STUDY OF TRAFFIC OPERATION AT BOTTLENECK

SECTION ON TWO-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS

Kundan Kumar

Department of Civil Engineering

MUZAFFARPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(ARYABHATTA KNOWLEDGE UNIVERSITY, PATNA)
(GOVT. OF BIHAR)
MUZAFFARPUR – 842 003
APRIL-2018
STUDY OF TRAFFIC OPERATION AT BOTTLENECK
SECTION ON TWO-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS

Dissertation submitted to

Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology, Muzaffarpur

for the award of the degree

of

Bachelor of Technology
by

Kundan Kumar(Reg. no. 14101107009)

Supervisor

Prof. Pallav Kumar

Prof. Ashish Kumar

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MUZAFFARPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Muzaffarpur
(ARYABHATTA KNOWLEDGE UNIVERSITY PATNA)
APRIL-2018

1
Dedicated to my parents and my teachers, for teaching me to walk since my
infancy, guiding me and for always being there by my side when I was in need
of you.

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 MUZAFFARPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(ARYABHATTA KNOWLEDGE UNIVERSITY PATNA)
MUZAFFARPUR-842003

CERTIFICATE

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that, this project report entitled “STUDY OF TRAFFIC OPERATION AT
BOTTLENECK SECTION ON TWO-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS” is submitted to
MUZAFFARPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Muzaffarpur under ARYABHATTA
KNOWLEDGE UNIVERSITY, PATNA, during session 2014-2018 is a bonafide work carried out
by Kundan Kumar (14C14) with “Reg. no. 14101107009” of final semester of Civil Engineering
has submitted his MAJOR PROJECT REPORT for the award of B.Tech Degree in Civil
Engineering. The project has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of
project work prescribed for the said degree.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the (HOD)

Dr. Suresh Kumar Dr. Suresh Kumar

Acknowledgement

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I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to
complete this report. A special gratitude I give to our final year project co-ordinator, Dr. SURESH
KUMAR, whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped me to coordinate
my project especially in writing this report.

We wish to express our sincere thanks to our Head of Department Dr. SURESH KUMAR for
his valuable suggestions.

No words could be good enough to express our deep sense of gratitude to our respected
Principal DR. J N JHA for his kind blessing and inspiration and providing us such a good opportunity.

Last but not the least, we would like to thanks our family members, to the non-teaching staff,
to all our friends whose help & criticism which helped us improve our work.

Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of
the staff of EE department, who gave the permission to use all required equipment and the
necessary material to complete the project on “STUDY OF TRAFFIC OPERATION AT
BOTTLENECK SECTION ON TWO-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS”. I have to appreciate
the guidance given by other supervisor as well as the panels especially in our project
presentation that has improved our presentation skills. Thanks to their comment and
advices.

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where
others' ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original
sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and
have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any findings data or source in my submission.
I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the Institute
and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been properly cited or
from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.

NAME: KUNDAN KUMAR

REG. NO.:14101107009

COLLEGE ROLL NO. : 14C14

MUZAFFARPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Muzaffarpur

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 (Under Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna)

I hereby, forward this project report entitled “STUDY OF TRAFFIC OPERATION AT

BOTTLENECK SECTION ON TWO-LANE UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS” prepared under my
supervision by
NAME COLLEGE ROLL NO. REGISTRATION NO.

1. KUNDAN KUMAR 14C14 14101107009

2. GAURAV KUMAR 14C03 14101107002
3. ADARSH SIDDHANT RAJ 14C01 14101107001
4. MD. HUSNE MOBARAK 14C04 14101107003
5. ADITYA KUMAR SINGH 14C12 14101107007
6. PAWAN KUMAR 14C17 14101107011
7. MANISH VERMA 14C21 14101107013
8. JAI PRAKASH 14C05 14101107004
9. SANGEETA KUMARI 14C07 14101107006
10. MANSI 14C13 14101107008
11. SERAJ HUSSAIN 14C16 14101107010
12. PRAVEEN KUMAR BHANDARY 14C19 14101107012
13. VISHAL KUMAR 14C06 14101107005
14. BRAJESH KUMAR NIRALA 13C59 13101107059

As the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of B.Tech from Muzaffarpur Institute of
Technology, Muzaffarpur under Aryabhata Knowledge University, Patna
guided by:

Dr. SURESH KUMAR Dr. SURESH KUMAR (HOD)

Deptt.of Civil Engineering Deptt. Of Civil Engineering
MIT Muzaffarpur,Bihar. MIT Muzaffarpur,Bihar.

