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526 Int. J. Materials and Product Technology, Vol. 21, No. 6, 2004

Modelling and prediction of weld line location and

properties based on injection moulding simulation

Huamin Zhou* and Dequn Li

State Key Lab. of Mold & Die Technology,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
Hubei, 430074, People's Republic of China
E-mail: hmzhou@263.net
*Corresponding author

Abstract: One of the important quality issues for injection moulded parts is
weld lines. The injection moulding simulation has been greatly developed
over a couple of decades. However, current simulation packages are
incompetent of detection and evaluation of weld lines location and
properties. In this paper, a detection model of weld lines location is
presented, which is based on the characteristics of the initial meeting node.
A quantitative evaluation model using the artificial neural network
approach is also established in this paper. For identifying the input of the
network, the affecting factors of weld line properties are discussed in detail
± the orientation coefficient of the material, the meeting angle, and the melt
mobility history coefficient. Comparison with experimental results shows
that these presented models are capable of predicting weld line location and
properties for engineering design.

Keywords: artificial neural network; computer simulation; injection

moulding; weld lines.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Zhou, H. and Li, D.

(2004) `Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties based
on injection moulding simulation', Int. J. Materials and Product
Technology, Vol. 21, No. 6, pp.526±538.

Biographical notes: Huamin Zhou is an Associate Professor in the State

Key Lab of Mold and Die Technology at the Huazhong University of
Science and Technology (HUST). Dr Zhou received his PhD in materials
science and technology from HUST. His research interests are in the
CAD/CAE/CAM of injection moulding. He is the author of over 50
technical papers in this area. Because of his outstanding contribution to
the numerical simulation of injection moulding, he was awarded the
National Technological Development Prize of the People's Republic of
China in 2002.

Biographical notes: Dequn Li is a Professor in the State Key Laboratory of

Mold and Die Technology. He is the Dean of the Department of Materials
Science and Technology and the Director of the Research Group of
Injection Molding CAD/CAE/CAM. He is the author of over 200 technical
papers.

Copyright # 2004 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

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Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties 527

1 Introduction

The interest in weld line analysis of injection moulded parts has increased
tremendously in the past few years. The processing of large and complex parts on
one hand, and the ever-increasing requirements on the performance of injection
moulded items on the other, are some of the most important reasons behind the
renewed interest in weld lines (Dairanieh et al., 1996). Weld lines are formed when
two melt fronts come into contact with each other. Separation or division of the melt
flow front can be caused by flow obstructions such as cores and holes, melt front
race-tracking due to variable wall thickness, jetting, unfavourable gate location or
runner branching for multi-gated parts. When these separated melt fronts rejoin at
some downstream location, weld lines are formed. Since the appearance as well as the
mechanical properties of the injection moulded part can be affected by weld line
formation, a strong need exists for understanding this phenomenon and solving the
problems associated with its occurrence.
Computer simulation packages of injection moulding have had success in
predicting filling behaviour in extremely complicated geometries. Although some
current packages can predict weld lines location, their accuracy and efficiency are
unsatisfactory, and none of them is capable of predicting weld line properties
quantitatively. In this paper, after analysing the characteristics of weld line
formation, the model for the initial meeting node is established based on the filling
simulation results. And correspondingly, a reliable and efficient algorithm to detect
weld line location is presented. On the other hand, based on a thorough analysis of
the factors affecting the weld line strength, an ANN (Artificial Neural Network)
approach is used to establish a prediction model for evaluating weld line properties
quantitatively.

2 Detection of weld line location

There are two steps in the detection of weld lines. The first is to detect the initial
meeting point of two flow fronts and then to expand from the initial meeting point to
obtain the entire weld lines.
As for the initial meeting point, the detection model can be deduced as follows.

Premise: Because the detection of weld lines is based on filling simulation results,
the time of melt front reaching each finite-element node is known, which
is named as reaching time here.
Theorem 1: The first contact point of two flow fronts meeting is called the initial
meeting point. All initial meeting points must locate at the finite-element
nodes of the mesh, so the initial meeting point can also be called the
initial meeting node.

Because the reaching time of the filling simulation is based on finite-element nodes,
Theorem 1 is obviously true. Obviously, assuming the flow fronts meet at finite
element nodes is an approximation for the convenience of numerical treatment. The
precision of the prediction depends on the mesh size.
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528 H. Zhou and D. Li

Theorem 2: For each initial meeting node (such as node C in Figure 1), when the
melt is very very near to, but still does not arrive at it, in the surrounding
polygon which is constituted by its adjacent nodes (such as Polygon
C1±C2±C3±C4±C5±C6±C7 in Figure 1), there are two un-intersectant
flow fronts (such as F1 and F2 in Figure 1).
Theorem 2 can be obtained by the definition of the initial meeting node.

