66

CHAPTER 5

FUEL CHARACTERISTICS

5.1 EVALUATION OF PROPERTIES OF FUELS TESTED

The important properties of biodiesel, biodiesel-diesel blends,

biodiesel-ethanol blends, biodiesel-methanol blends and biodiesel-ethanol-
diesel tri-compound fuel blends were experimentally determined. The
biodiesel used for the research work was produced by transesterification from
jatropha curcas oil and palm oil. The analytical grade ethanol and methanol
(99.5% purity) was purchased in the market. Laboratory tests were carried out
to determine the properties like specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, cloud
point, pour point, flash point, fire point and calorific value of the blends using
IS 15607 test methods shown in Table 4.1. The properties of jatropha curcas
tested are shown in Table 5.1, JME in Table 5.2, and ethanol, methanol in
Table 5.3, and J20, E15J20D65 and M15J20D65 fuels in Table 5.4.

Table 5.1 Properties of jatropha curcas oil tested

Jatropha
Sl. No. Properties Units curcas Diesel
oil
1 Density@ 15˚C g/cm3 0.92 0.82
2 Flash point ˚C 188 64
3 Pour point ˚C <-5 <-5
4 Kinematic viscosity @ 40˚C cSt 35.6 3.61
5 Calorific value MJ/kg 40.3 42.5
 67

Table 5.2 Properties of JME tested

Sl.No. Parameters Results

1 Kinematic viscosity at 40ºC 4.48 cSt
2 Flash point 168ºC
3 Fire point 175ºC
4 Cloud point 8ºC
5 Pour point 6ºC
6 Sulphated ash 0.001 % mass
7 Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR) 0.01 % mass
8 Saponification value 183
9 Iodine number 99
10 Density at 15ºC 0.86 g/cm3
11 Copper strip corrosion Not worse than 2
12 Water content 0.43 % vol.
13 Sediment Nil
14 Acid number 0.46 mgKOH/g
15 Gross calorific value 42.747 MJ/kg
16 Net calorific value 39.875 MJ/kg
17 Hydrogen 13.0 %
18 Oxygen (by difference) 10.6 %
19 Carbon 76.4 %
20 Sulfur 0.004 % mass

Table 5.3 Comparison of properties of JME and Alcohols with Diesel

Sl.No. Properties Units JME PME Diesel Ethanol Methanol

1 Density g/cm3 0.860 0.876 0.820 0.790 0.790
2 K.V @ 40oC cSt 4.48 4.48 3.61 1.41 0.59
o 178
3 Flash point C 168 64 35 11
4 Heat value MJ/kg 39.87 39.83 42.5 26.88 19.67
o 12
5 Cloud point C 8 < -5 < -5 < -5
o 184
6 Fire point C 175 82 48 23
7 Molecular wt g/mol 320 314 266.8 46 32
8 O2 content wt % 10.6 13.2 0 35.6 50
 68

Table 5.4 Comparative properties of fuels tested

Properties, Units Diesel J20 JME E15J20D65 M15J20D65

Diesel % vol. 100 80 0 65 65
Ethanol % vol. 0 0 0 15 0
Methanol % vol. 0 0 0 0 15
JME % vol. 0 20 100 20 20
Density g/cm3 0.820 0.828 0.860 0.823 0.832
K.V @ 40oC cSt 3.61 3.72 4.48 3.27 3.19
Flash point oC 64 69 168 29 15
Heat value MJ/kg 42.5 41.93 39.87 39.63 38.55
Cloud point oC < -5 0 8 <-5 <-5
Fire point oC 82 88 175 41 27
Oxygen content wt % 0 2.12 10.6 5.89 7.67

