LET REVIEW NOTES IN PRODUCTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

Prepared by: Ms. Jerlyn Mae S. Quiliope

There is no drab lesson if appropriate media is used in its presentation. Properly selected and used its impact on
the attention, sustained interest, and participation of students has long been recognized to a point that has wide collection of
teaching tools earned the title sub strategies. It is not surprising to see these materials, devices and instruments accumulate
in every teacher’s storehouse.

 Instructional Materials—are aids to teaching and learning which increase the effectiveness of the teacher. They
stimulate interest, simplify, clarify the subject matter and increase understanding and motivate the learner to learn.
 Im’s are tools of the teachers, amusement of the learner, and the catalytic agents that transform interest, curiosity and
experimentation into knowledge and understanding.

PRINCIPLES
For optimum learning general principles in the use of Instructional Materials ( Im’s.)
1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the teacher
2. Choose an instructional material is that best suit your instructional objectives.
3. Is possible, use a variety of tools
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working properly.
5. For best results, abide by general utilization guide on the use of media given as follows.
a. Learn how to use instructional materials
b. Prepare introductory remarks, questions, initial comments you may need
c. Provide a conducive environment
d. Explain the objectives of the lesson
e. Stress what is to be watched or listened carefully
f. State what they will be expected to do with the information they will learn
g. There is a need to summarize or review the experience

There are many types of instructional materials used in teaching. The most important task is for the teacher to decide which
one that is appropriate in teaching a particular topic. Instructional material may be grouped under:

i. Audio aids
ii. Visual aids
iii. Audi-Visual aids

The grouping of educational/instructional materials into visual, audio and audio-visual is presented by Ellington and Race
(1993). All instructional materials certainly fall under one of these three categories:

i. Audio aids: They are teaching and learning devices that mostly appeal to the sense of hearing. They include
telephone, records, public address system, tape recorder, human voice.

i. Visual aids: They are teaching and learning devices that mostly appeal to the sense of seeing only. They can be
sub-categorised into projected and non-projected visuals. The projected visuals required electricity for projection
e.g. films, slides, transparencies using their projectors. The non-projected ones do not need light source e.g.
pictures, maps, globes, posters, relic e.t.c.
ii. Audio-visual aids: These refer to those instructional materials which provide the students with the opportunity of
seeing and hearing at the same time. Examples are instructional or educational television, close circuit television
e.t.c.
iii. Stimulation devices-- These are the actual representation of the real objects or process, but reduced in size. They
include devices built to stimulate the action or function of the real device. Their purpose is to develop the ‘feel’ of the
actual functioning of the real objects.

Why Use Media in Instruction?

As a rule, educational experiences that involve the learner physically and that give concrete examples are retained
longer than abstract experiences such as listening to a lecture. Instructional media help add elements of reality - for instance,
including pictures or highly involved computer simulations in a lecture. Media can be used to support one or more of the
following instructional activities:
 Gain attention. A picture on the screen, a question on the board, or music playing as students enter the room all serve
to get the student’s attention.
 Recall prerequisites. Use media to help students recall what they learned in the last class, so that new material can be
attached to and built upon it.
 Present objectives to the learners. Hand out or project the day’s learning objectives.
 Present new content. Not only can media help make new content more memorable, media can also help deliver new
content (a text, movie, or video).
 Support learning through examples and visual elaboration. One of the biggest advantages of media is to bring the
world into the classroom when it is not possible to take the student into the world.

1
 Elicit student response. Present information to students and pose questions to them, getting them involved in
answering the questions.
 Provide feedback. Media can be used to provide feedback relating to a test or class exercise.
 Enhance retention and transfer. Pictures enhance retention. Instructional media help students visualize a lesson and
transfer abstract concepts into concrete, easier to remember objects.
 Assess performance. Media is an excellent way to pose assessment questions for the class to answer, or students can
submit mediated presentations as classroom projects.