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 CONTENT
1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. FUNDAMENTAL RELATION OF TRAFFIC FLOW
4. MEASUREMENT ALONG A LENGTH OF ROAD
5. FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF TRAFFIC FLOW
6. TRAFFIC STREAM MODELS
7. NON INTRUSIVE TECHNOLOGIES
8. CONCLUSION
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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8
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The vehicular traffic is increasing tremendously in today’s/this world, simultaneously congestion
also increases. In order to prevent congestion, one option is to increase the capacity by increasing the
number of existing transportation system. A second option is to develop alternatives that increase
capacity by improving the efficiency of the existing transportation system. The later focuses on
building fewer lane-miles, while investing in Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) infrastructure.
The goals of ITS include the following:

1. Enhance public safety;

2. Reduce congestion;

3. Improved access to travel and transit information;

4. Generate cost savings to motor carriers, transit operators, toll authorities, and government
agencies; and

5. Reduce detrimental environmental impacts.

Intelligence requires information, and information requires data, which is generated by surveillance.
ITS include sensor, communication, and traffic control technologies. These technologies assist states,
cities, and towns nationwide, meeting the increasing demands on surface transportation system.
Vehicle detection and surveillance technologies are an integral part of ITS, since they gather all or
part of the data that is used in ITS. So a wide range of data is required for ITS to manage:

1. Volume Count

2. Vehicle Classification

3. Vehicle Occupancy

4. Travel Time

5. Delay

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1.1.2 Volume Count
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and classifications of
roadway vehicles at a given location. These data helps to identify critical flow time periods,
determining the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow. The length of
sampling period depends on the type of count being taken and the intended use of recorded data.
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts: (1) manual and (2) automatic.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle classification, turning
movements, direction of travel, and vehicle occupancy.

Manual Count Method

Most applications of manual counts require small samples of data at any given location. Manual
counts are rarely used when the effort and expense of automated equipment are not justified. Manual
counts are necessary when automated equipment is not available. Manual counts are typically used
for period of less than a day. Normal intervals for a manual count are 5, 10, or 15 minutes. Traffic
counts during a rush hour of Monday morning and Friday evening rush hours shows exceptionally
high volumes and is not normally used in analysis; therefore, counts are usually conducted on
Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday.

Automatic Count Method

The automatic count method provides a means for gathering large amounts of traffic data. Automatic
counts are usually taken in 1-hour interval for each 24-hour period. The counts extend for a week,
month, or year. When the counts are recorded for each 24-hour time period, the peak flow period can
be identified. Automatic counts are recorded using one of three methods: portable counters,
permanent counters, and videotape.

1.1.3 Vehicle Classification

Traffic volumes vary over time on all roads. Traffic volumes also vary dramatically from one road to
another. These variations in traffic volume are even more apparent when volumes for specific vehicle
types (classification) are analysed. Consequently, the vehicle classification data collection program
must gather sufficient data on traffic patterns of important vehicle types to accurately quantify the

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truck traffic stream to meet the needs of users. These include; time of day, day of week, time of year,
direction. Vehicle classification counts are used in establishing structural and geometric design
criteria, computing expected highway user revenue, and computing capacity. If a high percentage of
heavy trucks exist or if the vehicle mix at the crash site is suspected as contributing to the crash
problem, then classification counts should be conducted. Typically cars, station wagons, pickup and
panel trucks, and motorcycles are classified as passenger cars. The observer records the classification
of vehicles and its direction of travel at the intersection.

Integration of Classification Count

The vehicle classification counts required should not be considered separate from the volume counts
traditionally performed. Instead, they should be integrated with the traditional volume counts.
Because classification counts provide both classification and total volume information, they can
replace traditional volume counts reducing duplication and error. Traffic surveillance equipment is
used as part of advanced traffic management systems (ATMS) or advanced traveler information
systems (ATIS) can be used to supply both total volume and vehicle classification information.
Intelligent transportation system (ITS) technology and its resulting data are often present at high
profile locations as part of safety enhancement systems. These systems can supply useful, continuous
traffic monitoring data. Coordinating these traffic monitoring activities can lead to significant
improvements in the amount of data available to users, while at the same time reducing the cost of
data collection.

Uses of Classification Data

Vehicle classification data are of considerable use to agencies involved in almost all aspects of
transportation planning and engineering. The need for information on truck volumes and freight
movements is growing with the recognition of role that freight mobility plays in the economy, and as
highway engineers realize the importance of truck volume and operating characteristics on the
geometric and structural design of roadways and bridges.

1. pavement design

2. pavement management

3. scheduling the resurfacing, reconditioning, and reconstruction of highways

4. prediction and planning for commodity flows and freight movements

5. development of weight enforcement strategies

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6. vehicle crash record analysis

7. environmental impact analysis

8. analysis of alternative highway regulatory and investment policies.

