Radiation Detection and

Measurement
Maria Christina P. – Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Nuklir
Badan Tenaga Nuklir Nasional
 Subjects/Outline
I. Introduction
II. Principles of Radiation Detection &
Measurement
III. Types of Radiation Detectors
IV. Radiation Detection & Protection
Devices
V. Summary
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 Basic competencies (Goals)
After participating in this workshop participants
will have the competence to mention and
describe the usefulness of radiation measuring
instruments

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1. Introduction
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 Background:
• Since ionizing radiation has many applications,
such as tracer, radiation therapy,
and many kinds of industrial testing;
• And in the other way, ionizing radiation is
odorless, invisible and intangible;
• Even farther nuclear radiation has also
a potential hazard;
• We need a way to quantity and measure
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how much radiation is being used.
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 History of Detection Radiation 1
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, 1895, produced and detected
electromagnetic radiation (in a cathode-ray tube) in a
wavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen rays

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 History of Detection Radiation 2
By using Electroscopes, Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie
Curie, 1898, invented the radiation phenomena in
Uranium, Polonium and Radium.

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 History of Detection Radiation 3
Electroscopes (in the quartz fiber radiation dosimeter) were used
by Victor Hess in the discovery of cosmic rays (1911 and 1913)).

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 History of Detection Radiation 4
In 1927, C.T.R. Wilson, detected the tracks phenomena in
subatomic particles such as alpha, beta, and muon, using
a Cloud Chamber.

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 History of Detection Radiation 5
H. Geiger and W. Mu¨ller
Discover, The Geiger - Muller counter, 1928.
 What’s your opinion about the
histories?

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 Radiation

detector Supporting
Devices

Containing material, when

Electronic devices serves to
interacting with radiation,
change the detector response into
converts radiant energy
an information that can be
into another form of
observed by the human senses
energy that is more easily
or can be further processed into
observable
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 serve to measure radiation

What is measured?
 Radiation Quantity (Flux)
 Radiation Energy
 Intensity (Dose Rate)

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 Radiation Quantity, Radiation Flux (Fluence):

The amount of radiation per unit time per unit area, at a point of
measurement

A 
Φ =
4π  r 2

Point of measurement
Radiation
Source

A = activity,  =density, r = distance

15 r
Radiation Energy and Radiation Dose
Radiation Energy (E): 'Power or Potential' of any radiation
emitted by the radiation source, (keV, MeV)

Radiation Dose (D) : the amount of radiation present in the

radiation field or the amount of radiant energy that absorbed or
received by the material (Gray, J/Kg, rad); Dose rate = D/time

𝐷=E
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 Use of Radiation Measurement
Devices
 Radiation Measurement Devices for Radiation
Protection; measure the intensity or dose of
radiation for safety purposes

 Counting System;
measure the quantity or spectrum of radiative
energy for application or research purposes
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 Radiation Detection Mechanisms

Mechanism Example of Detector

Ionization Process GM
Scintillation Process NaI(Tl)
Thermolumination Process TLD
Chemical reaction Film Badge
Heating Effect Calorimeter
Biological Changes Biological Dosimeter

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 Types of Radiation Detectors

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The three types of detectors:
a) Gas-filled Detectors;
b) Scintillation Detectors;
c) Semiconductor Detectors.

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 Gas-filled Detector
Anode

Cathode (Chamber)
Gas
Window

Batterry and Meter

 Gas-filled Detector
When there is radiation hit the gas molecules, the gas will be
ionized

- - -
+ + + Display
R
-
HV
+

The resulting electron signal will be processed by an electronic system which is equivalent to the amount of
22 radiation that interacts with the gas in the ionization chamber
Neutral gas molecule
1 2

3 4
Slide 24 Expl.
• This slide show Charge flow and
Measuring current of the electron flow.
• A related approach is to measure the
flow of the charges that ionizing
radiation produces in a gas-filled
detector. The ions produced by the
radiation are charged particles.
• The negative particle is either a free
electron or an oxygen or nitrogen
molecule that has absorbed a free
electron. The positive particle is a
molecule of gas that has lost an
electron.
• As shown in a cross section in the slide, the potential difference
between them is maintained by a battery or by a electric potential
• The positive and negative ions produced in the gas by the radiation
move in opposite directions, positive ions toward the cathode and
negative ions toward the anode.
• This movement of ions (charges) is an electric current, which can be
detected by a sensitive meter. The current between the electrodes is
equal to the amount of incoming radiation.
• If we do not apply high voltage, every ionization process will end
with recombination, but by applying HV it will get graph as follows

