Communication Studies

Module 2
Language
The following are definitions of language:
(i) system of communication between humans, through written and vocal
symbols
(ii) speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group
(iii) words, especially employed in any art, branch or knowledge, or
profession
(iv) a person’s characteristic mode of speech
(v) by extension, the articulate or inarticulate expression of thought and
feeling by living creatures.

Language combines a wide variety of features and is the most precise and
complex means of communication that exists.

Language is one of a range of means of communication. It is not to be regarded as

just another form of communication. It is perhaps the most complex of all. It is
flexible, dynamic, systematic, creative and socially governed. It is to be
distinguished from all other forms of communication, both human and non-
human, because it does more than simply communicate.

There is a popular misconception that language is just another form of

communication. It is important to note that language is not like other forms of
communication and that in fact it is a peculiarly human phenomenon, though
many of its features are to be found in other forms of communication.

There are two types of languages: denotative and connotative language.

Denotative language is language interpreted literally while connotative language
has emotive shades of meaning.

Functions of Language
 Language is a marker of evolution for the human species
 Language offers human beings the means of expressing themselves
verbally.
 Language is extensive, meaning that the ability to speak separates us from
all other species.
 Language stands as being widely creative.
 Language has identity, meaning that you begin to identify people based on
his or her use of language. It creates personal identity.

Characteristics of Language
 Language has a human characteristic. Only humans have the physical
capability to pronounce the wide variety of sounds that are used in
world’s languages. Language must be sound based. However, it is not
necessary to write it to be considered a language. Communication must
take place for it to be considered a language.
 Mutual intelligibility: where information could be passed on and
understand

Note that, in order for a language to become a standard form, it must be

written.

 Language is verbal. It is based on recognizable sounds.

 Language is symbolic. This means that it uses words as representations or

symbols of ideas. Most words have an arbitrary, but mutually agreed
relationship between the symbol and the meaning. Symbolism in
language ensures that ideas are easily shared among speakers of the same
language. Dictionaries are actually records of the symbolic meaning of the
words in a language. They ensure that the symbolism remains consistent
despite the advent of new generations and new speakers.

 Language is systematic. Languages have structure. Each language has

specific grammar rules and follow specific word order. Unlike other forms
of communication, language makes use of a number of different systems
operating at several levels.

1. Sound
Since some sequences of sound are not acceptable. Note that the
spelling in some cases is not readily recognized because it may
not suggest a sequence of sounds that speakers of English
recognize or use normally. Each language has its accepted sound
patterns that are easily recognizable to its speakers.
2. Grammar
Since some order of words, or parts of words, are not acceptable.
The grammar of a language is a set of rules that govern how the
words of the language are put together to make meaning.
3. Semantics
Words have specific meanings and people cannot keep changing
the meanings of words because they feel like it, nor can they
combine words which produce ridiculous combinations such as
‘green cow’. Such a form is only possible as a figure of speech.

 Language is evolutionary. One manifestation of language change is the

invention of new words. As humans invent or discover new things and
new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be created to represent
them.

Changes in meaning are another way in which language evolves.

Generally, these changes occur when a significant group of persons
persistently uses a word to mean something other than its traditionally
accepted definition.

 Language has a maturational characteristic. As and individual grows

older, their ability to produce and comprehend language increases.
  Language is non-instinctive. It needs to be learnt through communicative
interaction with others. While humans are born with the ability to acquire
language, they can only do so through imitation.

 Language is dynamic. Language is constantly changing. It has great

flexibility and can vary according to certain social or geographical factors.

Language and A Language

 Language (generic) is a vehicle of thought, system of expression. The
principal means used by human beings to communicate with one another.
Language is primarily spoken, but it can also be written.
 Language is the verbal form of human expression.
 Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of
voluntarily produced symbols.

 A language (individual) is a set of elements and a system for combining

them into patterned sentences that can be used to accomplish specific
tasks in specific contexts. Examples: to greet friends, argue, ask the time.
 A language is any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from
other such system by its peculiarities of structure and vocabulary – i.e.
every language is distinct from other languages because of these features.
 A language is one recognizable, identifiable or accepted entity used by
one or more communities of speakers.

 A language community is all the speakers of a particular language.

 A language family is a group of languages that have all developed from a

single ancestral language.