1.1.4 Vehicle Occupancy

Vehicle occupancy measurement is an important part of transportation congestion management and
it is used for evaluating the efficiency of road system, High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes or
particular congestion reduction programs. The measure occupancy is a function of speed and length
of individual vehicle and thus, it could consider the effects of varying vehicle length and speed.
Hence, it can be considered as a logical substitute of density. In other words, occupancy, based on
practical consideration, is defined as the percentage of time the detection zone is occupied by the
vehicles. Therefore, occupancy measured using detectors depends on the length of detection zone,
each detector type has a differing zone of influence (detector length) and the zone of influence is
effectively added to vehicle length. Hence, the measured occupancy may be different for different
detection zones even for the same site having identical traffic, depending on the size and nature of
the detectors. Development of intelligent systems that extract traffic density and vehicle classification
information from traffic surveillance systems is crucial in traffic management. It is important to know
the traffic density of the roads real time especially in HOV lanes for effective traffic management.
Time estimation of reaching from one

location to another and recommendation of different route alternatives using real time traffic density
information are very valuable for metropolitan city residents.

1.1.5 Travel Time

Travel time can be defined as the period of time to transverse a route between any two points of
interest. It is a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is also one of the most readily
understood and communicated measure indices used by a wide variety of users, including
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transportation engineers, planners, and consumers. Travel time data is useful for a wide range of
transportation analyses including congestion management, transportation planning, and traveler
information. Congestion management systems commonly use travel time-based performance
measures to evaluate and monitor traffic congestion. In addition, some metropolitan areas provide
real-time travel time prediction as part of their advanced traveler information systems (ATIS). Travel
time data can be obtained through a number of methods. Some of the methods involve direct
measures of travel times along with test vehicles, license plate matching technique, and ITS probe
vehicles. Additionally, various sensors (e.g. inductance loop detectors, acoustic sensors) in ITS
deployment collect a large amount of traffic data every day, especially in metropolitan areas. Such
data can be used for travel time estimation for extensive applications when direct measurements of
travel times are not available.

1.1.6 Delay
The delay defines as “The additional travel time experienced by a driver, passenger, or pedestrian”.
Delay is thus the difference between an “ideal” travel time and “actual” travel time. Since the
definition of delay depends on a hypothetical “ideal travel time”, delay is not always directly
measurable in the field. If the ideal travel time is defined as off-peak travel time, then the measured
delay is difference between the actual measured travel time during peak period, and the actual
measured travel time during off-peak period. If the ideal travel time is defined as travel at the posted
speed limit, then the delay cannot be directly measured in the field. It is estimated by subtracting the
hypothetical travel time at the posted speed limit from the measured mean travel time in the field.

CHAPTER 2

Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow

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2.1 Overview
Speed is one of the basic parameters of traffic flow and time mean speed and space mean speed are
the two representations of speed. Time mean speed and space mean speed and the relationship
between them will be discussed in detail in this chapter. The relationship between the fundamental
parameters of traffic flow will also be derived. In addition, this relationship can be represented in
graphical form resulting in the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.

2.2 Time mean speed (vt)

As noted earlier, time mean speed is the average of all vehicles passing a point over a duration of
time. It is the simple average of spot speed. Time mean speed vt is given by,

where vi is the spot speed of ith vehicle, and n is the number of observations. In many speed studies,
speeds are represented in the form of frequency table. Then the time mean speed is given by,

where qi is the number of vehicles having speed vi, and n is the number of such speed categories.

2.3 Space mean speed (vs)

The space mean speed also averages the spot speed, but spatial weightage is given instead of
temporal. This is derived as below. Consider unit length of a road, and let vi is the spot speed

of ith vehicle. Let ti is the time the vehicle takes to complete unit distance and is given by 1/ vi . If
there are n such vehicles, then the average travel time ts is given by,

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If tav the average travel time, then average speed vs = 1/ ts . Therefore, from the above equation,

This is simply the harmonic mean of the spot speed. If the spot speeds are expressed as a frequency
table, then,

where qi vehicle will have vi speed and ni is the number of such observation. Relation between time
mean speed and space mean speed

The relation between time mean speed(vt) and space mean

speed(vs) is given by the following relation:

where,σ2 is the standard deviation of the spot speed. The derivation of the formula is given in the
next subsection. The standard deviation(σ2) can be computed in the following equation:

where, qi is the frequency of the vehicle having vi speed.

Chapter 3
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Measurement along a Length of Road
3.1 Overview
This is normally used to obtain variations in speed over a stretch of road. Usually the stretch will be
having a length more than 500 meters. We can also get speed ,travel time and delay. Speed and travel
time are the most commonly used indicators of performance for traffic facilities and networks.
Delays are often used to measure the performance of traffic flow at intersections.