The Advantages of Using Media:

 Many media sources (feature films, music videos, visualizations, news stories) have very high production quality capable
of showcasing complex ideas in a short period of time. This helps develop quantitative reasoning. Learn more about this
technique using the Teaching Quantitative Reasoning with the News module.
 Media offers both cognitive and affective experiences. It can provoke discussion, an assessment of one's values, and an
assessment of self if the scenes have strong emotional content.
 The uses of media sources help connect learners with events that are culturally relevant. As a result, a positive
consequence of utilizing media is that instructors must keep their materials and examples up-to-date.
 News stories can be used to connect theories taught in the classroom with real world events and policies.

The Advantages of Media for Students:

 Popular media (films, music, YouTube) are a familiar medium to students that helps gain attention and maintain student
interest in the theories and concepts under discussion. Students can see the theories and concepts in action. In more
than a figurative sense, theories and concepts leap from the screen.
 Students can hone their analytical skills by analyzing media using the theories and concepts they are studying.
 The use of media in the classroom enables students to see concepts and new examples when they are watching
television, listening to music, or are at the movies with friends.
 Students can experience worlds beyond their own, especially if the media is sharply different from their local
environment.

Types of Instructional Aids

Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker boards, and supplemental print materials, including
charts, diagrams, and graphs. Other aids, which usually are more expensive, are projected materials, video, computer-
based programs, and models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.
 Non-Projected Displays--As its name suggests, this category includes all visual displays that can be shown to a class,
small group or individual student without the use of an optical or electronic projector of any sort. It includes a number of
the most basic - and most useful - visual aids that are available to teachers and trainers, some of the more important of
which are listed below.
 Chalkboards-- These are dark-colored surfaces on which material can be written, printed or drawn using chalk. They are
still one of the most widely used of all visual aids, despite the fact that practically everything that can be done using a
chalkboard can be done more easily, less messily, and (in most cases) more effectively using an overhead projector or
data projector. They are probably most useful for displaying impromptu 'signposts' and 'links', notes and diagrams during
a taught lesson and for working through calculations and similar exercises in front of a class.
 Marker boards--These are light-coloured surfaces on which material can be written, printed or drawn using felt pens,
crayons or other markers of some sort. They can be used in the same ways as chalkboards, and have the advantage of
being less messy and offering a wider range of colours. A marker board can also double up as a projection screen if
necessary.
 Felt boards--These are sheets of felt (or boards covered with felt) on which moveable displays can be produced by
sticking shapes cut out of or backed with felt onto them. They constitute a comparatively cheap, highly portable and
extremely useful display technique, especially in situations that require the movement or re-arrangement of pieces
(demonstrating table settings, carrying out sports coaching, etc.).
 Hook-and-loop boards--These are similar to felt boards, except that the backing material on the display items has large
numbers of tiny hooks that engage loops on the surface of the display board. They are suitable for displaying heavier
items.
 Magnetic boards--These are ferromagnetic display boards on which moveable displays can be produced using materials
that are made of (or backed with) magnetic materials, or are fitted with small magnets. They can be used in much the
same way as felt boards and hook-and-loop boards.
 Flipcharts--These are large sheets of paper that are generally hung from an easel of some sort so that they can be
flipped forwards or backwards in order to reveal the information on a particular sheet, or to produce a fresh blank sheet
on which impromptu information can be written or drawn. The most recent flip charts no longer require easels, working
instead on the same 'lift and stick' principle as post-its and thus having greater portability.
 Charts and wall charts--These are large sheets of paper, carrying pre-prepared textual and/or graphical and/or pictorial
information. Such charts can either be used to display information during the course of a lesson, or can be pinned to the
wall of a classroom in order to be studied by the students in their own time. Wall charts, in particular, can be extremely
useful for providing supplementary material, or acting as a permanent aide- mémoire or reference system for learners
(eg the periodic tables of the elements that are prominently displayed in practically all chemistry classrooms).
 Posters--These are similar to wall charts, but generally contain less information – often simply a single dramatic image.
They are useful for creating atmosphere in a classroom.