Purposes of language
1. Expressive purposes
Language can be used simply to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes,
without necessarily taking a reader or listened intro consideration. When
language is used in this way, the speaker is not trying to effect change in
an audience or elicit response. He/she is merely giving vent to emotion or
needs. Diaries and journals are obvious examples of language used for
expressive purposes.

2. Informative purposes
Language is employed with the intention of conveying information to
others. This purpose is used to convey ideas, truth statements,
instructions, abstract and complex propositions and to aid understanding.
Therefore, a news broadcast, a bulletin board or a textbook are all
examples of language being used for this purpose.

3. Cognitive purposes
 When language is used cognitively, it is with the intention of affecting the
audience in some way in order to evoke some type of response.
Therefore, when one uses language to persuade, entertain, stir to anger or
arouse sympathy, one is using language for cognitive purposes. Jokes,
political speeches and horror stories are different examples of ways in
which language can be used cognitively.

4. Poetic purposes
Language used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic. The user
focuses on the structure and pattern of the language and places emphasis
on the manner in which language is manipulated.

5. Phatic purposes
Language is used simply to establish or maintain contact among people.
This use of language is most obvious in spoken communication. Language
used for phatic purposes does not necessarily seek to generate a
meaningful response. Although the phatic purpose of language does not
often apply to written communication, in the case of letter writing, the
greeting and closure are phatic. Informal or friendly letters and email may
also use expressions.

6. Metalinguistic purposes
This is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss
language itself. A critique of a speech is metalinguistic.

7. Social purpose
Sometimes when language is used, it has more to do with certain cultural
or ceremonial conventions that relate to social interaction in a particular
community.

8. Identifying purpose
This is seen in the use of slogans, chants, anthems, nicknames and other
terms that allow for expression of personal or group identity.

9. Ritual purpose
This language offers the possibility of exercising control over certain
aspects of life.

10. Aesthetic purpose

Aesthetic use of language in its absolute form (for example, experimental
poetry) exploits qualities of language such as sound and pattern, but may
invite a variety of different interpretations and responses.

11. Persuasive purpose

The persuasive purpose is used to convince, or persuade, the reader that
the opinion, or assertion, or claim, of the writer is correct or valid.
Variation
Although any speaker of a language could communicate with any other speaker
of the same language, these people often do not all speak the language in the
same way. The way in which language is used often varies from group to group,
from one situation to another, and from individual to individual. The language
used may also vary in relation to the intent of the speaker or the purpose of the
communication or even the nature of the relationship between the speaker and
the audience.

 Variation is the changes in language in response to various influences. For

example: social, geographic, individual and group factors.
 Some factors influencing language variation are social pressures,
development in technology, geographical location, political and economic
status.
 How do varieties develop?
They develop where there is limited communication between different
parts of a community that share one language. Geographical boundaries,
isolation, political conflict or military hostilities may lead to sustained loss
of contact between groups so that changes in the language are not shared
by all speech communities.

Dialect
 Dialect is a variety of a language spoken by an identifiable subgroup of
people, i.e. dialects can be characteristic of geographic, regional, ethnic,
socio-economic or gender groups; any version of a language spoke by a
particular geographic or social sub-group, e.g. British Standard English,
Cockney English, Yorkshire English, Trinidad Standard English, American
English, Dominican Standard English.
 Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes
dominant. This is usually due to the fact that it is the dialect spoken by the
people with the economic power or greatest social influence in that
society. In this case, their dialect becomes accepted as the standard
variety of that language. Therefore, the standard variety becomes the one
used for writing and other formal purposes and is often given prestige
over the other varieties.
 No one variety of a language is superior to another and that every
language is really a collection of dialects.
 A group of people who speak the same dialect is known as a speech
community.
 Although two person may speak the same dialect, their accents may be
different. An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation. Accents can be
regional or social.
 Dialects differ from one another by semantics (word choice), syntax
(sentence structure), grammar and morphology (word forms).
 No matter what dialect is spoken by a speech community, each user is
capable of manipulating that dialect in relation to the context of
communication. Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you
 can vary the way you express yourself. This type of language variation is
called code switching. This is the ability to manipulate between the
standard and non-standard dialect based on the social setting.
 Dialectal Variation refers to a person’s conscious choice of dialect which
can be the variation of Creole or Standard English. Choice of dialect is
chosen based on the speaker’s status, educational background, emotional
state and attitude towards the dialect.
 The three different types of dialects are basilect, mesolect and acrolect.
 Basilect is a basic form of the dialect spoken by the group at the bottom of
the social ladder.
 Mesolect is a midway point between basilect and acrolect.
 Acrolect is a dialect that is closest to the standard European language
spoken by the groups in close contact with most powerful sector of the
society.
 Jamaican Language Continuum
This is the range of languages and language dialects spoken in Jamaica.
This range is represented as a continuum because:
1. Not every point on the continuum is a separate language
2. Jamaicans will switch from one to the other continuously in
conversations and in different situations
3. according to some persons, the Creole is continuously changing and
becoming more like English.