3.2 Travel time study

Travel time is the elapsed time it takes for a vehicle to traverse a given segment of a street. Travel
time studies provide the necessary data to determine the average travel time. Combined with the
length of the corridor under study, this data can be used to produce average travel speed. Travel time
and delay are two of the principal measures of roadway system performance used by traffic
engineers, planners and analysts. Since vehicle speed is directly related to travel time and delay, it is
also an appropriate measure-of-performance to evaluate traffic systems. A study conducted to
determine the amount of time required to traverse a specific route or section of a street or highway.
The data obtained provide travel time and travel speed information but not necessarily delay. This
term is often used to include speed and delay study. Travel time may be defined as the total elapsed
time of travel, including stop and delay, necessary for a vehicle to travel from one point to another
point over a specified route under existing traffic condition.

3.3 Delay studies

Delay is defined as an extra time spent by drivers against their expectation. Delay can have many
forms depending on different locations. A study made to provide information concerning

the amount, cause, location, duration and frequency of delay as well as travel time and similar value.
The time lost by traffic due to traffic friction and traffic control device is called delay.

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3.4 Types of Delay
1. Congestion delay- Congestion delay is the delay caused by the constricting or slowing down
effect of overloaded intersections, inadequate carriageway widths, parked cars, crowded pavement
and similar factor.

2. Fixed Delay- The delay to which a vehicle is subjected regardless of the amount of traffic
volume and interference present.

3. Operational Delay-The delay caused by interference from other component of the traffic
stream. Examples include time lost while waiting for a gap in a conflicting traffic stream, or resulting
from congestion, parking manoeuvres, pedestrians, and turning movement.

4. Stopped Delay- The time a vehicle is not moving.

5. Travel Time Delay- The difference between the actual time required to traverse a section of
street or highway and the time corresponding to the average speed of traffic under uncongested
condition. It includes acceleration and deceleration delay in addition to stopped delay.

6. Approach Delay -Travel time delay encountered to an approach to an intersection.

3.5 Purpose of travel time and Delay Studies

1. The purpose of a Travel Time and Delay Study is to evaluate the quality of traffic movement along
a route and determine the locations, types, and extent of traffic delays by using a moving test vehicle.

2. This study method can be used to compare operational conditions before and after roadway or
intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool to assist in prioritizing
projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational deficiencies (such as delays and stops) for
each project under consideration.

3. The Travel Time and Delay Study can also be used by planners to monitor level of service for
local government comprehensive plans.

4. The methodology presented herein provides the engineer with quantitative information with which
he can develop recommendations for improvements such as traffic signal retiming, safety
improvements, turn lane additions, and channelization enhancements
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3.6 Method for obtaining travel time and delay study
1. Floating Car Method: Floating car data are positions of vehicles traversing city streets
throughout the day. In this method the driver tries to float in the traffic stream passing as many
vehicles as pass the test car. If the test vehicle overtakes as many vehicles as the test vehicle is
passed by, the test vehicles should, with sufficient number of runs, approach the median speed of the
traffic movement on the route. In such a test vehicle, one passenger acts as observer while another
records duration of delays and the actual elapsed time of passing control points along the route from
start to finish of the run.

2. Average Speed Method: In this method the driver is instructed to travel at a speed that is
judge to the representative of the speed of all traffic at the time.

3. Moving-vehicle method: In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream and makes a
round trip on a test section. The observer starts at section, drives the car in a particular direction say
eastward to another section, turns the vehicle around drives in the opposite direction say westward
toward the previous section again. Let, the time in minutes it takes to travel east (from X-X to Y-Y)
is ta, the time in minutes it takes to travel west (from Y-Y to X-X) is tw, the number of vehicles
traveling east in the opposite lane while the test car is traveling west be ma, the number of vehicles
that overtake the test car while it is traveling west be mo, and the number of vehicles that the test car
passes while it is traveling west from be mp. The volume (qw) in the westbound direction

Figure 7:1: Illustration of moving observer method

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can then be obtained from the expression and

the average travel time in the westbound direction is obtained from

4. Maximum-car method: In this procedure, the driver is asked to drive as fast as is safely
practical in the traffic stream without ever exceeding the design speed of the facility.

5. Elevated Observer method: In urban areas, it is sometime possible to station observers in high
buildings or other elevated points from which a considerable length of route may be observed. These
investigator select vehicle at random and record; time, location and causes-of-delay. The drawback is
that it is sometime difficult to secure suitable points for observation throughout the length of the
route to be studied.

6. License Plate Method: when the amount of turning off and on the route is not great and only
over all speed value are to be secured, the license-plate method of speed study may be satisfactorily
employed. Investigator stationed at control point along the route enters, on a time control basis, the
license-plate numbers of passing vehicles. These are compared from point to point along the route,
and the difference in time values, through use of synchronized watches, is computed. This method
requires careful and time-consuming office work and does not show locations, causes, frequency, or
duration of delay. Four basic methods of collecting and processing license plates normally
considered are:

(a) Manual: collecting license plates via pen and paper or audio tape recorders and manually entering
license plates and arrival times into a computer.