2
 Photographic prints--Enlarged prints made from photographic negatives may be incorporated into textual materials, wall
charts, etc, and, in linked sequences with suitable captions, can form a useful instructional medium in their own right.
Such sequences are particularly suitable for use in programmes designed for individual study.
 Mobiles---These are systems of two- or three-dimensional objects that are hung from the roof of a class by thread,
thus producing a visually-attractive display whose shape is constantly changing due to air currents. They are particularly
useful for creating interest among younger children and demonstrating principles in subjects like aeronautics and for
architecture.
 Flashcard -- are small cards with a picture or symbol on them used both in teaching and in development work. In the
classroom, flashcards are commonly used to teach reading. A picture, for example, of an elephant may be drawn or
stuck on a card and the word ‘elephant’ written underneath it or on a different card. These are in form of cut out cards.
What to be taught are explicitly written boldly on them. They are useful in learning such topics like command, new words
e.t.c
 Models--These are useful in cases where three-dimensional representation is necessary (eg crystal structures, animal
skeletons, etc) or where movement has to be demonstrated, (eg flow of sediment, kinetic sculpture, etc).
 Dioramas--These are static displays that combine a three-dimensional foreground (eg a model landscape of some sort)
with a two-dimensional background, thus creating an aura of solidity and realism
 Realia--These are real items (eg geological or biological specimens) as opposed to models or representations thereof.
They are extremely useful if such materials are readily available, are easily displayed or are an integral part of the
development and marketing process.
 Exhibit—displays various types of non-projected visuals designed to form an integrated whole of instructional purposes.
Learner assembly of an exhibit can be a motivating experience and can foster retention of the subject matter.
 Chalk or Marker Board --The chalk or marker board is one of the most widely used tools for instructors. Its versatility
and effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of instruction. First, the material presented can be erased,
allowing the surface to be used again and again; and second, the boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student-
instructor activity in the classroom.
 Graphs-- is defined as a visual representation of numerical data. Graph is fundamentally a tool for expressing number
relationships, which is much easier to visualize than can be done if the statement were made only in words and figures.
It offers a judicious technique for analyzing, comparing and prophesying of facts which are vital to an intelligent study of
a problem.
 Pictures: It is used to bring direct-association between the object itself and foreign world. It is used to establish a direct
link and also used for introducing a lesson. It consist of every type of picture representation e.g. clips from books,
magazine e.t.c.

Uses of Graphs
1. Awareness: The teacher should be well aware of the method of drawing of graph in a neat and accurate
manner.
2. Neatness: The graph should be neat, clean and artistic. It should be of good quality.
3. Accuracy: The scales and the measurement of the graph should be accurate and intelligible to the students.
4. Drawing and paper: The graph should be properly drawn. The graph paper should be good. The pencil that
is use should also be good.
5. Hints: The hints should be properly explained. The marks on the graph should be such that the students
may know them by themselves.
6. Blackboard: The teacher may draw a graph on the black board.
 Cartoon--is a simple picture of an amusing situation; sometimes it is a satirical comment on a serious or topical
issue. A strip cartoon is a sequence of framed drawings, which tell a story. Both types are to be found in
newspapers, magazines and leaflets.
 Map-- is a flat drawing or representation of an area, such as a village, which shows the location of natural and man-
made features and resources. A map is drawn or made to be smaller than real life, and is not always to scale. In
development work, a village or community map made by learners or participants in a project can serve a number of
purposes.

Models, Mock-ups, and Cut-Aways

 Models, mock-ups, and cut-aways are additional instructional aids. A model is a copy of a real object. It can be
an enlargement, a reduction, or the same size as the original. The scale model represents an exact
reproduction of the original, while simplified models do not represent reality in all details. Some models are
solid and show only the outline of the object they portray, while others can be manipulated or operated. Still
others, called cut-aways, are built in sections and can be taken apart to reveal the internal structure.
 Whenever possible, the various parts should be labelled or colored to clarify relationships. Although a model
may not be a realistic copy of an actual piece of equipment, it can be used effectively in explaining operating
principles of various types of equipment. Models are especially adaptable to small group discussions in which
student’s are encouraged to ask questions. A model is even more effective if it works like the original, and if it
can be taken apart and reassembled. With the display of an operating model, the students can observe how
each works in relation to the other parts part.
 When the instructor points to each part of the model while explaining these relationships, the students can
better understand the mechanical principles involved. As instructional aids, models are usually more practical
than originals because they are lightweight and easy to manipulate. A mock-up is a three-dimensional or
specialized type of working model made from real or synthetic materials. It is used for study, training, or testing in

3
 place of the real object, which is too costly or too dangerous, or which is impossible to obtain. The mock-up
may emphasize or highlight elements or components for learning and eliminate nonessential elements.

