Second Quarter General Biology 1
they produce the bulk of the cell’s ATP
Bioenergetics – study of energy changes within
and between living things
Types of Metabolism
Anabolism – A metabolic pathway that
consumes energy to synthesize a complex
molecule from simpler molecules.
Catabolism-A metabolic pathway that
releases energy by breaking down complex
molecules to simpler molecules.
ATP-Adenosine Triphosphate ,Variation of a
nucleotide, Production is at the mitochondria
Phosphate have a large amount of chemical
energy . Whenever a bond holding a
phosphate is broken , a large amount of
usable cellular energy is released.
Releasing Energy – Energy released by
breaking bonds –used to power cells.
Storing Energy- Other chemical reactions can
be used to bond a phosphate to ADP to make
ATP.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION – Breaking down
organic molecules and using an electron
transport chain for the production of ATP
Anaerobic – Inorganic molecules other than
oxygen accept electrons at the electron
transport chains to produce ATP.
Does not require 02
Does not involve the mitochondrion
Aerobic- O2 is the final electron acceptor in
the electron transport chain ultimately
producing ATP
Requires 02
Involves the mitochondrion
Mitochondria – The Powerhouses of cell
-They are present in eukaryotic cells , where
- are remarkably adaptable and can adjust
their location , shape, and number to suit the
needs of the cell.
-are also implicated in aging
Parts of the Mitochondrion
Outer membrane - A phospholipid bilayer that
contains many molecules of a transport called
porin which forms aqueous channels
Inner Membrane – The inner mitochondrial
membrane is the site of ATP production
-also contains significant membrane proteins
for cellular respiration . It is impermeable to
most molecules.
Cristae- These folds greatly increase the
surface of the inner membrane.
*Deficiencies in proteins found on
mitochondrial membranes will lead to diseases
characterized by muscle weakness , heart
problems , epilepsy and often , dementia
Intermembrane space- Narrow region
between the outer and inner membranes that
contain enzymes and proteins . Chemically
similar to the cytosol.
Matrix- Contains many different enzymes as
well as the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.
Types of ATP Generation –
Substrate-level Phosphorylation-ATP is made by
transferring phosphate groups from organic to
ADP.
Oxidative Phosphorylation-Cells use the energy
released by passing electrons in the ETC to
pump H+ ions across a membrane
-Uses the enzyme ATP synthase.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION-Breaking down organic
molecules and using an electron transport
chain for the production of ATP.
-a REDOX process
REDOX- A chemical reaction involving
reduction and oxidation reactions.
Reduction – Gaining of Electrons and H+ Lose
of oxygen
Oxidation- Losing of electrons and H+, Gaining
of oxygen
Gycolysis – A 10 – step biochemical pathway
that occurs in the cytosol and involves the
breakdown of glucose to pyruvate
-also known as EMP pathway ( Embden –
Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway)
-Break down 1 glucose into 2 molecules of
pyruvate
-Produce ATP & NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide)
Preparatory phase
-2 ATP molecules are used
-Results in two 3-Carbon molecules
Pay-Off phase
-2 NADH are produced
-2 H20 are produced
-4 ATP are produced( 2 ATP net gain )
Transition Reaction
*Most of the energy remains stockpiled in the
two molecules of pyruvate from the glycolysis.
-Happens in the matrix
-The carboxyl group is removed and is released
as CO2 molecule
- The intermediate is oxidized and NAD+ picks
up the electrons to form NADH.
-Aside form losing electrons , an oxygen atom
is also added.
-Coenzyme A (CoA) is attached to acetate
forming Acetyl CoA.
Products of Transition Reaction per pyruvate:
1- Carbon Dioxide
1- NADH
1- Acetyl CoA
This Acetyl CoA will then enter the Krebs Cycle
Krebs Cycle- It functions as a metabolic
furnace that oxidizes organic fuel derived from
pyruvate.