5.1.1 Phase Stability Test

Stability tests conducted show that biodiesel can be blended in any

proportions with diesel fuel. Even at higher proportion of biodiesel in the
blend, no physical separation was observed. The same trend was observed for
biodiesel-ethanol blends and biodiesel-methanol blends. In the case of 99.5%
ethanol, the intersolubility of the three-components was not limited. They
could be mixed into a homogeneous solution at any ratio. Because 99.5%
ethanol has lower water content than that of hydrous ethanol, it is more
soluble in diesel fuel than hydrous ethanol. Since the mixtures are having
biodiesel as an additive, they are having single liquid phase. This
homogeneity was due to the fact that biodiesel can act as an amphiphile (a
surface-active agent) and form micelles that have non polar tails and polar
heads (Kwanchareon et al 2007). These molecules are attracted to
liquid/liquid interfacial films and to each other. These micelles acted as polar
or non-polar solutes, depending on the orientation of the biodiesel molecules.
When the diesel fuel was in the continuous phase, the polar heads in a
biodiesel molecule oriented itself to the ethanol, and the non-polar tail
oriented to diesel. This phenomenon held the micelles in a thermodynamically
 69

stable state, depending on the component concentrations and other physical

parameters. Thus biodiesel is known to act as an emulsifier for ethanol
(Rahimi et al 2009). Makareviciene et al (2005) characterized the solubility of
biodiesel fuel components in fossil diesel-ethanol-REE systems and they
proved that addition of ester to ethanol and diesel fuel mixture increases
solubility of ethanol in diesel fuel. Solubility and stability of ethanol in
biodiesel-diesel fuel blends will be greatly improved without other additives
(Chotwichien et al 2009).

5.1.2 Relative Density

The specific gravity, also known as relative density refers to the

density of the fuel to the density of water at the same temperature. The
specific gravity of the fuel blends were measured by using a hydrometer.
Specific gravity of JME-diesel blends and PME-diesel blends are shown in
Figure 5.1. Relative density values obtained are 0.860, 0.874 and 0.820 for
JME, PME and diesel fuel respectively. When referring to density, the
international standards require values between 0.85 and 0.90 g/cm3, the
obtained value for both JME and PME are well within the accepted limits.
The ASTM D6751 does not regulate the density of biodiesel fuels.

It was observed from Figure 5.1 that relative density of the all the
biodiesel-diesel blends were higher than that of diesel fuel, and increased with
the increase of biodiesel content in the blends. The density of JME is higher
than the diesel fuel density by 4.87% and for B20 blend (20% JME; 80%
diesel) it is only 0.97%. Therefore one can expect that the fuel spray
penetration might not be significantly affected due to this density difference.

Figure 5.2 shows the variation of relative density of JME-alcohol

blends. It can be observed that the density of the blends decreased with an
increase of the percentage of ethanol or methanol in the blends. This is
 70

0.88

0.86
Relative Density

0.84

0.82
JME-D
PME-D
0.8
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.1 Variation of relative density with biodiesel fraction

0.88

0.86
Relative Density

0.84

0.82

0.8

0.78
0 20 40 60 80 100
Alcohol Content, vol.%

Figure 5.2 Variation of relative density with alcohol fraction in JME-

alcohol blends

attributed to the fact that ethanol/methanol has lower density and as such will
lower the density of the mixture. But, when the percentage of biodiesel was
 71

increased, the density increased, which is due to the fact that the jatropha oil
biodiesel (JME) has a higher density than the ethanol/methanol. Normally, it
is recognized that higher density leads to higher flow resistance of fuel oil,
resulting in higher viscosity and can lead to inferior fuel injection. However,
all the blends had density values that were acceptable for the standard limit
for high-speed diesel.

5.1.3 Flash Point and Fire Point

Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the vapor given

off by a fuel when heated will flash with a test flame held above the surface
without the fuel catching fire and it plays a vital role when determining the
fire hazard of the fuel. Flash point gives an idea about the amount of low
boiling fraction present in the liquid fuel, volatility of the liquid fuel and
explosive hazards. The flash points of the diesel-biodiesel blends with
increasing biodiesel concentration are shown in Figure 5.3. Most of the
International standards impose a flash point higher than 120oC; in
consequence, the JME and PME, with a very high flash point of 168oC and
183oC respectively, are within the limits required by standards. It is observed
that with increasing quantity of JME and PME in the diesel-biodiesel blends,
due to higher value of flash point of PME and JME, flash point of the blend is
found to increase.