Printed and Duplicated Materials)

These comprise all textual and handout materials to be used by students or trainees which can be run off in large
numbers by printing machines, photocopiers and duplicators. Facilities for the production of such materials are now
available in practically every school, college and training establishment, and they have become the most basic and widely
used of all educational tools. Some of the more important types are listed below.
• Handouts:--These comprise all the different types of information-providing materials that are given out to students
or trainees, usually in connection with a taught lesson or instructional programme of some sort. They include sets
of notes (either complete, or in skeleton or interactive form), tables, diagrams, maps and illustrative or extension
material.
• Assignment sheets:--These include problem sheets, reading lists, lab. sheets, briefing sheets for projects and
seminars, worksheets, etc. They can be used in practically all types of instructional situations.
• Individualised study materials:--These comprise all the different types of textual materials that are used in
connection with individualised learning. They include open- learning materials, study guides, placement guides,
structured notes, textual programmed materials and textual support materials for mediated-learning systems.
• Textbooks—viewed as teaching aid and should not be considered as the only one source of printed information to
be used during instruction
• Workbook—commonly used as a supplementary to textbook and include a spare for students to write their
answers to questions.

Still Projected Displays)

Traditional aids in this group include motion pictures, filmstrips, slides of various sizes, transparencies for overhead
projection, and specialized equipment such as rear screen projection or an opaque projector. However, the use of motion pictures and
filmstrips for training has declined, mostly because of availability of more user-friendly media such as video. Use of projected
materials requires planning and practice. The instructor should set up and adjust the equipment and lighting beforehand and
then preview the presentation. During a classroom session, the instructor should provide students with an overview of the
presentation before showing it. After the presentation, the instructor should allow time for questions and a summary of key
points.
• Overhead projector transparencies and similar materials-- These are textual or graphical images on large acetate
sheets that can either be displayed to a class or group using an overhead projector or viewed by individuals or
small groups using a light box of some sort. They are probably still the most useful and versatile visual aid that
can be used to support mass-instruction methods.
• Slides-- These are single frames of 35mm photographic film mounted in cardboard, plastic or metal binders, often
between twin sheets of glass They are one of the most useful methods of displaying photographic or graphic
images to a class, small group or individual student using a suitable front- or back-projector or viewer - either
singly or in linked sequences.

PowerPoint and Other Forms of Computer Projection

PowerPoint, along with other forms of computer projections has quickly become the standard for classroom lecture
presentation. There are many benefits:
 Visual information: with PowerPoint, you can now greatly expand the visual content of lectures along
the usual written information
 Clarity: all lectures can be prepared before class with attention of detail to areas more problematic
 Location: with the lecture on the computer projector screen, you are more free to face the class, note
their perception, and engage their response
 Efficiency: lectures can be revised after a class for later use, easing the preparation for future classes
on the same topic. Here are some suggestions that will help you use PowerPoint files effectively to
promote student learning:
 Use “bullet points” rather than full paragraphs. You will avoid falling into the trap of reading to your
audience (a frustrating practice since we can all read) and will be reminded of what points you would like
to expand upon.
 The PowerPoint should be just the outline of the lecture enhanced with visuals. The real content
should come from the spoken lecture prompting students to take notes and remain engaged.
• Filmstrips-- These are simply strips of 35mm film carrying linked sequences of photographic images, each usually
half the size of a standard 35mmframe (half-frame or single-frame filmstrips) but sometimes the full size (full-
frame or double-frame filmstrips). They are a convenient and, when purchased commercially, comparatively
cheap alternative to slide sequences, and can be used in much the same ways, using suitable filmstrip projectors
or viewers for display or study.
• Microforms-- is a generic term for any medium that is used to carry micro-images, ie photographically-reduced
images of pages of text, graphic material, etc. The most common types are microfilms (rolls or strips of
photographic film carrying a linear sequence of such images), microfiches (transparent sheets of photographic
film carrying a matrix of such images) and micro cards (opaque sheets carrying similar matrices of micro-
images). All such microforms can be used to carry the frames of instructional programmes (eg programmed-
learning sequences), to act as highly compact data-banks, etc, and can best studied using special magnifying
viewers or projectors.