• called by Characteristics of the major regions of applied

voltage across a gas-filled detector
• there are 5 major regions on a gas-filled detector
 1 2 3 4 5
Recomb Ionization Geiger-Muller
ination Proportional Region
Region
Region
Region

Current as a function of applied voltage in a gas detector. The regions of

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interest include the ionization, proportional, and Geiger–Müller regions.
Slide 27 explanation
• Region 1 : When the voltage between the electrodes is
relatively low, the field within the gas is weak and many of the
ions simply recombine, leaving only a small fraction to reach
the electrodes.
• Region 2 : At somewhat higher voltages, referred to as the
ionization region. A further small increase in the voltage does
not increase the current, once the voltage is sufficient to collect
100% of the ions formed. In this region, the current is relatively
independent of small increases in voltage. It is, however, affected
by the type of radiation.
• Region 3: With further increase in voltage, the detector passes
into the next region of operation (Slide 27). In this so-called
proportional region, a new phenomenon is observed—gas
amplification (Slide 31). Accelerated more intensely toward the
positive electrode at this higher voltage, the electrons produced
by the radiation (called primary particles) travel so rapidly that
they themselves are able to ionize some of the previously
neutral gas molecules.
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2
• Region 4: For detectors operating at still higher voltages, above
the proportional region, the pulse of current is larger but
becomes independent of the number of ions produced by the
initial event. As the voltage is increased, a point is reached at
which most of the gas within the detector is massively involved in
multiple, successive ionizations (Slide 33).
• Once all the gas is involved,
no greater gas amplification
is possible. This is the
so-called Geiger
(or Geiger–Müller) region.
• Region 5: Voltages above the Geiger region are not used,
because even in the absence of the radiation the counter is
designed to detect, there is a spontaneous and continuous
ionization of gas molecules that stops only when the voltage is
lowered.
 Gas-filled Detector Characteristics
• The construction is very simple
• Low efficiency

Type of Gas-filled Detector:

 Ionization Detector
 Proportional Detector
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 Geiger Mueller Detector (GM)
 Use of Detectors For Some
Types of Radiation
Detector Types of Application
Radiation
Ionization Alpha, Beta, X-rays, For Alpha used very thin "End
Chamber Gamma Rays Window"

Alpha, Beta, X-rays, For Alpha used very thin "End

Proportional Gamma Rays, Window"
Neutron Detector Neutron filled with gas BF3
gas or He gas
Geiger Mueller Alpha, Beta, X-rays,
Gamma Rays For Alpha used very thin "End
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Window"
 Scintillation Detectors
When there is radiation hit the scintilator, a number of some light
photons are generated. Then the light photons will be converted
into electronic signals by a photomultiplier tube.

Scintilator
photomultiplier

Display

Visible photon
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 Scintillator

Many kind Scintilators NaITl

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 Scintillation Process

When a scintilation material

(scintilator) such as NaITl
crystal was iradiated a
number of some light
photons are generated.

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 Photomultiplier Construction
100 V 300 V
Photocatode 500 V

Dynode Dynode
Anode
Electron

Visible Photon Electrical Pulse

Dynode Dynode

200 V 400 V

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Scintillation Detectors Characteristics
High efficiency, very fast response & high sensitivity.
Contraction is more complicated than Gas-filled
Detector
Type of Scintilation Detector:
NaI (Tl) for gamma radiation
LiI (Eu) for neutron radiation
Liquid for alpha and low activity beta
Plastic for X-ray radiation
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Applications Scintillation Detectors

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 Components of a standard
nuclear medicine imaging
system.

Scanning table

Image Processing

43 Image Aquisition
 The principle of the detector is similar to the gas field
detector, but the medium is solid state

Tipe p
+ +
+

- - -
R

Tipe n Display

+ -

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 Semiconductor Detectors
Characteristics

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 Semiconductor Detectors
Characteristics
• High resolution
• Construction is complicated and easily damaged

Types of Semiconductor Detectors:

• HPGe for gamma radiation
• SiLi for X-ray radiation
• Surface barrier for alpha / beta

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 4. Radiation Detection & Protection
Devices
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 Radiation Detection & Protection
Devices may consist of:
Personal Dosimeter
Area Monitor
Contamination Monitor

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 Personal Dosimeter
The usefulness of these devices is to "record" the
radiation dose that has hit an accumulated
radiation worker

Types:  Pocket Dosimeter (Pendose)

 Film Badge
 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
 Direct Reading Dosimeter
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 Pocket Dosimeter (Pendose)
works like an electroscope and gas filled detector

Fully Charged
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 Pocket Dosimeter (Pendose)

Partially Discharged

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Fully Discharged
 Pocket Dosimeter (Pendose)

Gas Jarum
Quartz

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 Pocket Dosimeter (Pendose)

Gas Jarum
Quartz

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 Film Badge Personal Dosimeter
with a light-sensitive
colloid used in film-
based photography.