(b) Portable Computer: collecting license plates in the field using portable computers that
automatically provide an arrival time stamp.

(c) Video with Manual Transcription: collecting license plates in the field using video cameras or
camcorders and manually transcribing license plates using human observers.

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(d) Video with Character Recognition: collecting license plates in the field using video, and then
automatically transcribing license plates and arrival times into a computer using computerized
license plate character recognition.

7. Photographic Method: This method is primarily a research tool, it is useful in studies of

interrelationship of several factors such as spacing, speeds, lane usage, acceleration rates, merging
and crossing manoeuvres, and delays at intersections. This method is applicable to a short test
section only.

8. Interview Method: this method may be useful where a large amount of material is needed in a
minimum of time and at little expense for field observation. Usually the employees of a farm or
establishment are asked to record their travel time to and from work on a particular day.

9. Highway Capacity Manual 2000 or (Cycle- based method): This method is applicable to all under
saturated signalized intersections. For over-saturated conditions, queue buildup normally makes the
method impractical. The method described here is applicable to situations in which the average
maximum queue per cycle is no more than about 20 to 25 veh/ln. When queues are long or the
demand to capacity ratio is near 1.0, care must be taken to continue the vehicle-in-queue count past
the end of the arrival count period, vehicles that arrived during the survey period until all of them
have exited the intersection.as detailed below. This requirement is for consistency with the analytic
delay equation used in the chapter text.method does not directly measure delay during deceleration
and during a portion of acceleration, which are very difficult to measure without sophisticated
tracking equipment. However, this method has been shown to yield a reasonable estimate of control
delay.

The method includes an adjustment for errors that may occurred when this type of sampling
technique is used, as well as an acceleration-deceleration delay correction factor Table 7:1. The
acceleration-deceleration factor is a function of the typical number of vehicles in queue during each
cycle and the normal free-flow speed when vehicles are unimpeded by the signal. Before beginning
the detailed survey, the observers need to make an estimate of the average free-flow speed during the
study period. Free-flow speed is the speed at which vehicles would pass unimpeded through the
intersection if the signal were green for an extended period.be obtained by driving through the
intersection a few times when the signal is green and there is no queue and recording the speed at a
location least affected by signal control. Typically, the recording location should be upstream about
mid-block. Table 7:2 is a worksheet that can be used for recording observations and computation of
average time-in-queue delay Steps for data reduction
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(a) Sum each column of vehicle-in-queue counts, then sum the column totals for the entire survey

period.

Table 7:1: Acceleration-Deceleration Delay Correction Factor, CF (seconds)

(b) A vehicle recorded as part of a vehicle-in-queue count is in queue, on average, for the time
interval between counts. The average time-in-queue per vehicle arriving during the survey period is
estimated.

where, Is = interval between vehicle-in-queue counts (s), ΣViq = sum of vehicle-inqueue counts
(veh), Vtot = total number of vehicles arriving during the survey period (veh), and 0.9 = empirical
adjustment factor. The 0.9 adjustment factor accounts for the errors that may occur when this type of
sampling technique is used to derive actual delay values, normally resulting in an overestimate of
delay.

(c) Compute the fraction of vehicles stopping and the average number of vehicles stopping per lane
in each signal cycle, as indicated on the worksheet.

(d) Using Table 7:1, look up a correction factor appropriate to the lane group free-flow speed and the
average number of vehicles stopping per lane in each cycle. This factor adds an adjustment for
deceleration and acceleration delay, which cannot be measured directly with manual techniques.

(e) Multiply the correction factor by the fraction of vehicles stopping, and then add this product to
the time-in-queue value of Step 2 to obtain the final estimate of control delay per vehicle.

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 CHAPTER 4

Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow

4.1 Overview
Traffic engineering pertains to the analysis of the behaviour of traffic and to design the facilities for a
smooth, safe and economical operation of traffic. Traffic flow, like the flow of water, has several
parameters associated with it. The traffic stream parameters provide information regarding the nature
of traffic flow, which helps the analyst in detecting any variation in flow characteristics.
Understanding traffic behaviour requires a thorough knowledge of traffic stream parameters and their
mutual relationships. In this chapter the basic concepts of traffic flow is presented.

