11/19/2018

GEO-E1030
Structural Design of Roads
Mechanics for Flexible Pavements

Mineral Based Materials Research Group

Department of Civil Engineering

Pavement Mechanics: Flexible

• Objective: Predict stresses, strains, and deformations

induced by traffic loads and environmental influences.

• Why?

Stresses/strains/deformations → Distress
Tension / relative deformation / deformation → Damage

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Classical M-E Thickness Design

Failure Criteria: MEPDG (NCHRP)
Irrecoverable/ Recoverable
permanent
d = deflection
 = deformation


et = tensile strain
Bottom-up fatigue


Rutting of subgrade ec = compressive
strain

Structural design and analysis

kN Motorway/street traffic,
congestions = traffic speed Asphalt Concrete (AC) is
˚C km/h viscoelastic material:

h1 E1, ν1 Modulus = f (e, T )

h2 E2, ν 2
˚C, MPa
MECHANICAL MODEL E3, ν 3

z
Stiffness
s, e, d
Asphalt
temperature
− k2
N f = k1e t E − k3 → Design Life
Yearly, seasonal, diurnal and
hourly variation

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Pellinen, T.K., Christensen, D.W., Rowe, G.M. and Sharrock, M. (2004)

Fatigue Transfer Functions-How do they Compare? Journal of Transportation Research Board,
Transportation Research Record, 1996, pp.77-87.

Wheel Load (P) and Contact Area (A)

80 kN/4 wheels = 20 kN
or s=P/A → q=P/A
80 kN/2 wheels = 40 kN
q = stress/pressure
P = force
A = area

A= P
q

A = a 2
P
a=
q

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Tire pressure (q)

1 lb = 0,45 kg
1 psi = 6,895 kPa

Passenger cars:
220 to 241 kPa
32 to 35 psi

Trucks:
550 to 830 kPa
80 to 120 psi

Wheel load

For flexible pavements, due to

concentrated stress distribution
underneath the wheel, we only
need to analyze half of the axle
load in the transverse direction.
However, we need to consider
Rigid Flexible both wheels and tandem/tridem
axles in the longitudinal direction

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Mechanics Tools

Analytical solutions
• Limited to simple geometries, material behavior, loadings
• Elasticity solutions available for:
- 1 layer (homogenous) –Boussinesq (1885) Wheel load on a thin pavement
- 2 layer – Burmister (1943) Plate bearing test on a subgrade
- 3 layer – Burmister (1945), Jones (1963) Solutions by Charts & axis of
symmetry

Numerical methods
• Capable of more complex geometries, material behavior, loadings
• Available methods:
- Multilayer elastic theory (MLET)
- Finite element analysis (linear/nonlinear)

Assumptions
Homogeneous and isotropic

• Homogeneous material properties

• Isotropic layers
• Finite layer thickness
• Layers are infinite in lateral directions
• Full friction between layers
• No surface shearing forces
• Solutions characterized by E, 

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Axisymmetric Stress System (2D)

Variations in radial,
depth directions only
Yoder and Witczak, 1974

Boussinesq Solution for Circular Loaded Area on

Half-Space (for  = 0.5)

Similar
charts for:

σr
σt
τrz
δ
Huang, 1993

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Boussinesq Solution for Circular Loaded Area on

Half-Space (for  = 0.5)

z/a = 10/5 = 2
r/a = 0

q = 50 psi
2a = 10 in
2a

Z = 10 in

sz = 0.28*50 = 14 psi

Superposition for Multiple Wheels

(sz)A = (0.007 + 0.28)*(50 psi)

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Superposition of Horizontal Stresses Must

Be on Same Plane

Yoder and Witczak, 1974

Strains

εz =
1
s z − (s r + s t )
E

εr =
1
s r − (s t + s z )
E

εt =
1
s t − (s z + s r )
E

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Influence of Tire Pressure

1 kip = 1000 lb

~18 kN

~350 kN

Yoder and Witczak, 1974

Influence of Tire Pressure: Example 1

1 psi = 6,895 kPa
1 lb = 0,45 kg
kip = 1000 lb
P = 80 kip P = 80 kip
q = 200 psi q = 100 psi
2a = 5.0 in 2a = 31.9 in
2a
2a