Basilect. is the form of Creole with more African derived features than
other forms. The first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in
rural areas and by uneducated persons.

Mesolect is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the
basilect. The point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often
spoken by urban and educated persons.

Acrolect is the last point on the continuum. An example is Jamaican

Standard English. It is most often spoken in formal situations.

Register
 A register is the form of a language in which one may choose to speak,
where “form” refers to ranges in formality and informality.
 Standard English is a formal register, Jamaican Creole is a more informal
register.
 Words used to refer to informal register include: colloquial, vernacular.
 A register is also a language variety associated with a particular situation
of use; the range of language choice available for use in different
situations.
 One may choose to use an entirely different variety or dialect of a
language from one situation to the next. The variety of language that you
use at any given time is your register.
 Choice of register also generally reflects the speaker’s/writer’s
relationship with the audience.
 The ability to change your register is an important life skill.
  There are five types of registers:
1. Frozen Registers
Used in print and public media, sermons, pledges, prayers. The
language of the register is fixed and unchanged. No direct response
from a reader or listener is expected.

2. Formal or Academic Registers

Used in formal social settings and interviews. It is the language of
seminars and lectures, ceremonies, public speaking and conversation
between strangers. This register almost always uses Standard English.
The sentence structure and vocabulary are complex but more easily
understood in general than some forms.

3. Consultative Registers
Used in situations where the listener is expected to give some
feedback. Example: a doctor visit, interview, counseling, client-lawyer.
This register indicates that the speakers are not intimately related but
that there is sustained communication between them. Standard and
non-standard forms of language may be used as the speakers may
switch codes to relate more easily to each other.

4. Casual or Informal
Used when talking with friends and acquaintances in a non-formal
setting. This register is usually recognized by the slangs used. The
topic of discussion may be general and there is a conversational tone
reflected in the use of colloquialisms (a word or phrase that is not
formal or literary and is used in ordinary or familiar conversation.)
and slang. There may be attempts to code-switch to adopt the dialect
of the person.

5. Intimate Registers
It is the language of persons who are very close. This is usually
marked by specialized words or expressions only understood by the
parties involved in the intimate relationship. Communication is aided
by non-verbal elements and reference may be made to unspecified
topics and situations. There is evidence of intimacy in the use of
nicknames and terms of endearments as well as expression of
personal emotions. Incomplete sentences, interruptions, shortened
responses and unexplained references are the norm.

Standard
 This is the dialect used for education and other formal or official
purposes.
 How does a dialect become a standard?
It is spoken by the dominant group in the society thus it commands the
most prestige and becomes the target to which people aspire. Education,
publishing and an established body of literature enhance the status of the
prestigious dialect and it emerges as the standard and is often supported
by economic, political and social factors.
Creole
 The term Creole originally meant a person of European parents who had
been born and raised in a colonial territory. Later, it was used to refer to
anyone native to these countries and then it became the name of the
language spoken by these people.
 A Creole is a language that is as a result of contact between Africans
speaking different native languages and Europeans speaking different
varieties of European languages. Or it is the set of varieties which have
their beginnings in situation of contact where groups of people who do
not share a common language are forced to communicate with each other.
 A Creole is a language that comes into being through contact between two
or more languages.
 The substrate of Creole is the grammar of the African languages while the
superstrate of Creole is the vocabulary of European languages.
 It is the set of varieties which have their beginnings in situations of
contact where groups of people who do not share a common language are
forced to communicate with each other.
 When people who speak different languages find themselves in a situation
where they have to communicate with each other for purposes of trade,
business or to survive, these people usually devise a form of language
communication called a pidgin. A pidgin is a system of communication
that has grown up among people who do not share a common language
but need to trade or conduct business.
 Pidgins are not ordinary languages since they are normally used only for
communication between persons from different speech communities.
However, in some case, a pidgin begins to be used as the first language of
people in the same community.
 The pidgin may then become a native language; it acquires the more
complex grammar of a full language and is referred to as a Creole.
 Therefore, all Creole languages start as pidgins. Sometimes Creole
languages are referred to as patois or patwa. However, the word patois
can be used as synonym for any non-standard variety or local dialect,
including pidgins.
Characteristics of English Creole Languages