4.2 Traffic stream parameters

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The traffic stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behaviour. The driver or human
behaviour being non-uniform, traffic stream is also non-uniform in nature. It is influenced not only
by the individual characteristics of both vehicle and human but also by the way a group of such units
interacts with each other. Thus a flow of traffic through a street of defined characteristics will vary
both by location and time corresponding to the changes in the human behaviour. The traffic engineer,
but for the purpose of planning and design, assumes that these changes are within certain ranges
which can be predicted. For example, if the maximum permissible speed of a highway is 60 kmph,
the whole traffic stream can be assumed to move on an average speed of 40 kmph rather than 100 or
20 kmph. Thus the traffic stream itself is having some parameters on which the characteristics can be
predicted. The parameters can be mainly classified as : measurements of quantity, which

includes density and flow of traffic and measurements of quality which includes speed. The traffic
stream parameters can be macroscopic which characterizes the traffic as a whole or microscopic
which studies the behaviour of individual vehicle in the stream with respect to each other. As far as
the macroscopic characteristics are concerned, they can be grouped as measurement of quantity or
quality as described above, i.e. flow, density, and speed. While the microscopic characteristics
include the measures of separation, i.e. the headway or separation between vehicles which can be
either time or space headway. The fundamental stream characteristics are speed, flow, and density
and are discussed below.

4.3 Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and passengers will be
concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design aspects of the traffic. It is defined as
the rate of motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v is given by,

v = d/ t (1.1)

where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance travelled in m in time t seconds. Speed of
different vehicles will vary with respect to time and space. To represent these variation, several types
of speed can be defined. Important among them are spot speed, running speed, journey speed, time
mean speed and space mean speed. These are discussed below.

4.3.1 Spot Speed

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Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. Spot speed can be used to
design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc. Location and
size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require the spot speed
data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern fields of traffic engineer,
which uses spot speed data as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured using an endoscope,
pressure contact tubes or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or by time-lapse photographic
methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from video images by recording the distance
travelling by all vehicles between a particular pair of frames.

4.3.2 Running speed

Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is moving
and is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was in motion. i.e.
this speed doesn’t consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a stop, or has to wait till it
has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more than or equal to the journey speed, as
delays are not considered in calculating the running speed

4.3.3 Journey speed

Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the
journey including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates that
the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The spot speed
here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. A uniformity between
journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.

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4.3.4 Time mean speed and space mean speed

Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specified time period. Space mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles
occupying a given section of a highway over some specified time period. Both mean speeds will
always be different from each other except in the unlikely event that all vehicles are traveling at the
same speed. Time mean speed is a point measurement while space mean speed is a measure relating
to length of highway or lane, i.e. the mean speed of vehicles over a period of time at a point in space
is time mean speed and the mean speed over a space at a given instant is the space mean speed.

4.4 Flow
There are practically two ways of counting the number of vehicles on a road. One is flow or volume,
which is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given lane or direction
of a highway during a specific time interval. The measurement is carried out by counting the number
of vehicles, nt, passing a particular point in one lane in a defined period t. Then the flow q expressed
in vehicles/hour is given by

q =nt/t (1.2)

Flow is expressed in planning and design field taking a day as the measurement of time.

4.4.1 Variations of Volume

The variation of volume with time, i.e. month to month, day to day, hour to hour and within a hour is
also as important as volume calculation. Volume variations can also be observed from season to
season. Volume will be above average in a pleasant motoring month of summer, but will be more
pronounced in rural than in urban area. But this is the most consistent of all the variations and affects
the traffic stream characteristics the least. Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays will also face difference
in pattern. But comparing day with day, patterns for routes of a similar nature often show a marked
similarity, which is useful in enabling predictions to be made. The most significant variation is from
hour to hour. The peak hour observed during mornings and evenings of weekdays, which is usually 8
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to 10 per cent of total daily flow or 2 to 3 times the average hourly volume. These trips are mainly
the work trips, which are relatively stable with time and more or less constant from day to day.

4.4.2 Types of volume measurements

Since there is considerable variation in the volume of traffic, several types of measurements of
volume are commonly adopted which will average these variations into a single volume count to be
used in many design purposes.

1. Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume at a given
location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided
by 365.

2. Average Annual Weekday Traffic(AAWT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume occurring
on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by dividing the total weekday traffic volume for the
year by 260.

3. Average Daily Traffic(ADT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location for
some period of time less than a year. It may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a week,
or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period over which it was measured.

4. Average Weekday Traffic(AWT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on

weekdays for some period of time less than one year, such as for a month or a season.

Figure 1:1: Illustration of density

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The relationship between AAWT and AWT is analogous to that between AADT and ADT. Volume
in general is measured using different ways like manual counting, detector/sensor counting, moving-
car observer method, etc. Mainly the volume study establishes the importance of a particular route
with respect to the other routes, the distribution of traffic on road, and the fluctuations in flow. All
which eventually determines the design of a highway and the related facilities. Thus, volume is
treated as the most important of all the parameters of traffic stream.