-Happens in the matrix
-Also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or TCA
(Tricarboxylic acid Cycle)
-Discovered by Hans Adolf Krebs
-The Acetyl CoA produced from Transition
Reactions will participate in the Krebs Cycle
-The acetyl group will bind with
oxaloacetate(4C) to form citrate (6C) and
CoA will leave
-Isocitrate (6C) will release CO2 and produce
NADH resulting to a-Ketoglutarate (5C) then
Isocitrate will be oxidized
-Succinyl CoA (4C) will produce ATP the result
will be succinate(4C) and CoA will leave again
-From Succinate (4C) will donate two H+ to
FAD to form FADH
-Fumarate (4c) will be transformed to Malate
(4C)
-Succinate will be oxidized
Production of Krebs cycle per Acetyl CoA:
2 CO2
3 NADH
1 ATP
1 FADH2
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Electron Transport Chain ( Oxidative
Phosphorylation)- is a collection of molecules
embedded on the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells.
*Cristae greatly increase the surface area of
the inner membrane .
Complex I –NADH dehydrogenase
-Receives e- and protons (H+) from NADH
-The electrons are transported to ubiquinone
-H+ are released to the IMS
Ubiquinone (Q)-Coenzyme q
-mobile lipid – soluble molecule
-Receives e- from Complex I and Complex II
-Transports e- to Complex III
Complex II- Succinate Dehydrogenase
-receives e- from FADH2
-No H+ are transported to the IMS
Complex III – Cytochrome c reductase /
Cytochrome bc1 complex
-receieves e- from Q
-Transports H+ to the IMs
Cytochrome C
-Shuttles e- to Complex IV one by one
Complex IV- Cytochrome c oxidase /
cytochrome aa3 complex
-receives e- from cyt c one by one
-transports some H+ to IMS
*Oxygen is the Final electron acceptor
*since H+ has been transported to IMS this
creates a H+ concentration gradient
Chemiosmosis will take place
ATP synthase - binds ADP with Pi to form ATP
through oxphos
-ATP molecules formed are found in the matrix
Products of ETC:
Theoretically,
1 NADH=3ATP
1 FADH2 = 2 ATP
Adjusted ratio cause of leaky complexes,
1 NADH = 2.5 ATP
1FADH2= 1.5 ATP
NADH Problem because inner membrane is not
impermeable to most molecules 2 NADH
formed in the glycolysis will follow this ratio ,
1 NADH= 1.5 ATP
Problem in Aerobic Cell respiration
- Reactive Oxygen Species , this is a free
radical cell that takes a e- molecule
from a healthy cell creating oxidative
stress, and antioxidants can turn these
free radical cell into a healthy cell by
giving extra e- to it.
- Cyanide , this stops Complex IV from
working
- Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin
and oxygen can no longer be carried to
the ETC
- 2,4- dinitrophenol need H+ in the IMS
since H+ is insufficient it cannot create a
concentration gradient and no
chemiosmosis will occur therefore no
ATP will be produced
Anaerobic Respiration – A catabolic
pathway for organic molecules , using
oxygen as the final acceptor in an electron
transport chain and ultimately producing
ATP
-but in anaerobic respiration inorganic
molecules other tan oxygen accept
electrons the downhill of the end of
electron transport chains
EX. Acidophiles
Fermentation
-It is a way of harvesting chemical energy
without using either oxygen or any electron
transport chain.
Lactic Acid Fermentation –After glycolysis ,
pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to
form lactate as an end product no CO2 will
be released.
Alcohol Fermentation – After , pyruvate is
reduced by receiving H+ and it releases
CO2 resulting in acetaldehyde. Then
reduced by NADH to form ethanol.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- An anabolic , carbon
dioxide (CO2) – requiring process that uses
light energy (photons) and water (H2O) to
produce organic macromolecules
(glucose).
-takes place in the chloroplast
-Although all cells in the green parts of a
plant have chloroplasts , the majority of
those are found in specially adapted
structures called leaves.