Grammar
 Nouns, verbs and pronouns are not altered in form to indicate plurals,
tense, person or case.
 Creole uses the plural marker ‘dem’ without changing the noun in any
way.

Singular Plural
Standard English Girl Girls
Creole Gal/ gyal Dem gyal/ de gyal dem

 Creole does not utilise an auxiliary verb to indicate change in person.

However, the Creole differentiates between the second person singular
and plural by inserting ‘all’ in the latter case.

Standard English Creole

1st person singular I am eating I eatin
2nd person singular You are eating You eatin
3rd person singular He/She/It is eating He/She/It eatin
1st person plural We are eating We eatin
2nd person plural You are eating You all/All you eatin
3rd person plural They are eating Dey/Dem eatin

 Another characteristic of Creole grammar is its use of predicate

adjectives.

Standard English English Creole French Creole

I am tired I/me tired Mwen las
He is sick He/him sick E malad
You are thirsty You tired Ou swef

 The use of double negatives is another characteristic that Creole shares

with Standard French (and Spanish) but not with Standard English

Standard English Creole Standard French

I’m not doing anything I not doin nothing Je ne fais rien

 Creole does not reverse word order to indicate the interrogative form of a
sentence

Standard English Creole

You have eaten You eat already
Have you eaten? You eat already?
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAMMAR

English Creole Caribbean Standard English

Pluralised count nouns with generic

Unmarked count nouns with generic
meaning, for example, mangoes are
meaning, for example, mango sweet
sweet

Unmarked action verbs with past time Past-marked action verbs with past
reference, for example, she pinch me time reference, for example, she
and run outside pinched me and ran outside

Preverbal markers, for example,

Auxiliaries and suffixes, for example,
ben/bin/wen/did (past marker), go
did/-ed (past), will/shall (future), -ing
(future marker), a (marker of
(continuous), simple present tense
continuous and habitual), does
forms (cook, cooks)
(marker of habitual)

Subject-copula-adjective structures, for

Subject-adjective structures, for
example, I am sick, the mango is
example, mi sick, di mango sweet
sweet

Subject-verb word order in question Inversion of subject and auxiliary in

formation, together with rising question formation together with
intonation, for example, you done cook rising intonation, for example, have
di food? you finished cooking the food?

No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of Voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of words
words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound or syllables, as, for example, in fifth,
instead, as, for example, in fif, wit/wif with
Phonology
 Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic
organization of sounds in languages
 In the case of English-based Creole, the most distinctive differences in
sound combinations are observed in sounds that occur in Standard
English but not in the Creole.
 A very obvious one is the ‘th’ sound, which does not exist in Creole. It is
replaced by either the ‘d’, ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound, depending on its postion in the
word and the presence or absence of other non-English influences on the
Creole.
 Creole also dispenses with the final consonant in the words that end in
‘ing’ or with ’d’.
 In some cases, an English sound combination is not dropped but reversed,
for example: ask becomes aks and film become flim.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHONOLOGY

English Creole* Caribbean Standard English

No voiced consonant clusters at the Voiced consonant clusters at the end of

end of words, for example, -nd > n, as words, for example, -nd, as in hand,
in han, san sand

No voiceless consonant clusters at the Voiceless consonant clusters at the end

end of words, for example, -st > -s, as in of words, for example, -st, as in test,
tes, wris; -ft > f, as in left; -; -ghed > gh, wrist; -ft, as in left; - ghed, as in
as in laugh; -ped >p, as in leap laughed; -ped, as in leaped

No voiceless-voiced consonant clusters

at the end of words, for example, -sed > Voiceless-voiced consonant clusters at
s, as in miss; -ghed, gh, as in laugh; - the end of words, as in missed, laughed,
ped>p, as in leap leaped