Figure 1 Detection of weld line locations

Inference 1: According to Theorem 2, when the melt is very near to but still does
not arrive at the initial meeting node, there would be four points of
intersection between the flow fronts and the surrounding polygon (such
as P1, P2, P3 and P4 in Figure 1).
Theorem 3: For the surrounding triangle which includes a point of intersection of
Inference 1 (such as the shadow triangle T1 in Figure 1), between the two
lines linking to the initial meeting node (such as S1 and S2 in Figure 1),
one has a point of intersection with the flow fronts (such as S2 in Figure
1), the other does not.
The reason of Theorem 3 is that if the flow front gets through the triangle, there will
be two, and only two, points of intersection between the flow front and the triangle.
Inference 2: According to Theorem 3, in the surrounding triangle which includes a
point of intersection of Inference 1, between the reaching time of the two
nodes except the initial meeting node (such as C1 and C2 in Figure 1),
one is earlier than that of the initial meeting node (such as C2 in Figure
1), and the other is later. Supposing that the reaching time of points C,
C1, and C2 are TC, TC1 and TC2 respectively, it follows that
TT ˆ …TC ÿ TC1 †  …TC ÿ TC2 † < 0 …1†
Conclusion: For each finite-element node of the mesh, if there are four surrounding
triangles satisfying Equation (1), the node is an initial meeting mode.
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Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties 529

According to the above Conclusion, all initial meeting nodes can be found out by one
traversal of all finite-element nodes with Equation (1). The efficiency of this
algorithm is very high.
Starting from the initial meeting node, the weld line expands along two opposite
directions (such as V1 and V2 in Figure 1). Therefore, let the initial meeting node
being the current meeting node, the two nodes with the latest reaching time among
the nodes surrounding the current meeting node are the next two meeting nodes; and
then let these two nodes be the current meeting node and repeat the above process
until the entire weld line is built.

3 Evaluation of weld line properties

3.1 Evaluation index
Weld lines represent a potential source of weakness in moulded parts. The
mechanical properties of weld-line-infested areas are inferior to the properties of
the bulk. The surface of weld lines may contain small cracks which influence the
appearance of the moulded parts. Weld line properties can be presented in the form
of a weld line index, here defined as
PY
FWL ˆ ; …2†
PN
where PY and PN denote the mechanical properties of samples with and without weld
lines respectively, and FWL is the weld line index. The mechanical properties can be
tensile strength, elongation, etc. The value of FWL is less, the properties of weld lines
are poorer and the moulded part is weaken greater.

3.2 Affecting factors analysis

A number of papers have capitalised on the affect factors of weld lines properties.
The majority of work done focuses on case studies by experiments. After scanning
lots of open literature (Boukhili and Gauvin, 1989; Boukhili et al., 1987; Brahimi et
al., 1991; Criens and Mosle, 1983; Engberg et al., 1990; Malguarnera and Manisali,
1981; Mielewski et al., 1998; Piccarolo and Saiu, 1991; Piccarolo et al., 1987; Rallis
et al., 1988; Sanschagrin et al., 1997; Selden, 1997; Tomari et al., 1993; Tjader et al.,
1998), here we sum the affecting factors about weld lines as
* Meeting type. Normally, weld lines are considered to be of lower quality than
meld lines. The detailed description is as follows.
* Materials characteristics. Weld lines impair the moulded part seriously for
amorphous friable polymer, but relatively little for amorphous toughness
polymer, and generally the FWL of weld lines for semi-crystallisation polymer is
high. For any type of material, filler and reinforce can strengthen the moulded
part, but would considerably lower the value of FWL .
* Processing conditions. Generally speaking, high melt and mould-wall
temperature, high injection speed and high packing pressure are favourable for
better weld line quality.
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530 H. Zhou and D. Li

* Part and mould design. Modifying the part and/or mould structure to facilitate
the transmission of pressure and maintain a higher melt temperature is in favour
of improving weld lines properties. Placing a vent in the area of weld lines can
also increase the weld lines index, because the entrapped air would further
weaken the weld lines.