4
Audio Materials
This category includes all the various systems whereby straightforward audio material can be played to a class,
group or individual. It includes a number of extremely useful - albeit often neglected - instructional aids, some of the most
important of which are described below.
• Radiobroadcasts--Educational radio broadcasts constitute an extremely useful resource for teachers and trainers.
Although they are often difficult to incorporate into the timetable if listened to at the time they are actually
transmitted, this problem can easily be overcome by recording them for later playback.
• Audio discs--Recordings of music, plays, etc. on compact discs or vinyl discs constitute a relatively inexpensive
and readily-available instructional resource in certain subject areas. They are suitable both for playing to a class
or group and for private listening by individuals. Increasing amounts of material are available on CD-ROM
enabling sound to be used interactively by individual students.
• Audiotapes--Audio material recorded on open-reel tape or tape cassette constitutes one of the most useful
resources at the disposal of the modern teacher or trainer, and can be used in a wide range of instructional
situations, either on its own or in conjunction with visual materials of some sort.
• Audio cards—it is flash cards with sound, which commonly used for vocabulary and associating sound with
visuals.
• Photograph Records—can e used to communicate music, speeches, drama, poetry, animal, & nature sounds,
and numerous possible sounds with instrumental applications.

FILM and VIDEO MATERIALS This class includes media that enable audio signals to be combined with moving visual
sequences, thus enabling a further dimension to be added to integrated audiovisual presentations. The main systems that
are currently available are as follows.
• Cine films--Such films (mainly in 16mm format) were once the main way of showing moving images in a class.
They have now been almost entirely replaced by the use of video.
• Television broadcasts--As in the case of educational radio broadcasts, educational television broadcasts constitute
an extremely useful free resource for teachers and trainers. Like the former, they are not usually transmitted at
convenient times, but, thanks to the development of relatively cheap video recorders, this limitation can now be
easily overcome. Such recording may require the payment of a licence fee, however.
• Videotape recordings ('videos')--Television sequences or tailored programmes recorded on videocassette now
contribute one of the most useful and powerful instructional media at the disposal of teachers and trainers, and
can be used in a wide range of teaching/learning situations.
• Videodisc recordings--Television sequences or tailored programmes can also be recorded on videodiscs, although
this is much more expensive than recording on videocassette.
• Video-- has become one of the most popular of all instructional aids. The initial discussion of video, which
follows, is limited to passive video. Interactive video is covered separately.
• Passive Video--Passive video cassettes provide motion, colour, sound, and in many cases, special effects with
advanced graphic and animation techniques. High-quality, commercially produced videocassettes are available
for almost every subject pertaining to aviation training. Consequently, video has replaced many of the projection-
type instructional aids.
• Interactive video--refers broadly to software that responds quickly to certain choices and commands by the
user. A typical system consists of a combination of a compact disk, computer, and video technology.
• A compact disk (CD)--is a format for storing information digitally. A major advantage of a CD is the capability to
store enormous amounts of information.

Mov/Mpg files
Digital video segments, whether imbedded in ppt files or shown separately, can show historical footage or re-created
events, demonstrate processes or events that cannot easily be replicated in labs, or slow down and analyze motion.
However, because students are often used to relaxing or “tuning out” when the TV comes on, it is important to do what you
can to make sure that your use of videos facilitates student learning. Here are some tips:
 Know the video file ahead of time. You can then develop exercises and discussion questions based on the video,
highlight key areas for the class, and know where to stop the video or fast- forward through it. Often you will only
need a short segment to make your point or illustrate a concept.
 Prepare the class for the video. Let them know what they are about to see, how it connects to what they have
been learning, and things to look for when viewing.
 Make the film important to students. Consider preparing a list of questions that let students know they will need
to pay attention to the content of the video. You may want to stop the film at key points (though not too often) to
focus students’ attention on particular issues or situations, and you may want to have a discussion about the video
after it is over. Make sure students know that the material covered in the film will be on tests, or that they will need
to address it in their papers.