Higher stresses need

z higher quality material

100 60 psi
psi

35 psi 35 psi

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Influence of Tire Pressure: Example 2

P = 4 kip P = 80 kip
q = 100 psi q = 100 psi
2a = 7.1 in 2a = 31.9 in
2a 2a

Total thickness
z can be reduced

10 psi 60 psi

0 psi 35 psi

Influence of Multiple Wheel Loads

~90 kN

~180 kN

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Two-Layer Solution (Burmister)

Two-Layer Solution  = 0.5, h1/a = 1

Figure 2-18 in
the book

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Two-Layer Solution  = 0.5

Vertical Interface Stress (Centerline) (Huang, 1993)

Two-Layer Solution  = 0.5

Surface Centerline Deflection (Huang, 1993)

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NCAT Test Track

The strain gauges were positioned to record both longitudinal and transverse strain, and were spaced
to capture the natural wheel wander of the trucks as they pass over the array.
Measurements made by the instrumentation aid in establishing a strong link between mechanistic
response and observed distress such as rutting and pavement cracking.

NCAT Test Track

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GEO-E1030
Structural Design of Roads
Material modules

Mineral Based Materials Research Group

Department of Civil Engineering

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Recap: Definitions & Terminology

(+) or (-) ?
Mechanics (+) = tension
k Soil mechanics (+) = compression

s=F/A e = L /L
E
s = stress e = strain (unitless)
F = force L = change of length
A = original area L = original length

Recap: Principal stresses

z
Cartesian coordinate
system
y
Principal stresses are 3 orthogonal stress
x axes directed perpendicular to principal
planes upon which no shear stresses exist.
Principal planes
s1 = major principal stress
s3 s2 = intermediate principal stress
s3 = minor principal stress

s2
Octahedral plane
s1

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Modulus (stiffness) and strength

Stress Ultimate Stress = STRENGTH

Gradient = MODULUS

Service conditions
Strain
In general, modulus is not the same as stiffness. Modulus is a property of the constituent
material; stiffness is a property of a structure. Stiffness of the solid body is dependent on
the material and the shape and boundary conditions.

Failure Mechanisms
STRAIN
HARDENING
Stress

ELASTIC-PLASTIC → Yielding
syield
Yield function
STRAIN differentiates
between elastic and
SOFTENING plastic behavior

BRITTLE → Fracture
Strain

Yield is slip between atoms, or slip of shear

along crystalline planes

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Material Models
Linear elasticity
- Asphalt
- Stabilized layers
- Unbound layers
Linear visco-elasticity
- Asphalt
Nonlinear (all materials, to some extent)
- Nonlinear elasticity
- Plasticity
- Nonlinear visco-elasticity
- Visco-plasticity

Elastic analysis

Constitutive material models:

s Young’s modulus
s xx = e vol + 2e xx
s
s xy = 2e xy E E=
e
E
= e
(1 +  )(1 − 2 )
E
 =G= el
2(1 +  ) Poisson’s ratio

ea el
v=−
Elastic material parameters: ea
Elastic modulus = Young’s modulus, E el
Poisson’s ratio, ν

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Linear Viscoelasticity
Asphalt concrete

VISCOELASTIC → TIME and TEMPERATURE dependent

Simple Viscous Mechanical Models

s = Ee s = e
de
s =
dt

(Huang, 1993)

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Simple Viscous Mechanical Models

For the generalized Viscoelastic model:

(under constant stress σ)

s  t  n s   t 
e=  1 + + 1 − exp  −  
E0  T0  i =1 Ei   Ti  

Ti = i / Ei

(Huang, 1993)