Parts of a leaf
Stoma – pore like openings on the openings
on the underside of the leaf , each stoma
has two guard cells which control its
opening and closing . ,allows carbon
dioxide , oxygen and water diffuse into and
out of the leaf.
-Plants keep them open just enough to
allow photosynthesis to take place but not
so much that they lose excessive amount of
water.
-Maybe closed in the bright sunlight under
hot, dry conditions in which water
conservation is a matter
Palisade mesophyll-Column- shaped cells
containing chloroplasts
-most photosynthesis takes place here.
Chloroplasts – found in plants and other
photosynthetic organism
-contains the light absorbing pigment
named chlorophyll
Parts of a chloroplasts
Stroma – semi gel like fluid containing the
chloroplast DNA and ribosomes
Thylakoid lumen – space inside the
thylakoid
Thylakoid- flattened , interconnected sacs
surrounded by the stroma.
Granum- A stack of thylakoids
Chlorophyll-located in the thylakoid
membranes
-plants are green because the green
wavelength is reflected by chlorophyll not
absorbed.
-blue and red are absorbed
-have Mg+ in the center
 -pigments harvest energy ( photons ) by
absorbing certain wavelengths of visible
light.
Carotenoids – molecules that usually show
red, orange ,yellow pigments
Anthocyanins -molecules that provides the
red , blue , or many leaves , fruits and
vegetables.
*called accessory pigment
During fall chlorophyll is greatly reduced
revealing other pigments.
Light Reaction or Light – Dependent Reaction –
happens in the thylakoid membrane
Photosystem- a thylakoid membrane protein
complex comprised of light-harvesting
pigments.
Photosystem II-consists of chlorophyll molecules
known as P680
-contains an oxygen evolving complex (OEC)
Photosystem I –consists of chlorophyll
molecules known as P700
-It is associated with ferredoxin(Fd) and
ferredoxin-NADP reductase(FNR).
Electron Carriers
Pq= plastoquinone(H+pump)
Cyt=cytochrome complex (H+pump)
Pc= plastocyanin
Fd=Ferredoxin
FNR=Ferredoxin NADP reductase
FNR- Catalyzes the transfer of 2 electrons from
Fd to NADP+
-This results in taking an H+ from the stroma.
Light Reaction
1.Chlorophyll photoactivation – Capture of
light energy by chlorophyll that results in the
release of energized electrons
2.Photolysis of water- splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen ions , electrons , and
oxygen gas in the presence of excited
chlorophyll . this happens in the OEC.
3.Linear Electron Flow (electron transport )-
Electrons from PSII are shuttled to different
proteins (Pq,Cyt, and Pc) so that they can
reach PS I
-H+ is produced in the lumen as this proceeds.
4. Reduction of NADP+ to NADPH- electron
transport drives the reduction of NADP+ to
NADPH via the enzyme FNR.
5. Photophosphorylation-transfer of light
energy absorbed by chlorophyll to molecules
of ATP.
* Goal: TO produce energy from solar power
(photons in the form of ATP and NADPH.
Calvin Cycle or Calvin – Benson Cycle or Light
Independent Reaction or Carbon Fixation or C3
fixation- occurs in the stroma
- Uses ATP and NADPH from light reaction.
- Uses CO2
Acronyms used:
C= Carbon
RuBP= ribulose bisphosphate
Rubisco = RuBP carboxylase – oxygenase
PGA= phosphoglycerate
G3P = glyceraldehyde 3 – phosphate
Carbon fixation-RuBP is fixed with CO2 . This is
catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco .
-The product will be a 6 carbon that will split
into 2 molecules of PGA with 3C each.
Reduction- After phosphorylation , NADPH
donates 2 electrons to the molecule
converting it to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(G3P)
What has happened so far?
• Carbon Fixation joined 1 CO2 (1C) and 1
RuBP (5C) to produce 2 PGA (3C each).