Computer-Based Multimedia
• Interactive video is one form of computer-based multimedia. However, in recent years, the terms computer
based training (CBT), or multimedia training, have become very popular. The term multimedia is not new.
Multimedia has been used for decades in some form or other. In a basic form, multimedia--is a combination of
more than one instructional media, but it could include several forms of media-audio, text, graphics, and video (or
film).Multimedia in a more current context generally implies a computer-based media that is shown on personal
computers
• Computer-Mediated Materials

5
 This final category includes all the various materials that require a computer of some sort to enable them
to be displayed, studied or used. Arguably, the computer constitutes the most important single resource ever to
become available to teachers and trainers since the invention of the printing press, and may well have a similar
revolutionary effect on the way education and training are carried out, bringing about the massive shift from
conventional expository teaching to mediated individualised learning that many people are now predicting and
facilitating. Some of the main types of computer-mediated materials are listed below.
• Conventional CBL materials:
These are computer-based learning systems (substitute-tutor packages, simulated-laboratory packages,
computer-managed learning packages, etc) that incorporate alphanumerical and graphical materials, not still or
moving photographic images or sound. Such systems are usually produced on magnetic disk - normally the
3½"'floppy disks' that are now used by virtually all PC's. They come in various formats - "Read Only",
"Read/Write" etc.
• Interactive video materials:
Until the development of multimedia, this was the main way of incorporating video material in computer-
mediated educational or training packages. In such systems, the video and computer elements of the package
are stored on separate media (usually videodisc and magnetic disk), and require two linked machines for their
use - random-access video playback machine and a specially-adapted PC that controls the former.
• Multimedia materials:
Until the early 1990's, the term 'multimedia' was used to describe educational and training packages that
were presented on two or more different media (e.g. textual materials supported by tape cassettes and/or videos,
or integrated systems such as tape-slide).

The Internet
 The internet offers seemingly unlimited potential to encourage learning. However, unless you plan carefully how you will
use the web in your teaching, you may find that your students do little more than surf through your class.
 Using e-mail can help you stay in touch with students and to get discussions going on class topics. You will need to
decide whether student participation will be mandatory. Some instructors require that all students send a specific
number of messages a week, and factor this into the participation grade. Other instructors use e-mail listservs, but do
not require students to participate.
 The Web can be a valuable research tool, helping student’s access resources in other universities or nations, and letting
them learn about other cultures. However, many students fall into the trap of using the Web as their only research tool.
There are several things you can do to avoid this problem:
• Set clear expectations for your students. You can encourage students to access resources on the Web, but
also make it clear that students must have citations from other, more traditional sources such as books and print
journals.
• Point your students in the right direction. Try not simply to send students off to do research on the Web.
Instead, show them in class what you consider to be quality material gleaned from the Web. You can also point
them to selected Web sites as places to start, leading them in the direction of good information.

THE PROPER USE OF INSTRUCTION MATERIALS

By: Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel

You may have selected your instructional materials well. There is no guarantee that the instructional material will be
effectively utilized. It is one thing to select a good instructional materials, it is another thing to use it well.
To ensure effective use of instructional material, Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel, (1972) book of authors on
Instructional Materials advise us to abide by the acronym PPPF.

1. Prepare Yourself—know your lesson objective and what you expect from the class after the session and what
questions to ask, how you will evaluate and why you selected such particular items.
2. Prepare the Students—set high class expectation and learning goals. Give them guide questions to be able to
answer during the discussion motivate them to keep them interested and engage.
3. Prepare the Material—Using media and instructional materials, especially if they mechanical in nature often
require rehearsal and a carefully planned performance. Wise are you if you try the materials ahead of your class to
avoid a fiasco.
4. Follow Up—use instructional materials for the attainment of the lesson objective. The use of the IM’s is not the end
in itself. It is a means to an end, the attainment of a lesson objective. There is a need to follow up to find out if the
objective was attained or not.