Fire point is the minimum temperature at which the flammable

vapors will continue to form and steadily burn once ignited. Flash and fire
points of the fuel blends were measured by Pensky-Martens flash point closed
apparatus. In comparison to diesel fuel, the flash point and fire point of JME
and PME are found to be around three times more as shown in Figure 5.3 and
5.4, facilitating safe transport and storage of biodiesel fuels.
 72

200
JME-D
PME-D
160 ASTM limits
Flash Point, C
o

120

80

40
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.3 Variation of flash point with biodiesel fraction

220
JME-D
PME-D
180
Fire Point, oC

140

100

60
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.4 Variation of fire point with biodiesel fraction

The flash point of tri-compound fuel blends was substantially

different from diesel and found to be extremely low, in the range of 13 to
17oC. All of the blends containing ethanol were highly flammable with a flash
point temperature that was below the ambient temperature. The flash point of
the tri-compound fuel blend affects the shipping and storage classification of
 73

fuels and the precautions that should be used in handling and transporting the
fuel. In general, flash point measurements are typically dominated by the fuel
component in the blend with the lowest flash point. The flash point of a tri-
compound mixture is mainly dominated by ethanol. As a result, the storage,
handling and transportation of blended fuel must be managed in a special and
proper way, in order to avoid explosion.

5.1.4 Cloud Point and Pour Point

The cloud point of any petroleum fuel oil is defined as the

temperature at which a cloud of wax crystals first appear in the oil when it is
cooled at a specific rate. Figure 5.5 shows the effect of biodiesel content on
cloud point of the blend. As biodiesel content is increased in the blend, its
cloud point increased. Neat JME has the cloud point as 6oC, while neat PME
has it as 12oC. The pour point of any oil is defined as the lowest temperature
at which the oil will flow, or pour, when cooled without agitation under
standard conditions. Both cloud point and pour point are often used to specify
cold temperature usability of fuel oils (Bhale et al 2009). The variation of
pour point of biodiesel-diesel blends are shown in Figure 5.6. All of the JME-
diesel blends were found to have pour point less than 5oC, while the PME-
diesel blends have slightly higher pour point up to 8oC.

Tri-compound fuel blends have very low pour point compared to

biodiesel-diesel fuel blends. The reason is that ethanol has a very low pour
point and biodiesel normally has a pour point higher than conventional diesel.
But E15J20D65 blend has diesel as a major component, and, therefore, the
pour point of the fuel blend was found to be not much different from
conventional diesel. Blending alcohol with biodiesel, the cold flow properties
of the biodiesel were improved.
 74

16

Cloud Point, oC 12

-4 JME-D
PME-D
-8
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.5 Variation of cloud point with biodiesel fraction

10

5
Pour Point, C

0
o

-5

-10

-15 JME-D
PME-D
-20
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.6 Variation of pour point with biodiesel fraction

5.1.5 Kinematic Viscosity

The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. It is

an important property of all liquid fuels since it affects the atomization of fuel
oils and the performance and wear of diesel pumps. The kinematic viscosity
( ) is defined as the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to the density of
oil. The experiments were carried out at 40oC for neat JME, neat PME,
 75

various JME-diesel blends and ethanol-JME blends using the Redwood

viscometer. The apparatus was based on the principle of measuring the time
of gravity flow in seconds of the fuel sample through a specified hole.
Dynamic viscosity measured by this method is expressed in centistokes or
mm2/s.

Dynamic viscosity of liquid fuels is given by,

µ = 0.0026 t – (1.78/t) for t < 100 seconds (5.1)
µ = 0.00247 t – (0.50/t) for t > 100 seconds (5.2)

where µ = dynamic viscosity in centistokes,

t = time of flow of a fixed amount of oil in seconds.