No voiced ‘th’ sound at the beginning Voiced ‘th’ sound at the beginning of
of words or syllables; a ‘d’ sound words or syllables, as, for example, in
instead, as, for example, in dey, dem, they, them, la.ther
la.der

No voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of Voiceless ‘th’ sound at the end of
words or syllables; a ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound words or syllables, as, for example, in
instead, as, for example, in fif, wit/wif fifth, with

* It should be noted that some of the English Creole characteristics are at times
carried over into Caribbean Standard English.
Vocabulary
 The vocabulary (lexicon: list of all the words in a language) of Caribbean
Creole English is derived primarily from Standard English. However, a
number of words used in Creole speech are related to cultural influences
from other European, Amerindian, African, East Indian and Chinese
languages.
 Like any other language, the vocabulary of Creole is dynamic and reflects
changes that arise out of social movements such as Rastafarianism or the
incorporation of prevalent slang.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VOCABULARY

English Creole Caribbean Standard English

Peculiar words and phrases (for Equivalents: child, eat, cou-cou,

example, pickney, nyam, cou-cou,
bazodi, puddin and souse, nose-hole,
eye-water, door-mouth, walk with, spin
top in mud, hit somebody for six, watch
somebody cut-eye)
confused, pudding and souse, nostril,
tears, door/threshold, bring along,
waste time, best or prevail over
someone, give someone a look of anger,
disapproval, envy, etc.

Shared words but different parts of

Shared words but different parts of
speech, for example, stink (n, v), over
speech, for example, stink (adj), over (v,
(prep, adv), out (adv, prep), sweet (adj,
prep, adv), out (prep, adv), sweet (adj,
(n)
v, n)

Shared words but different meanings, Shared words but different meanings,
for example, miserable (=ill-tempered, for example, miserable (= wretched),
(playfully) annoying), ignorant (= ill- ignorant (lacking in acknowledge)
tempered)
Challenges Faced in Choosing Creole over the Standard Language
 The standard language has an established tradition of written literature,
while Creole has mainly oral tradition and a short history of written
literature.
 The standard language has published dictionaries and grammar while
Creole has a few recently published dictionaries.
 The Standard language is the accepted medium of education, while Creole
is rarely used as the official language in education.
 The Standard language is globally recognized as the official national
language, while Creole is recognized as official in few regions.
 The Standard language is the most prestigious (inspiring respect and
admiration; having high status) dialect of a language, while Creole which
is composed of African sound, phrases and sentence patterns and mainly
European lexicon (vocabulary) is not viewed as prestigious.
 The Standard language has had centuries of evolution and it borrows
words from other languages, however, the Creole is a result of sudden
forced change.
 The Standard language has a complex system of rules but Creole has
simplified rules.
 The standard language enjoys stability and uniformity, while Creole
moves from decreolization to creolization continuously (a language
continuum is said to exist when two or more different languages or
dialects merge one into the other(s) without a definable boundary)
Language in Society

Factors influencing Language

1. Historical Factors
The language situation in any country can normally be linked directly to
historical factors. These are often related to colonization or migration.

For example: French and English are spoken in Canada today because it
was the scene of several conflicts between France and English in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Colonisation is the greatest factor responsible for the spread of certain

languages from more homogeneous populations to distant and diverse
geographical locations

2. Social Factors
The social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the one
that assumes the place of important in the society and is considered to be
the standard language of that society. Language is also dynamic and never
static unless there are no more speakers of that language. Much of the
dynamism of a language is a result of constant social change and the
emergence of new cultural phenomena as a result. However, the elements
of social and economic class always affect attitudes to and choice of
language.

For example: individuals seeking to be recognized as part of a certain

social group may deliberately cultivate the language or dialect of that
group although they do not normally speak that dialect.

Sometimes a person may switch from one variety of language to another

throughout the day as he/she interacts in different social settings.

3. Cultural Factors
Global movement of people (globalization) has been a major influence on
language. Many migrants and refugees are eager to assimilate quickly as
much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate their ability to fit in with
their society. As generations are born into the new culture, much of their
original language is lost.

For example: In the case of Hispanic populations in the US, a form of

language has evolved that features aspects of both Spanish and English.
The name ‘Spanglish’ has been coined for this phenomenon, but linguists
would refer to it as ‘code mixing’.