Although existing investigations have found some reasonable dependencies, no

practical calculation model of weld line properties is yet available. If only from the
point of view of experimental phenomena, almost every aspect of the moulding
process influences weld line strength. Some investigations have drawn contrary
conclusions, such as Gardner and Malloy (1994), Wenig and Stolzenberger (1996),
and Worden and Kushion (1991), to the effect of mould temperature. However, from
the microscopic viewpoint, the following interacting causes are responsible for the
weakness of the weld line infested area (as shown in Figure 2):
* insufficient entanglement of the molecular chains at the interface of the two
meeting flow fronts
* disappearance of molecular orientation parallel to the flow direction at the
interface
* insufficient relaxation of the flow-induced stress at the interface
* stress amplification at a notch created when melt fronts meet head-on.

The above-mentioned microscopic causes are all related to the molecular mobility
during the creation of the weld lines, directly or indirectly, so the molecular mobility
is the most essential factor affecting the properties of weld lines. Of course, the
mobility in turn depends on the material characteristics and processing conditions.

Figure 2 Microscopic factors affecting weld line properties

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Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties 531

Based on the above analysis, stressing the dominating factors and ignoring the minor
factors, the factors affecting weld line properties can be summed up as the following
three points.

3.2.1 Orientation coefficient of the material

As mentioned above, molecular orientation turns from parallel to the flow direction
to parallel to the welding direction at the interface. For high orientation-ability
materials such as fibre-reinforced material, the effect of orientation is more notable
and thus the mechanical strength of the moulded part weakens more seriously. The
orientation coefficient can be calculated by summing the products of the proportions
and the short-long-diameter-ratios of all components (including matrix, filler and
reinforces), written as
X
n
Bˆ … pi  r i † …3†
iˆ1

where pi and ri denote the proportion and short-long-diameter-ratio of the ith

components, and n represents the total number of components.

3.2.2 Meeting angle

The formation of a weld line is illustrated in Figure 3 and the meeting angle means
the plane-included angle of the two melt fronts when meeting (such as  in Figure
3b). Roughly, the meeting angle can be used to differentiate weld lines and meld lines
(both are called as weld lines in this paper). A meeting angle smaller than 135
produces a weld line, while greater than 135 produces a meld line. Normally, weld
lines are considered to be of lower quality than meld lines. The meeting angle
influences weld line properties significantly, since it affects the degree of molecular
fusion, entwisting and diffusion across a weld line after it is formed. The larger the
meeting angle, the higher properties of weld lines.

Figure 3 The formation of a weld line (a) melt fronts approach, (b) weld line forms,
(c) meld line forms, (d) final results (1: meld line; 2: weld line)
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532 H. Zhou and D. Li

3.2.3 Melt mobility history coefficient at the interface

As mentioned above, all factors affecting weld lines are related to the molecular
mobility. The molecular mobility can be described in terms of the viscosity. The
changes of material, structure and processing parameters reflect, ultimately, on the
melt mobility. Weld line properties relate to the melt mobility; not only during
forming, but also after forming. The melt temperature falls from injection
temperature to glass-transition temperature after filling. Molecular diffusion,
entwisting and stress relaxation occur during this entire period. Long span of melt
temperature above glass-transition temperature, low melt viscosity and high pressure
help to strengthen the molecular fusion and thus the weld line properties. According
to the mobility station in the momentum equation and dimension theory, melt
mobility history impact coefficient is calculated by
Z tvit
P
C ˆ dt; …4†
tfill m

where tfill and tvit are the moment of melt arriving and cooled to glass-transition
temperature respectively, P is the melt pressure, and m denotes the mean viscosity at
the interface, calculated by
Z b
1 1
ˆ dz=b; …5†
m 0 …z†
where b is the half thickness of the cavity, and z means the coordinate in the gap-wise
direction.

3.3 ANN modelling

Although the microscopic mechanism of weld line formation has been understood
roughly, the quantitative description and mathematical model for weld line
properties are still unavailable. For example, Kim attempted to establish a weld
line strength model based on diffusion theory (Kim and Suh, 1986), but some
assumptions adopted in the model cannot be affirmed and many complex parameters
were introduced to the model which makes the practical application impossible.
The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an effective method to solve this kind of
black-box problem. ANNs are a family of artificial intelligence systems and can be
defined as a
``massive parallel interconnected networks of simple elements and their
hierarchical organizations which are intended to interact with objects of the
real world in the same way as biological nervous system do.''
One of the most attractive features of ANNs is the ability to produce an approximate
solution of nonlinearities when the input and output are clear while the explicit
relationship information is incomplete.
The Back-Propagation Network (BPN) is one of the most appropriate models for
function imitation. It has been proved that a three-layer BPN can simulate any
continuous function exactly. In this paper, a 3-4-1 three-layer BPN is modelled to
evaluate weld line properties, as shown in Figure 4. The input parameters of the
network are orientation coefficient of the material, the meeting angle, and the melt
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Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties 533

mobility history coefficient. And the output is FWL . In order to reduce extra- or
over-fitting, a value of 0.9 is used for both momentum factor and rate of learning
with the generalised delta rule (GDR) method. No bias is employed for the network.
The network is trained using the MATLAB neural network toolbox. Using the
experimental data from open literature and the simulation results of the self-developed
CAE system HSCAE (Zhou and Li, 2001; Zhou et al., 2001), about 500 sets of inputs/
outputs are used for training the network. The training is achieved after 600 epochs.