4.5 Density
Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane and is
generally expressed as vehicles per km. One can photograph a length of road x, count the number of
vehicles, nx, in one lane of the road at that point of time and derive the density k as, k = nx x (1.3)
This is illustrated in figure 1:1. From the figure, the density is the number of vehicles between the
point A and B divided by the distance between A and B. Density is also equally important as flow
but from a different angle as it is the measure most directly related to traffic demand. Again it
measures the proximity of vehicles in the stream which in turn affects the freedom to manoeuvre and
comfortable driving.

4.6 Derived characteristics

From the fundamental traffic flow characteristics like flow, density, and speed, a few other
parameters of traffic flow can be derived. Significant among them are the time headway,

distance headway and travel time. They are discussed one by one below.

4.6.1 Time headway

The microscopic character related to volume is the time headway or simply headway. Time headway
is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles when they cross a given point.
Practically, it involves the measurement of time between the passage of one rear bumper and the next
past a given point. If all headways h in time period, t, over which flow has been measured are added
then,

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But the flow is defined as the number of vehicles nt measured in time interval t, that is,

where, hav is the average headway. Thus average headway is the inverse of flow. Time headway is
often referred to as simply the headway.

4.6.2 Distance headway

Another related parameter is the distance headway. It is defined as the distance between
corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time. It involves the measurement from
a photograph, the distance from rear bumper of lead vehicle to rear bumper of following vehicle at a
point of time. If all the space headways in distance x over which the density has been measured are
added

But the density (k) is the number of vehicles nx at a distance of x, th

Where, sav is average distance headway. The average distance headway is the inverse of density and
is sometimes called as spacing.

4.6.3 Travel time

Travel time is defined as the time taken to complete a journey. As the speed increases, travel time
required to reach the destination also decreases and vice-versa. Thus travel time is inversely

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 Figure 1:2: Time space diagram for a single vehicle

proportional to the speed. However, in practice, the speed of a vehicle fluctuates over time and the
travel time represents an average measure.

4.7 Time-space diagram:

Time space diagram is a convenient tool in understanding the movement of vehicles. It shows the
trajectory of vehicles in the form of a two dimensional plot. Time space diagram can be plotted for a
single vehicle as well as multiple vehicles. They are discussed below.

4.7.1 Single vehicle

Taking one vehicle at a time, analysis can be carried out on the position of the vehicle with respect to
time. This analysis will generate a graph which gives the relation of its position on a road stretch
relative to time. This plot thus will be between distance x and time t and x will be a functions the
position of the vehicle for every t along the road stretch. This graphical representation of x(t) in a
(t,x) plane is a curve which is called as a trajectory. The trajectory provide an intuitive, clear, and

29
complete summary of vehicular motion in one dimension. In figure 1:2(a), the the distance x goes on
increasing with respect to the origin as time progresses. The vehicle is moving at a smooth condition
along the road way. In figure 1:2(b), the vehicle at first moves with a smooth pace after reaching a
position reverses its direction of movement. In figure 1:2(c), the vehicle in between becomes
stationary and maintains the same position.

From the figure, steeply increasing section of x(t) denote a rapidly advancing vehicle and horizontal
portions of x(t) denote a stopped vehicle while shallow sections show a slow-moving vehicle. A
straight line denotes constant speed motion and curving sections denote accelerated motion; and if
the curve is concave downwards it denotes acceleration. But a curve which is convex upwards
denotes deceleration.

4.7.2 Multiple Vehicles

Time-space diagram can also be used to determine the fundamental parameters of traffic flow like
speed, density and volume. It can also be used to find the derived characteristics like space headway
and time headway. Figure 1:3 shows the time-space diagram for a set of vehicles traveling at
constant speed. Density, by definition is the number of vehicles per unit length. From the figure, an
observer looking into the stream can count 4 vehicles passing the stretch of road between x1 and x2
at time t. Hence, the density is given as

We can also find volume from this time-space diagram. As per the definition, volume is the number
of vehicles counted for a particular interval of time. From the figure 1:3 we can see that 6 vehicles
are present between the time t1 and t2. Therefore, the volume q is given as

Again the averages taken at a specific location (i.e., time ranging over an interval) are called time
means and those taken at an instant over a space interval are termed as space means. Another related
definition which can be given based on the time-space diagram is the headway. Space headway is
defined as the distance between corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time.
Thus, the vertical gap between any two consecutive lines represents space headway. The reciprocal
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of density otherwise gives the space headway between vehicles at that time. Similarly, time headway
is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles when they cross a given point.
Thus, the horizontal gap between the vehicles represented by the lines gives the time headway. The
reciprocal of flow gives the average time headway between vehicles at that point.