While acculturation, or assimilating, of the new culture affects the

language of immigrants, sometimes the language of the host country also
undergoes changes as a results of the new cultural influences.
 For example: Several Spanish words have become part of everyday
English language (taco, piñata)

The coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a society

results in linguistic changes in all the languages. However, the nature of
the cultural change determines which language is more widely influential
and what types of change takes place.

For example: In the case of the USA, the fact that some states may well
have more Spanish than English native speakers will be largely
instrumental in how language develops there.

4. Political Factors
The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national
constitution or other official sources. Recognition given to other
languages is also a political or government decision. Most countries
maintain the assigned status of their languages regardless of political
changes. However, in some countries, language is significantly influenced
by political events.

Language policies typically define a government’s plan regarding the

approach to the treatment of language in the specific country. The policy
may either promote or discourage the use of a particular language or
languages and in some cases it is designed to protect an ethnic language
that may be in danger of disappearing.

Political influences on language can determine the extent to which

minority languages or dialects are accepted, recognized or utilized in a
society.

For example: In Quebec, Canada, the provincial government stipulated

that only French should be used on street signs and in places where
bilingual signage was allowed, the English letting had to be significantly
smaller and within stipulated dimensions.

Turmoil and violence can arise out of political disputes over language as
seen in Sri Lanka and Turkey.
Roles of Languages
 There are several roles of languages such as social, political, ethical and
psychological.

Positive Uses of Language Negative Uses of Language

To assert authority
To mark identity
To mark solidarity (unity)
To make social linkages
To promote cultural awareness
Discrimination against Others:
To make an unjust or prejudicial
distinction in the treatment of different
categories of people
To alienate:
To make someone feel isolated or
estranged
To ridicule:
The subjection of someone or
something to contemptuous/scornful
and dismissive language or behaviour
To mark social biases::
The tendency of survey respondents to
answer questions in a manner that will
be viewed favorably by others
To make face threats
Marginalization:
To put or keep someone in a powerless
or unimportant position within a
society or group

Language Situation in the Caribbean

 The language situation in the Caribbean is the result of a highly stratified
plantation society as well as severe social and geographical isolation of
subgroups.
 The Caribbean is often described as a complex linguistic region, largely
because its complicated history has resulted in an array of languages,
dialects and vernacular forms that provide rich material for study by
linguists from far and wide.
 The original inhabitants of the region had their own wide range of
languages, some of which are still spoken by small groups in places such
as Guyana and Suriname.
 Many Caribbean people are not aware that there are significant
Amerindian influences on their way of life and language today.
 The arrival of the European colonists in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries meant that non-indigenous languages began to take root in the
society. It is important to note that many of these Europeans were
themselves speakers of non-standard dialects and no one variety of
English, French, Portuguese, Dutch or Spanish was spoken.
 When the need arose for cheap labour to work on the plantations,
Africans were captured, enslaved and imported primarily from countries
along the west coast of Africa. Many of them were also speakers of various
non-standard dialects of their own languages. However, in order to
 minimize communication among the enslaved Africans as a security
measure, plantation owners made sure that they purchased from a
variety of ethnic groups so that few Africans speaking the same language
could be found on any one plantation.
 After the emancipation of the enslaved Africans in 1838, estate owners
began recruiting indentured labourers from India, China and some
Portuguese territories with the last major group arriving from Syria and
Lebanon.