The measured values of kinematic viscosity at 40oC are 4.48 cSt,

5.21 cSt for JME and PME respectively, which are higher than the diesel fuel
(3.61 cSt). Since the maximum limit for kinematic viscosity of biodiesel as
per ASTM 6751(Biodiesel standard 2002) and IS 15607 is 6 cSt, the obtained
values of both biodiesel fuels are well within the international standards. The
kinematic viscosity at 40oC for raw jatropha oil is 35.6 cSt. It is important to
notice that transesterification process has significantly decreased the viscosity
of JME to 4.48 cSt.

The kinematic viscosity values of different JME-diesel blends with

increasing concentration of JME (0 to 100%) are shown in Figure 5.7. It is
observed that increasing the content of biodiesel in the blend resulted in the
corresponding remarkable increase in the kinematic viscosity. The higher
viscosity of biodiesel fuel compared to diesel fuel makes it an excellent
lubricating additive (Graboski et al 1996). Fatty acid composition has a
significant effect on the viscosity of biodiesel fuels. The fatty acid
compositions of fats and oils are feedstock dependent and are also affected by
factors such as climate conditions, soil type, plant health, and plant maturity
upon harvest.
 76

6.5

Kinematic viscosity, cSt 6

JME-D
5.5 PME-D
ASTM limit
5
4.5

4
3.5
3
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.7 Variation of viscosity of biodiesel-diesel blends with

biodiesel content

5
E-JME
M-JME
Kinematic Viscosity, cSt

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Alcohol Content, vol.%

Figure 5.8 Variation of viscosity of alcohol-biodiesel blends with

biodiesel content

The kinematic viscosity values of different blends with increasing

concentration of ethanol in ethanol-JME blends are shown in Figure 5.8.
Since the kinematic viscosity of neat JME is higher than that of diesel fuel, it
 77

can be reduced by blending it with ethanol. Ethanol and methanol are having
kinematic viscosity of 1.41 cSt and 0.59 cSt respectively at 40oC.

5.1.6 Net Calorific Value

Heat of combustion is one of the most important fuel properties.

Gross calorific value of petroleum fuels are in the range of 42 to 47.5 MJ/kg,
the higher value being for gasoline and lower for heavy fuel oils. Petroleum
products are high in hydrogen content (11.8% to 14.5%) and hence their net
calorific value is less than the gross calorific value by 2.6 to 3.2 MJ/kg.
Calorific value of fuel is determined by using a bomb calorimeter. The net
calorific value of JME, PME and diesel fuel is 39.875 MJ/kg, 37.26 MJ/kg
and 42.5 MJ/kg respectively. The net calorific value of JME is only 6.17%
less than that of diesel fuel. A similar result was obtained for JME by many
researchers (Sundaresan et al 2007, Achten et al 2008, Banapurmath et al
2008 a).

The net calorific value of JME-diesel blends and PME-diesel blends

are shown in Figure 5.9. The net calorific values of all biodiesel-diesel blends
tested were lower than that of diesel fuel. Since the net calorific values of
both JME and PME fuels are lower than that of diesel fuel, as the biodiesel
content in the blend increases, the net calorific value of the blend reduces.
When 20% substitution (B20) is made by JME and PME, the reduction in net
calorific value of the fuel blend is only 1.34% and 2.45% respectively. It is
seen from the Fig. 5.9 that the calorific values of B20 blend of JME and PME
are in close agreement with the base diesel fuel.