Silly Putty – Visco-elastic material

• Stress acts only short time, (a) (b)

material behaves like a solid
– Bouncing back when dropped
• When stressed for several hours
(c) it flows out like a liquid

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UsE6
x2NYec4

Most polymers exhibit both elastic and

viscous behavior to external forces

Macosko, 1994

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Moving Load
Haversine Loading

 t 
L(t ) = q sin 2  + 
2 d 

12a
d
s
d = duration of load
q = tire pressure
a = tire radius
s = vehicle speed

(Huang, 1993)

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Moving Load

1 e (t )
D (t ) = =
E (t ) s

• Static: w = 0.455 in.

w = pavement deflection
• Moving: w = 0.156 in.

Must we always perform

viscoelastic analyses?

No, provided we use EAC for

appropriate loading rate and
temperature.

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Basic Loading Modes

Indirect Tension Direct Uniaxial Triaxial

(IDT) tension Compression Compression

Flexural Bending Torsion (shear) Direct Shear

Basic Failure Modes

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Indirect Tensile Strength Test

How do we get tensile failure by compressing a specimen?

Shear Strength Test

How do we get shear failure by compressing a specimen?

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Resilient Modulus, Mr
unbound materials

= Elastic

sd sd = deviatoric stress
Resilient Modulus MR =
er er = resilient strain

Triaxial Resilient Modulus Test

Test variables:
Moisture content
Soil density

Triaxial cell w/ closed loop load

Haversine load form (0.1, 0.9 sec)
Tested over a range of loads

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Non-linear Material Behavior:

Coarse-Grained Soils
• Stress stiffening material behavior
• Modulus is stress dependent (non-linear)
• Bulk stress q = s1 + s2 + s3
• K1, K2 are material constants
– K1 > 0
– K2 > 0 (stress-stiffening)

E = K1q K2 (psi)

Resilient Modulus MR MR =
P ( + 0.27)
for asphalt t H

t = thickness
• Cylindrical specimens v = Poisson’s ratio
• Indirect tensile test mode
(diametral) P
• Applied stress  10% of tensile
strength
• Haversine (cyclic) load form ΔH
– 0.1s loading and 0.9s rest
period
• Temperature 5, 20, 40˚C

(Mamlouk and Zaniewski, 1999)

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Resilient Modulus MR
for asphalt

Dynamic (Complex) Modulus |E*|

for asphalt
s0
• Cylindrical specimens | E* |=
• Vertical (axial) loading mode e0
in stress control
• Applied load  resilient strain  = ti
less than 100 micro-strains
• Sinusoidal load form
• Parameters: modulus |E*|
and phase angle 

Is in use in the MEPDG (M-E Pavement Design Guide)

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Dynamic (Complex) Modulus |E*|

• Temperature, °C
◼ -10, 4.4, 21.1, 37.8, 54.4
• Frequency, Hz
◼ 25,10, 5, 1, 0.5, 0.1

Dynamic modulus |E*|

Resilient modulus

Pellinen, T.K., Christensen, D.W., Rowe, G.M. and Sharrock, M. (2004)

Fatigue Transfer Functions-How do they Compare? Journal of Transportation Research Board,
Transportation Research Record, 1996, pp.77-87.

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California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

• Historical soil shearing resistance test to evaluate
soil bearing capacity
– Measures soil resistance to piston penetration
– Provides relative bearing value of base and
subgrade materials
• Index test, relative to standard
– Standard is high quality crushed stone

Actual Load
CBR = 100
Standard Load

AASHTO Design Guide & MEPDG are using Resilient modulus test instead of CBR test

Summary: Material Characterization for

analytical pavement design

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Stiffness and strength values

Log scale

GEO-E1030
Structural Design of Roads
Traffic loading

Mineral Based Materials Research Group

Department of Civil Engineering

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Traffic Load and Frequency

Primary input to design procedure

• Issues:
– Traffic volume Three Procedures for
• Current considering traffic effects
• Future (traffic growth) for pavement design
– Vehicle characteristics
• Weight ✓ Fixed Traffic Procedure
• Wheel and axle ✓ Fixed Vehicle Procedure
configuration
• Frequency of occurrence ✓ Variable Traffic and Vehicle
– Others (i.e. Lateral wander) Procedure