Figure 4 The architecture of the BPN model

4 Experimental verification
4.1 Verification of weld lines location
As shown in Figure 5, the experimental part is a plate of 100  100 mm. The thickness
of one half of the plate is 2 mm and the other is 1 mm. Two gates are placed at the
centre of one side of the two sections. The selected material is HDPE G201. The
parametric constants corresponding to the …n;   ; B; Tb ; † of the five-constant
Cross-type viscosity model (Chiang et al., 1991) are (0.35, 36540.44 Pa, 0.0123 Pa  s,
5696.05 K, 4.50  10ÿ8 Paÿ1). The major processing conditions are a filling time of
1.0 s, a melt temperature of 200 C, and a mould temperature of 34 C. The flow front
advancements are illustrated in Figure 5. The solid line is the predicted weld line
location, and the dashed line is the test weld line location. It can be seen that the
prediction is in good agreement with the experimental result.

Figure 5 Comparison of weld lines location for experimental mould

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534 H. Zhou and D. Li

Another example is the front TV panel, as shown in Figure 6. Five gates are marked
by ` '. The predicted weld lines are the solid lines (the spherules represent air traps).
It is found that the prediction agrees well with the fact of the practical production.

Figure 6 Weld lines of the front TV panel

4.2 Verification of weld lines properties

Dairanieh et al (1996) has carried out an experiment for testing weld line properties.
For verification, its experimental data are employed to compare with the prediction
results of the developed programme. As shown in Figure 7, the experimental part is a
plate of 2  80  100 mm with a film gate 1 mm high at one of the 80 mm ends. Coming
from the gate, the melt first flows into an undisturbed section and then it is divided
by the circular obstacle whose diameter is 12 mm. Behind the obstacle, the flow
fronts recombine creating a weld line, which is illustrated as a black curve in Figure
7. From every plate two strips are cut perpendicular to the filling direction. One is cut
from the undisturbed section and the other from the area directly following the
obstacle (marked with dashed lines in Figure 7). Thus the mechanical properties of
regions with and without weld lines can be compared and FWL is calculated. The
strips are milled into miniaturised tensile-test bars (as shown in Figure 8) and tested
on a tensile tester. The material used is PMMA Plexiglas 8N.
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Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties 535

Figure 7 Experimental cavity and runner system

Figure 8 The sample dimensions (mm)

Because PMMA Plexiglas 8N had no anisotropic fillers, the orientation coefficient

of the material is 1.0. The CAE system HSCAE is used to generate simulation results
for all cases of processing conditions, and the meeting angle and melt mobility
history coefficient of the network are calculated according to the simulation results.
The network output and experimental testing data are compared in Table 1. It can
be seen that the predicted results of ANN agree well with the experimental data,
with the maximum relative deviation being 7.6%, which is acceptable for
engineering design.

5 Conclusion

With the prediction results of injection moulding simulation, a reliable and efficient
algorithm to detect the location of weld lines is presented. After analysing the factors
affecting the properties of weld lines in detail, an evaluation model based on the
artificial neural network method is established, which realises the quantitative
prediction of weld line properties. Finally, comparison with experimental data is
employed for the purpose of verification.
 536

Table 1
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H. Zhou and D. Li

Network Experimental tensile

input strength (Mpa) FWL
Case Injection Orientation Meeting Melt mobility Sample Sample Network Experimental Relative
temperature coefficient angle history with without output data deviation
(C) coefficient weld lines weld lines

1 220 1 116 3.14  104 38.0 57.6 0.61 0.66 7.6%

4
2 230 1 116 3.81  10 46.3 57.6 0.77 0.80 3.8%
3 250 1 116 4.69  104 51.0 57.6 0.85 0.89 4.5%
4
4 270 1 116 9.26  10 55.5 57.6 0.90 0.96 6.3%
Comparison between the network output and experimental testing data
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Modelling and prediction of weld line location and properties 537

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge financial support from the Specialised
Research Fund for the Doctoral Programme of Higher Education of the People's
Republic of China, under No. 20020487032.

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