Figure 5.10 shows the net calorific values of ethanol-JME blends

and methanol-JME blends. The net calorific value of ethanol is only
26.88 MJ/kg. Hence the net calorific values of ethanol-JME blends reduce as
the content of ethanol in the blend increases. For E50J50 and M50J50 blends
 78

44
JME-D

Calorific Value, MJ/kg

PME-D
42

40

38

36
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.9 Variation of calorific value with biodiesel fraction

45
E-JME
M-JME
Calorific Value, MJ/kg

35

25

15
0 20 40 60 80 100
Alcohol Content, vol.%

Figure 5.10 Variation of calorific value with alcohol fraction

the net calorific values are 33.31 MJ/kg and 29.77 MJ/kg which are nearly
22% and 30% lower than that of base diesel fuel. For E15J20D65 and
M15J20D65 fuels the net calorific values are 39.63 MJ/kg and 38.55 MJ/kg
which are nearly 6.7% and 9.3% lower compared to diesel fuel. The heat of
combustion of tri-compound fuel blends decreased, when greater amounts of
ethanol or methanol and biodiesel were added, which is due to the their lower
heating value. These results have the same trend as those reported earlier by
Ajav and Akingbehin (2002), Fernando and Hanna (2004), and Cheenkachorn
 79

et al (2004). Lower heating value of a fuel has a direct influence on the power
output of an engine. This suggests that in order to produce the same power in
diesel engines, more quantities of alcohol-biodiesel fuel blend should be
injected depending on their calorific values. However, it seems that the
heating value of the tri-compound blends containing alcohol lower than 15%
were not much different from conventional diesel.

5.1.7 Acidity

The maximum value of the acidity of biodiesel as per the ASTM

6751 is 0.80 mgKOH/g and IS 15607 limits it to only 0.50 mgKOH/g. The
acidity value for the JME produced by the transesterification process was
found to be 0.48 mgKOH/g, which was well within the limit imposed by most
of the international standards for biodiesel fuel.

5.1.8 Sulfur Content

Sulfur content in the fuel was determined by bomb calorimeter.

Sulfur is largely present in the fuel in the form of corrosive organic
compounds. On combustion, it gives off foul gases. The maximum value of
sulfur content on mass basis for biodiesel as per the ASTM 6751 is 0.05% and
it is only 0.005% for IS 15607. Sulfur content increases with increase in
boiling range of products (Gupta 2004). Since the boiling range of the
biodiesel fuel is low, the sulfur content of the biodiesel fuel is usually very
low. JME produced by the transesterification process possesses only 0.004%
on mass basis, which is within the limit imposed by most of the international
standards. Only traces of sulfur were found in ethanol and methanol.

5.1.9 Ash Content

The ash content of a fuel or oil is given as the percentage by weight

of the organic residue left after ignition of the fuel. Ash in the fuel is
determined by gradually burning a weighed quantity of fuel in a silica
 80

crucible and its charred contents at 800oC. Ash content determination was
carried out by an extraction method.

The ash content in the fuel is given by,

% Ash = (w/W)  100 (5.3)

where w is weight of ash in gram, and

W is weight of sample fuel in gram.

The amount of ash in the petroleum products is normally very low. It

increases with the viscosity of the fuel, since most of the original inorganic
impurities allowed to remain in the crude are concentrated in the primary
residue.

The ash content of the biodiesel-type fuels is regulated in some of

the international standards and in these standards the upper limit is set at 0.01
to 0.02% (Rosca et al 2005). The ash content for the JME produced is
0.001%, which is within the requirements of the standards. The ash content
for ethanol and methanol is negligible. Hence it is expected that use of the
neat JME, JME-diesel blends and alcohol-JME blends will not cause any
major problems concerning soot formation on the injector tip and inside the
combustion chamber.

5.1.10 Water and Sediment Content

The sediment and water content determination was carried out for
JME and both are represented as percent of fuel sample using the following
expressions:

% sediment = (weight of sediment / weight of fuel sample)  100

(5.4)

% water = (weight of water / weight of fuel sample)  100 (5.5)

 81

The sediment content in JME was negligible, while the water

content in it is 0.43%. The maximum limit of water content specified by both
ASTM 6751 and IS 15607 is 0.05%. Thus, for the JME produced from
jatropha curcas oil, water and sediment content is within the maximum limit
prescribed by the international standards.