Fixed traffic
Thickness design governed by single wheel
load
• Multiple wheels converted to equivalent single
wheel (ESWL)
Number of traffic repetitions is not a variable
Historical usage:
• Airport pavements
• Highway pavements w/ heavy wheel loads but light
volume
Method rarely used today

ACN is a number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft ACN = Aircraft Classification
on the runway pavement for a specified standard subgrade Number is based on single wheel
category, using a method defined by the International Civil load, gear configuration and tire
Aviation Organization (ICAO). pressure.

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Fixed Vehicle

Thickness design governed by number of traffic repetitions

Vehicle type/load is not a variable
• 80 kN (18 kip) single axle load to even 100 kN (in Finland)
• Multiple axles converted to equivalent single axle
Most common current design procedure

Variable Traffic and Vehicle

Traffic volume considered individually for each vehicle type

• Vehicle types organized into groups
• “Load Spectrum”--frequency distribution for vehicle groups
Stresses, strains, deflections calculated separately for each
vehicle group
Procedure is suited to mechanistic design methods
Is the basis for US national highway pavement design guide
NCHRP MEPDG

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Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) US

http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/tri/vehicle_classification_using_fhwa_13category_scheme.htm

Equivalent Axle Load Factor

Basic Concept: Determine number of vehicle passes for a given
axle configuration that will cause the same damage as one pass of
a “standard” axle configuration

Ns = EALF * Nt

• Ns = number of standard single axle load applications (usually 80-100 kN)

• Nt = number of tandem axle load applications (e.g.)
• EALF = Equivalent Axle Load factor

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Recall AASHO Road Test (Empirical)

• Full-Scale test track (Late 1950’s)
• Present Serviceability Index (PSI) concept was developed
• PSIflexible = f(SV, RD, C, P) SV = slope variable, RD = rutting, C =
cracking P = patching)
• Scale of 5.0 to 0.0
• Subjective raters and measured pavement performance
correlated by statisticians

AASHO EALF’s (Empirical)

• Unique EALF’s for Flexible and Rigid
pavements based on
– Initial Serviceability Level (Pi)
– Terminal Serviceability Level (Pt)
– Structural Number SN (capacity) for flexible
pavements
– Pavement thickness D for rigid pavements

# of 18-kip single axle loads to

create a certain drop in PSI (Pi - Pt)
EALF =
# of “x” kip “y” axle loads to create
the same drop in PSI (Pi - Pt)

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Huang: Tables 6.4 (Flexible) after

Asphalt Institute
Huang: Tables 6.7 (Rigid) after
AASHTO 1986

Asphalt Institute EALF’s

Relatively Insensitive to Pt and
SN

Pt = 2.5 and SN = 5.0

Fundamental EALF’s
• In mechanistic design, EALFs can be determined based on
failure criteria for fatigue and rutting using Multilayered Elastic
Theory:
– Asphalt layer bottom-up fatigue (more common)
– Subgrade rutting

• “4th Power Law”

• Jack Deacon - UCB 1969
4
Wt18  e x 
EALF = = 
Wtx  e 18 

Assuming tensile strains are 𝑷𝒊 𝟒

directly proportional to axle load → 𝑬𝑨𝑳𝑭 = Pi must be single axle
𝑷𝟏𝟖
Pi = applied axle load
Ps = standard axle load, 18 kip = 80 kN (US, AASHO), in 100 kN (Finland)

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Fatigue Damage (Flexible)

N f = f1et− f2 EAC
− f3

• Nf = Number of load repetitions to fatigue failure

• Tensile strain et at bottom of AC layer
• EAC = modulus of AC layer (psi)
• f1, f2, f3 are material constants:
– Asphalt Institute: f1=0.0796, f2=3.291, f3=0.854
– Shell Oil: f1=0.0685, f2=5.671, f3=2.363
• Much scatter in fatigue life data