• Reduction phosphorylated and reduced the
2 PGA (3C each) to 2 G3P (3C each).
• The ADP and NADP+ produced during
reduction will participate in the light reactions.
Calvin Cycle with 6 CO2’s
• Carbon Fixation will join 6 CO2 and 6 RuBP
(5C each) to produce 12 PGA (3C each = 36C
in all PGA products).
• Reduction will phosphorylate and reduce the
12 PGA to 12 G3P (3C each = 36C in all G3P
products).
Regeneration
From the 12 G3P’s produced, 1/6 (2 G3P’s = 3c
each) will be used to form glucose (6C).
The remaining 5/6 (10 G3P’s = 3C each = 30C
total), will be rearranged to form 6 RuBP’s (5C
each = 30C total).
Restarting the cycle
The 6 RuBP’s will again be fixed to the 6 CO2
molecules entering the Calvin cycle
The Cell Cycle
Chromosome-packaged and organized
structures containing the DNA of a living
organism
Chromatin-The dispersed DNA with its
associated proteins found in a chromosome
Centrosome- Aids in cell division
-Usually found only in animal cells
-Made of centrioles (microtubules)
Phases of the Cell Cycle
Interphase – The nucleolus and the nuclear
envelope are distinct and the chromosomes
are in the form of threadlike chromatin.
G1: Period of cell growth (G = gap); ribosomes
are duplicated
S: DNA replication (S = synthesis); new copies of
DNA are synthesized
G2: DNA has been replicated; cell is preparing
for mitosis. Organelles are being duplicated.
M-Phase
Mitosis -somatic cells
Meiosis- sex cells
Fertilization
• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a
zygote.
• A zygote is a fertilized egg
Meiosis
Cell division that reduces the chromosome
number by ½
Prophase I
•Longest and most complex phase of meiosis
(90%).
•Chromosomes condense.
•Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes
come together to form a tetrad.
Homologous Chromosomes
•Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal)
that are similar in shape and size.
•Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes
controlling the same inherited traits.
Crossing Over
•Crossing over: segments of nonsister
chromatids break and reattach to the other
chromatid.
• Crossing over (variation) occurs between
nonsister chromatids at the chiasma.
• Chiasma (plural: chiasmata) are the sites of
crossing over.
Metaphase I
•Shortest phase
•Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
•INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles
is random.
2. Variation
Anaphase I
•Homologous chromosomes separate and
move towards the poles.
•Sister chromatids remain attached at their
centromeres.
Telophase I
• Each pole now has haploid set of
chromosomes (23 duplicated, n = 23)
• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter
cells are formed
After Meiosis I (23 duplicated chromosomes
per cell)
Meiosis II
•No interphase II (or very short - no more DNA
replication)
•Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis
After Meiosis II (23 unduplicated chromosomes
per daughter cell)
In terms of Independent Assortment, how
many different combinations of sperm could a
human male produce?
•Formula: 2^n •Human chromosomes: 2n =
46 n = 23
•2^23 = ~8 million combinations
Aneuploidy
Individuals have one extra or fewer
chromosome
•(2n + 1 or 2n - 1)
•Major cause of human reproductive failure
•Most human miscarriages are aneuploids
•Monosomy (2n – 1) •Trisomy (2n + 1)
•Tetrasomy (2n + 2)•Turner Syndrome (X0)
•Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) •Metafemale
(XXX) •Jacobs Syndrome (XYY)
Cancer
•Reproduce in defiance to normal restraints to
cell growth and division
•Invade and colonize territories normally
reserved for other cells
Tumors
•Benign •Malignant • metastatic
Cancer Causes •Mistakes in mitosis •Defects in
cell cycle checkpoint mechanisms •Defects in
DNA replication •Defects in DNA repair
•Abnormal chromosome number
Cancer cells invade and colonize territories
normally reserved for other cells.