5.1.11 Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR)

The carbon residue is the percentage of carbonaceous residue left

after the distillation of crude or its products in the absence of air. The
determination of CCR is important for any fuel, lubricant and cracking of feed
stock etc. Carbon deposits foul the surface, result in wear and scoring of
cylinder wall and affect the regeneration of cracking catalyst. It is determined
by Conradson apparatus, which is normally used for fuel oil. In conradson
method, a weighed quantity of fuel is taken in a crucible, which is placed in
an iron crucible having a cover with a small opening. These are, then placed
in a third crucible and covered with a hood and strongly heated at a specified
rate and the residue is cooled and weighed. The result is expressed as
percentage of the residue on the original weight taken. The CCR value
obtained for JME produced is 0.01% and 0.159% for ethanol. Due to 10.6%
fuel oxygen in JME, the measured carbon content in it is reduced to 77.4%
compared to 87.3% in base diesel fuel (Hamasaki et al 2001). The reduced
carbon content in JME may be the reason for the low level of CCR value in it.
The maximum limit for the CCR level as per both ASTM 6751 standard and
IS 15607 is 0.05% on mass basis. The obtained value for JME is well within
the limits imposed by the international standards.

5.1.12 Iodine Value and Saponification Number

Iodine value is a measure of the degree of saturation or number of

double bonds per mass sample. If iodine value is less, saturation is more. The
 82

measured iodine value of JME produced in this study is 99. High iodine value
of JME indicates the more quantity of unsaturated compositions in JME. The
measured saponification number of JME produced by transesterification
process and used in this study is 183.

5.1.13 Cetane Number Estimation

Since the necessary facility is not available, the cetane number of

biodiesel was estimated by using measured saponification number and iodine
value of JME. Cetane number of biodiesel is given by (Bekal and Babu 2008)

CN = 46.3 + (5458/SN) – (0.225  IV) (5.6)

where CN is cetane number,

SN is saponification number, and
IV is iodine value.

Thus for JME, the measured SN = 183, and IV = 99.

CN = 46.3 + (5458/183) – (0.225  99)

Hence for JME the estimated CN = 53.85. The cetane number of ethanol was
extremely low (5 to 7) compared to the diesel fuel cetane number (45 to 47).
Using 12% ethanol with diesel fuel reduced the cetane number of the fuel
blend to 40 (Rahimi et al 2009). But adding JME improved ethanol–diesel
cetane number due to higher cetane number (53.85) of JME in the present
case. This cetane number could be regarded as a suitable one to be used in
diesel engines.

5.1.14 Copper Strip Corrosion Test

Several components of the engine, fuel delivery and fuel tank are
made of copper and copper alloys. Copper strip corrosion test is used to detect
 83

the corrosiveness of automotive diesel and gasoline, kerosene, aviation

gasoline and turbine fuel, lubricating oil and certain other petroleum products
(Indian Standard methods of test for petroleum and its products 1976). In this
test a polished copper strip was immersed in a given quantity of sample fuel
and heated to certain temperature and the characteristics of copper strip were
tested periodically. The copper strip was removed at the end of the test period,
washed and compared with ASTM copper strip corrosion standards.

Table 5.5 Copper strip classifications

Classification Designation Description

1 Slight tarnish
2 Moderate tarnish
3 Dark tarnish
4 Corrosion
Light orange, almost the same as a
freshly polished strip
Multicolored with lavender blue, over
laid on claret red or brassy or gold
Magenta overcast on brassy strip
multicolored with red and green
Transparent black, dark grey or brown
with peacock green or jet black or
graphite