Most commonly, in
silver-gelatin
photography, it
consists of silver
halide (bromide)
crystals dispersed in
gelatin.
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Film Badge ( Photographic Emulsion Principal)
Film
New Film

post processing

Film

Developer Solution

Radiation After contact with radiation

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 Film Badge

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Curve of Darkness Level of Film as funtion of radiation dose
Darkness
level

Saturation region

0,1 mSv Radiation Dose

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Must be changed every 1 month due to fogging over time
 Filters at Film Badge Holder
1. Without filter
2. Plastic (0.5 mm)
3. Plastic (1.5 mm)
4. Plastic (3 mm)
5. Alumunium (0.6 mm)
6. Copper (0.3 mm)
7. Sn (0.8 mm) + Pb (0.4 mm)
8. Cd (0.8 mm) + Pb (0.4 mm)
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Thermoluminescent Detectors (TLDs)
• Crystalline materials that emit light when exposed to energy (in
the form of light, heat, radiation, etc.) are called luminescent.
• Crystalline materials that emit light when exposed to heat are
called thermoluminescent.

• This is the most commonly used dosimeter. To read absorbed

radiation, the TLD is heated and visible light is released from
the crystal in proportion to absorbed radiation.

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 Thermoluminescent mechanism

Electrons and positively charged

crystal
Radiation strike holes are released
crystal then recombine when
it’s heated. causing
emission of light
crystal returns photons that can be
to stable state measured by a
detector
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 Thermoluminescent dosimeters

TLD can be worn as a pin

TLD can be worn as a ring

TLD can be worn as a wrist watch
 Personal Dosimeter Characteristics
No. Dosimeter Characteristics

Can be read directly

Low accuracy
1. Pendose
Accumulation is not good because of the leakage current
Can measure the dose of x-rays and gamma radiation

Dosage can be re-read

Can be used as original documentation
2. Film Badge Affected by the environment (heat and humidity)
Can measure the dose of beta radiation, x-rays, gamma, and neutrons
Dose readings require processing and aids (densitometer)

Reusable
High accuracy
3. TLD Not Affected by the environment (heat and humidity)
Can measure the dose of x-rays, gamma, and neutrons
A dose reading requires a tool (TLD Reader)
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 Monitor Area
Measure the rate of exposure or the rate of radiation
dose in the workplace directly

Permanent (fixed)
Portable → Surveymeter

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 Surveymeter

Types :
Surveymeter  and sinar-X
Surveymeter  and 
Surveymeter 
Surveymeter neutron
Surveymeter multifunction

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 Surveymeter

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 Steps of using surveymeter
Check the calibration certificate; Calibration date and
Calibration factor
Check Battery
Learn the reading display / scale
Use the appropriate energy surveymeter and activity range

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 Calibration Factor
A value comparing the actual dose rate (Ds)
and the dose rate indicated by the measuring
device (Du).

Ds
Fk =
Du
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 Conversion Factor
 It’s used on Neutron, Alpha, or Beta surveymeter;
 It is a multiplier factor for obtaining an equivalent dose
rate unit or a unit of surface contamination level
 The unit of conversion factor for Neutron surveillance
is mSv / hr / cpm
 The unit of conversion factor for monitor of
contamination of Alpha, Beta and Gamma is
Bq /cm2 / cpm

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 Different Types of surveymeter scale

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 Different Types of surveymeter designation

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 Summary
• Ionizing radiation has two distinctive properties, that can
not be felt directly by human senses and some types of
radiation can penetrate various materials;
• Measuring instruments for radiation protection activities
should be able to show the intensity or dose of radiation;
• Measuring tool for application / research should be able to
show the value of quantity and radiation energy

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 Summary
• There are four types of detectors that are often used to
measure radiation, ie gas field detectors, synthesis
detectors, semiconductor detectors, and film detectors
• Measurements for radiation protection: individual
dosimeter, area monitor and contamination monitor

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THANK YOU