Official Popular
Country Other Languages
Languages Language
Cuba Spanish
Spanish Puerto Rico English/Spanish
Santo Domingo Spanish
French Guiana
French Guadeloupe
Martinique
French Lexicon
French and
Haiti Creole
Haitian
St. Lucia English Lexicon
Dominica Creole
Spanish, Garifuna,
Belize
Mayan
French Lexicon
Anguilla
Creole
Antigua
Barbuda
Cariacou
Arawakan,
English Grenada
English Lexicon Cariban, Warrau
Guyana Creole
Jamaica
French Lexicon
Nevis
Creole
Petit Martinique
St. Kitts
St. Vincent
Trinidad and
Tobago
English Lexicon Hindi, Urdu,
Creole, Sranan, Javanese,
Suriname
Tongo, Ndjuka, Amerindian
Dutch Saramaccan Languages
Aruba
Bonaire Papiamento Spanish, English
Curacao
Attitudes to Caribbean Language
 Language clearly plays a major role in all aspects of society with the most
obvious being its social role of allowing people to relate to each other in
all facets of their lives: to share information, emotions and ways of lives.
 Some people may form impressions of your personality, emotional state,
geographic origin, age or socio-economic status from the language you
use and the way you use it. Some impressions may be formed largely
because of societal and personal attitudes to certain types of language.
Therefore, people often adopt certain linguistic behaviours that they
believe would create more favourable impressions of themselves.
 In Caribbean society, there are varying attitudes to language. Because of
our history, people of the region tend to place a high premium on the
standard languages or, as we have notes before, the languages of power
and economic might. Many people believe that upward mobility is largely
dependent on one’s ability to fit in with the predominant socio-economic
class, and language is the main signified of this fit.
 Attitudes to language may vary from one sector of the society to another
and some people demonstrate self-conscious behaviour when speaking
the standard language. This is largely a result of the fact that in most
societies one is often judged on the basis of the variety of language that
one speaks. This is even more prevalent in societies with a colonial legacy,
like the Caribbean, where certain dialects are associated with the
institution of slavery or conquest.
 Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native
language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing that
language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many
linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside
the target language so that children can clearly differentiate among the
codes and hence be less likely to mix the two.

Language in International Situations

 Language is an important means of creating and recognizing identity. Our
sense of self and our sense of community are tightly tied in with the
language we speak.
 You may have noticed that, very often when individuals are in foreign
countries, the moment they encounter someone from ‘home’ they
immediately revert to their original dialect of way of speech.
 Language, in this case, creates a sense of ethnic community, or of
belonging to a group, and immediately assuages the feeling of being an
outsider in a foreign land.
Choice of language
 While attitudes to local dialects have been slowly changing, many people
still associate the use of Creole with negative images and believe that its
use should be relegated to specific circumstances and occasions.
However, the fact that non-standard language varieties are the most
widely spoken in the Caribbean makes them the choice of persons trying
to get information to large sections of society.
 A language variety is usually chosen because of its perceived social
function.
 Such factors which influence the choice of language and communicative
behaviours in interactive situations are:
1. Audience
2. Message
3. Purpose
4. Occasion
5. Gender
6. Age

Arguments Against Creole as a Language

1. Creole is the language of the lower class, uneducated, powerless, country
folks and people whose ancestors were African slaves in the Caribbean.
2. Creole is the language of comedy. Creole is used in the arts and can
therefore often be seen as ‘substandard’ or ‘inferior’.
3. Creole cannot be written as here is no consensus on an official written
form.
4. Creole language varies from island to island
5. Creole has little or no prestige*.
6. Creole is stigmatized as a ‘bad’ or ‘improper’ way of speaking.
7. Creole offers no form of social mobility.
8. Working in a foreign country requires the use of Standard English

Arguments For Creole as a Language

1. There is mutual intelligibility. Information could be passed from one
person to another and easily understood.
2. There is a structure of the linguistics: rules of grammar and
pronunciation, syntax (sentence structure), semantics and lexicons.
3. It can easily show emotion.
4. For a language to be considered official, it must be written. Creole is in
fact a written language since a dictionary exists.

*Prestige: The level of respect accorded to a language or dialect as compared to

that of other languages or dialects in a speech community. The degree of esteem
and social value attached by members of a speech community to certain languages,
dialects, or features of a language variety.

Overt prestige: Using the standard language as well as having a prestigious accent.

Covert prestige:e One that is generally perceived by the dominant culture group as
being inferior but which compels its speakers to use it to show membership in an
exclusive community. It allows people to identify with others based on age, gender,
regional or cultural forms.

How does a language acquire prestige?

Its speakers occupy a dominant role in the society.
It affords its speakers access to economic power and upward social mobility.
It is the recognized language for education.
It has value as the instrument of technological innovation.
There is a significant body of written work using that language.
Technology, Culture and Communication
 Culture influences the ways in which people communicate and the
technology they select as part of that communication
 The ways in which we communication evolve out of the nature of our
culture and the type of communication technology available to us.
 Technology alters and shapes out culture while it influences the decisions
and choices people make regarding communication.