Figure 1:3: Time space diagram for many vehicles

CHAPTER 5
Traffic Stream Models
5.1 Overview
To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters, a great deal of research has been
done over the past several decades. The results of these researches yielded many mathematical
models. Some important models among them will be discussed in this chapter.
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5.2 Greenshields’s macroscopic stream model
Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one parameter of traffic flow changes
with respect to another. Most important among them is the relation between speed and density. The
first and most simple relation between them is proposed by Greenshield. Greenshield assumed a
linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in figure 5:1 to derive the model. The equation for this
relationship is shown below.

where v is the mean speed at density k, vf is the free speed and kj is the jam density. This equation is
often referred to as the Greenshields’s model. It indicates that when density becomes zero, speed
approaches free flow speed (i.e. v → vf when k → 0). Once the relation between speed and flow is
established, the relation with flow can be derived. This relation between flow and density is parabolic
in shape and is shown in figure 5:3. Also, we know that

Now substituting equation 5.1 in equation 5.2, we get

Figure 5:1: Relation between speed and density

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 Figure 5:2: Relation between speed and flow

Figure 5:3: Relation between flow and density

Similarly we can find the relation between speed and flow. For this, put k = q v in equation 5.1 and
solving, we get

This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in figure 5:2. Once the relationship between the
fundamental variables of traffic flow is established, the boundary conditions can be derived. The
boundary conditions that are of interest are jam density, free-flow speed, and maximum flow. To find

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density at maximum flow, differentiate equation 5.3 with respect to k and equate it to zero. i.e.,

Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as ko,

Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density. Once we get k0, we can
derive for maximum flow, qmax. Substituting equation 3.5 in equation 3.3

CHAPTER 6

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Non-Intrusive Technologies
6.1 Introduction
Non-intrusive technologies include video data collection, passive or active infrared detectors,
microwave radar detectors, ultrasonic detectors, passive acoustic detectors, laser detectors and aerial
photography. All these technologies represent emergent fields that are expanding rapidly with
continuing advances in signal processing. At present time such technologies are used to provide
supplemental information for selected locations or for specific applications (e.g., queue detection at
traffic signals). Most non-intrusive systems are operationally and somewhat visually similar,
consisting of small electronics unit mounted in a weatherproof housing placed in various locations,
as shown in Fig. 6:1.
The first type of non-invasive detectors are roadside mast-mounted. The detector possesses a field-of-
regard covering an oblique area upstream or downstream of the unit. There are also multiple zones of
detection defined within the overall field of regard, or the overall zone of detection same as the field
of regard, depending on the specific detector type and technology. Obscuration problems occur when
high-sided vehicles screens lower vehicles from the detector or the field-of-view being too large,
leading to detection of vehicles outside the desired lane. The second type of non-invasive detectors
are mounted on gantries or bridge undersides, with field of regard directly below, or at a slight
oblique to the unit. Finally, some units, such as open-path pollutant monitors are mounted road side
at ground level, firing a beam across the road. Such units are subject to side-by-side masking and
hence most suitable for only single lane, unidirectional flows.
Type 1. Roadside, Mast−mounted type
2. Gantry or bridge underside
3. Cross−fire

Figure 6:1: Typical non-intrusive technology configurations

6.2 Video image detection (VID)

The traffic parameters are collected by frame-by-frame analysis of video images captured by
roadside cameras. The following parameters are collected: Depending on the processing
methodology almost all traffic parameters are captured from video analysis. Simple video systems
often collect flow volume and occupancy. More complex systems allow the extraction of further
parameters.
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Advantages
Possibility to capture all desired traffic information, including some parameters that are not readily
obtainable using other types of detectors Possibility of a permanent visual record of the traffic flow
that reviewed and analyzed by a human operator.

Disadvantages: VID systems are susceptible to obscure issues, as with other non-intrusive
detectors. Performance of VID systems might be degraded in bad weather or low light conditions.
1. Video Image Processor A video image processor (VIP) system typically consists of one or more
cameras, a microprocessor-based computer for digitizing and processing the imagery, and software
for interpreting the images and converting them into traffic flow data.

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 CONCLUSION
The conclusion of this minor project is that we can use traffic volume study to measure
the traffic flow parameters . It can help us to predict the severity of congestion of the
studied area. It will also be helpful in categorization of different types of vehicle passing
through that section. It will also help us to find out which vehicle type is predominant
in the area under study, with the help of this study we will able to find the different
stream velocity at different position of section like upstream downstream or at the bottle
neck section. By using this study simulation model can be developed which will be
helpful on future scope of the study.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A and M University System. Travel Time Data Collection
Handbook,Report FHWA-PL-98-035, 1998.

2. Traffic Detector Handbook. Third Edition Volume II, Publication No.FHWA-HRT-06-139

October 2006., 2006.

3. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department
of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2019.

4. B Coifman. Length based vehicle classification on freeways from single loop Detectors.University
Transportation Center Final Report, 2009.

5. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi,
1987.

6. Highway capacity manual, 2000. chapter-16.

7. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliff New Jersey
07632, second edition, 1990.

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