Rutting Damage (Flexible)

N d = f 4e c− f5
• Nd = Number of load repetitions to rutting failure
• Compressive strain ec at top of subgrade
• f4, f5 are material constants:
– Asphalt Institute: f4=1.365x10-9, f5=4.477
– Shell Oil: f4=6.15x10-7, f5=4.0
– Univ. Nottingham: f4=1.13x10-6, f5=3.571
• Much scatter in rut life data

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Example
One approximation for EALFs

Axle weight (kN)

EALF/axle

EALF/vehicle type

High variability in power n, see Ehrola, 1996

Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL)

EALFs developed based on AASHO

Road Test are most commonly used

ESAL = Total number of passes of the standard axle load during the design period

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Gross weight and axle load in ESALs

80 kN 100 kN 18 kN
18,000 lb. 22,000 lb. 4,000 lb.
ESAL
• Single axle
– One axle
– Dual tires
• Tandem axle
– Two axles
– 2 sets of dual tires 1 2.2 .002
ESAL ESAL ESAL
• Tridem axle
– 3 axles
– Three sets of dual tires Traffic 18-kip (80 kN) ESALs
(AASHO Test Road)
(AASHTO, 1993)

Traffic Analysis: Highways

pi = percentage of total vehicles for group i G = growth factor
Fi = EALF for group i D = directional distribution factor
ADTo = average daily traffic at start of design period L = lane distribution factor
T = percent of trucks in the ADT Y = design period in years
A = average number of axles per truck

 m 
ESAL =   pi Fi  ( ADT )o (T )( A)(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )
 i =1 

 m 
Define: T f =   pi Fi  ( A) = Truck Factor
 i =1 

See text book pages 324-326

ESAL = ( ADT )o (T )(T f )(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )
for further instructions

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Growth Factor G
One simple way is to assume a yearly rate of
𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ∙ 𝟏 + 𝟏 + 𝒓 𝒀
traffic growth and use the average traffic at the
end and start of the design period in which r is
the yearly rate of traffic growth r = growth rate %

The Portland Cement Association (PCA) applies the

traffic at the middle of the design period as the design 𝑮= 𝟏+𝒓 𝟎.𝟓𝒀
traffic:

AASHTO and Asphalt Institute recommend the use of

traffic over the entire design period to determine the total
growth factor:

Total growth factor = (G )(Y ) =

(1 + r )Y − 1
r

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Most important factor

Most difficult to determine accurately
Must be determined from actual traffic counts
• Direct measurement (traffic counters)
• Estimated for nearby roads with similar traffic
Better approach is to use Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) devices

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Example:
Determine ESALs for the given roadway when design life is 20 years. Use
the PCA method for accounting traffic growth.

 m 
ESAL =   pi Fi  ( ADT )o (T )( A)(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )
 i =1 

 m 
Define: T f =   pi Fi  ( A) = Truck Factor
 i =1 

ESAL = ( ADT )o (T )(T f )(G )( D)( L)(365)(Y )

Example:
Determine ESALs for the given roadway when design life is 20 years. Use
the PCA method for accounting traffic growth.

𝑮=+ 𝟏+𝒓 𝟎.𝟓𝒀 PCA

𝑮 = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝟎.𝟓∙𝟐𝟎 =1.63
G = growth factor = 1.63 r = growth rate %
D = directional distribution factor = 0.5 Y = design life
L = lane distribution factor = 0.9
Y = design period in years = 20
ESAL = (12000)(0.14)(0.639)(1.63)(0.5)(0.9)(365)(20) = 5 748 216
= 5,7 •106 axle repetitions in the design lane

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Passenger cars are so light that

they can be ignored in pavement
thickness design

Gross weights limited

Axle weights must be restricted
from ca. 36 to 60t tons
Each country has own limitations
2014 in Finland up to 76 t Usually about 8 to 10 tons / axle

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