:-

Alignment Principle (Abbe's Principle) :

The effect of simple scale alignment error is shown in fig.

if Q = angle of scale misalignment

An alignment error of 2o over iN introduces an error of approximately 0.6mm.

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To ensure correct displacement readings on the dial indicator the plunger

Variation of force applied at the screw are augmented at the line of

when using a sensitive comparator, the measured part in located on a table

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However, for less stringent measurement requirements it is not essential that

Classifications of Methods of Measurements

In precision measurements various methods of measurement are followed

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(i) Direct method of measurement: In this method the value of a quantity of

of mass by Borda method.

known value and is balanced again by a second known value B. When

of a mass by means of a balance and known weights, using the Gauss

master of near about the same value. For example, determination of

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