The CSN 656507, ASTM 6751 and EN 14214 standards (Biodiesel

standard 2003) refer to copper strip corrosion (Rosca et al 2005). The
maximum limit for the copper strip corrosion level as per ASTM 6751
standard is dark tarnish (not worse than 3) and IS 15607 imposes a limit of
slight tarnish (not worse than 1). Copper strip corrosion test conducted for
JME and ethanol shows moderate tarnish, that is not worse than 2 as shown in
Table 5.5. The copper strip corrosion test conducted on JME-diesel blends
indicated slight tarnish (not worse than 1), while the ethanol-JME blends
indicated moderate tarnish (not worse than 2). Since both ethanol and JME
are slightly corrosive in nature, moderate tarnish was observed for ethanol-
JME blends. The values obtained from the copper strip corrosion tests
 84

conducted on neat JME, JME-diesel blends and ethanol-JME blends are

within the indicated values by most of the international standards. The results
obtained from copper strip corrosion test, water content test and acidity test
on JME show that JME and its blends with diesel fuel can be used in diesel
engines without corrosive problems of engine components.

5.1.15 Oxygen Content

The oxygenated fuel is the most common additive that improves

fuel combustion and reduces the engine emission level. Several oxygenated
compounds were used for this purpose but the most common ones are
biodiesel, alcohols, and ethers. Ethers that are octane enhancers increase fuel
oxygen content but their use is limited because of the cancer risk probability
and they are non-renewable. On the other hand, ethanol is an aliphatic alcohol
which is produced from plants and agricultural wastes and is more suitable in
comparison to other alcohols. Experimental results showed that oxygen
content on mass basis of ethanol, methanol, JME, PME and diesel was 35%,
50%, 10.6%, 11% and 0% respectively. The oxygen content of ethanol-
biodiesel-diesel blends and methanol-biodiesel-diesel blends was calculated
from equation 5.7 and 5.8 respectively (Rahimi et al 2009).

Bo = 34.8 e Ve + 10.6 b Vb (5.7)

Bo = 50 m Vm+ 10.6 b Vb (5.8)

where Bo is the mass of oxygen in blend (wt %),

e, density of ethanol (g/cm3),
m, density of methanol (g/cm3),
b, density of biodiesel (g/cm3),
Ve, volume of ethanol in blend (vol. %),
Vm, volume of methanol in blend (vol. %), and
Vb, volume of biodiesel in blend (vol. %).
 85

12

9
Oxygen Content, Wt %

3
JME-D
PME-D
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Biodiesel Content, vol.%

Figure 5.11 Variation of oxygen content with biodiesel fraction

60
Oxygen Content, Wt %

40

20
E-JME
M-JME
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Alcohol Content, vol. %

Figure 5.12 Variation of oxygen content with alcohol fraction

The variation of oxygen content of JME-diesel and PME-diesel

blends are shown in Figure 5.11, while for ethanol-JME and methanol-JME
blends are shown in Figure 5.12. Adding the oxygenated fuels like biodiesel,
ethanol or methanol with diesel fuel increases the oxygen content of the
blend. On the other hand it reduces the heating value of the blend, which is
depicted in Figures 5.9 and 5.10 respectively.
 86

5.2 SUMMARY

 Laboratory tests were carried out to determine the properties like

specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, cloud point, pour point,
flash point, fire point and calorific value of the fuels used.
 The net calorific value of JME is only 6.17% less than that of
diesel fuel. There was no much difference in the heating values
of the conventional diesel and tri-compound blends containing
alcohol lower than 15%.
 Addition of ethanol/methanol improves low temperature flow
properties of biodiesel. Blending alcohol with biodiesel-diesel
improves oxygen content, volatility, while it reduces density and
viscosity compared to biodiesel-diesel blends.
 Biodiesel is known to act as an emulsifier or a co-solvent for
ethanol/methanol that allows more alcohol in the blend fuel.
Solubility and stability of alcohol in fuel blends, and blend
tolerance for water will be greatly improved without other
additives.
 Most of the measured properties of fuels tested are well within
the limit imposed by National and International Standards for
diesel engine fuels.

Further experimental investigation is required to compare the

performance and emissions of biodiesel and its blends with diesel fuel, an
experimental setup was fabricated which is explained in the chapter 6.