Technology and Communication

 Technology can be defined as the technical means that people use to
improve their surroundings.
 The first major technological phenomenon associated with
communication was the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth
century. The printing press facilitated the spread of information in all
areas of human life. It was also able to influence human thought.
 For a long time, the only mass communication medium was print, until
the invention of the electromagnet in 1825 kick started electronic
communications: telegraph, telephone, radio and television.
 However, it is hard to imagine that there can be anything to revolutionise
communication to the extent that the Internet and other modern
electronic media have done.
 Technology has enhanced our lives by offering multiple options for our
modes of communication and by affording us the opportunity to exist in a
virtual world in which we can potentially communicate with everyone
else.
 Apart from the array of available modes of communication, we are also
faced with large volumes of information that needs to be sorted,
processed, filed, responded to or utilized. Therefore, comprehension skills
must be deployed in several areas at once.
 It is also important to develop expertise in the use of all communication
tools at your disposal so as to select the appropriate mode and to observe
the required etiquette for modern communication. These skills are
referred to as interactive skills which is defined as ‘the generation of
meaning through exchanges using a range of contemporary tools,
transmissions and processes.’

Technology and Culture

 One of the greatest impacts of technology on culture has been language.
 If the Internet reflects the language of the dominant economic power,
then speakers of other languages are forces to adapt or remain at a
disadvantage.
 Technology is responsible for the influx of a large number of words into
the English language. For example: blogger, google, wiki. However, the
majority of technology-associated words are adaptations of vocabulary
already in use. For example: netbook, homepage, facebook, software,
youtube. Many abbreviations have also been accepted as words. For
example: USB, HTML, mp3. An entire new language known as Netlingo
has evolved to facilitate the speed with which conversations now take
place.
  The development of technology has an impact on the culture of a society
by influencing or changing the way in which things are done. As a society
becomes more technology driven, there is a need to communicate faster
and to transfer larger amounts of information. Therefore, traditional
means of communication are either abandoned or adapted to suit the new
technology.
 In the same way technology affects writing and speaking communication,
it also influences reading behaviours. Many people now own electronic
readers on which they can download books and other documents. This
means that certain cultural practices such as going to the library are
abandoned.
 Listening behaviours have also been influenced by the changing
technology. Music has been more portable as the vinyl record was
replaced by the audio cassette, then iPods.
 Technology impacts on the way we learn and impart knowledge. Paper
charts, chalk and chalkboards are replaced by slideshows and videos.
 Social interaction has also been influenced. The television has been
blamed for a number of cultural changes such as increased antisocial
behaviour and less community interaction since people tend to spend
more time indoors.
 Business culture has been modified. You are more likely to hear of a sale
through electronic media. Daily offers and special also fill your email
inbox.

Culture and Communication

 Culture refers to common practices and beliefs held by a specific group.
 Differences in culture are visible when one looks at the folk tales and
proverbs of the different countries. There are similarities in the presence
of these supernatural beings but they point to a slightly different cultural
experience.
 The history of the Caribbean is one that clearly illustrates the relationship
between language and culture. There are French, Dutch, English Creoles
throughout the Caribbean. Additionally, the Caribbean countries illustrate
the effect of culture on language in the place names in various islands.
 The names of our food have also been influenced by culture. In Guyana
and Trinidad, a significant Indian presence in the foods eaten there.
 Currently within the various countries of the Caribbean, there has been
significant movement of people which has led to changes in the language
patterns in those countries.
 Another influence of culture on language is seen in the spelling of words.
For example: centre/center, organize/organise, cheque/check. While the
understanding is that neither choice is an example of misspelling, the
writer should be consistent in the use of American Standard or British
Standard.
 In the world of business, language and culture can play a very important
part in shaping the effectiveness of communication. Language can be a
barrier to communication especially when the individuals on two
different sides speak a different language which leads to poor business
interaction.
 The dynamic nature of language makes it adaptable to changes in the
culture and worldview of its speakers. For example: the issue of political
correctness.
 Many terms and expressions that were once commonly used are now
deemed to be offensive or detrimental to the sense of identity of minority
groups. Widespread access to the media has made people more aware of
how labels attached to certain behaviors and lifestyles can lead to
stereotyping which prevents certain groups from enjoying all the
opportunities available in modern society. For example: it is better to say
"people of colour" and "visually impaired" and "plus size"