Indian Anthropological Association

Health of Tribal Women and Children: An Interdisciplinary Approach

Author(s): Sunita Reddy
Source: Indian Anthropologist, Vol. 38, No. 2 (July-Dec. 2008), pp. 61-74
Published by: Indian Anthropological Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41920074
Accessed: 06-01-2020 17:47 UTC

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 Health of Tribal Women and Children: An
Interdisciplinary Approach

Sunita Reddy

Abstract

Anthropological studies on health of tribais give rich ethnographic details about

their cultural practices, perception and behavioural aspects. Most of these studies
are at micro level, focussing on a single tribe or tribes in a state . These studies have
their own strength to understand the problem in a particular time and space.
However, very few anthropological studies move out of the behavioural and cultural
contexts. They fail to link the larger issues of socio-economic, political, and
ecological factors with the accessibility, affordability and availability of health
services to understand the health of the tribal populations, especially maternal and
child health. In order to develop realistic health plans based on the felt needs of
tribal women and children, it is necessary to recognize the heterogeneity of the
tribes. Especially, in today's context, the tribal and nomadic women who migrate,
who are in the occupations which are hazardous, sexually exploitative, and in the
regions grappling with ethnic conflicts need special attention.

Keywords: Interdisciplinary Approach, Health Culture, Health Indicators, Tribal

women and children, Health Policy.

Introduction

Medical anthropologists have built upon historical and cultural analyses over a
long period that indicate an array of differences with respect to the metaphors and
meanings that signify health. Various studies have emphasized the relevance of
cultural fabric that give coherence and depth to meanings and how cosmology and
ethical traditions come to define the body in the state of sickness and well being
(Smelser and Baltes, 2001; Marriot, 1955; Carstairs, 1955; Hasan, 1967; Gould,
1967; Khare, 1963).

'Health Culture', a concept introduced by Banerji (1982:2), is taken to include

cultural perceptions, the cultural meaning of health problems encountered by the
community and health behaviour in terms of various cultural devices available and
accessible to the community. The concept is used to underline the need for
understanding community health behaviour, availability and accessibility of health
institutions and cultural meaning and perceptions of health problems as an integral

SUNITA REDDY, Assistant Professor, Centre for Community Health and Social Medicine,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. E.mail: sunitareddy@mail.jnu.ac.in

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 62 HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN

whole. It is contended that, in a com

state of health and disease, response
with these health problems all form
whole. It is a sub-cultural complex w
community.

This conceptual understanding of health culture breaks the barriers of individual

disciplines which not only create obstructions to acquiring a proper understanding
of problem but play a downright negative role by giving a distorted and, at times,
highly slanted picture of the problem (Baneņi, 1982:208). A value position that
people 'default' in seeking treatment, and must be reproached and should be
'educated' so that they mend their ways on the lines prescribed by their 'educators'.
Such value propositions emerged in the case studies by Marriot (1955) and
Carstairs (1955). Hasan (1967) also reported that Indian Villagers should be
reproached for what he perceived as their 'superstitious' and 'unscientific health
practices.' Writings of Gould (1967) and Khare (1963) too are in the same mould.
So pervasive has been this tendency to accuse the people and their culture while
regarding the technology and the agency delivering it with considerable awe and
respect (Baneiji, 1982: 215). Banerji presented the concept of health culture to
counter these not very desirable trends in medical anthropology. Health culture was
introduced as a component of medical anthropology to provide better balance to
methods and concepts in medical anthropology. Sahu's study (1991) on health
culture of the Oraon in Rourkela Steel Town in Orissa, too found that the felt needs
for various services remain unfulfilled because of many barriers in the path of their
access to these health institutions.

Current studies on health, from critical medical anthropological perspectives, focus

on local contexts where concepts of health and illness are recognized and
responded to. Such studies also trace the effects of global flows of commodities,
information, finance, images, people and pathogens on such world (Baer, Singer
and Süsser, 1997; Kleinman, 1997; Hahn, 1999; Farmer 1999; Singer, 1994).
Critical medical anthropology raises important questions about the impact of global
political and economic structures and processes on health and disease. It expands
the context within which medical anthropology operates and brings it closer to the
perspective of public health practice by explicitly seeking to contribute to the
creation of global health systems that "serve the people" (Baer, Singer and Süsser,
1997:33). It focuses on health care systems and how they function at multiple
levels. Anthropologists have been as interested in the social roots and
consequences of health (and illness) as in their cultural representations. But what
most particularly characterizes the anthropological perspective is the use of
ethnography to understand health, illness and health care. Anthropological
perspectives on health bring together individual and collective realities in the way

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Indian Anthropologist (2008) 38:2, 61-74 63

they are organized, narrated, contested and i

trajectories (Kleinman, 1995).

Methodology

This paper has emerged out of author's reflections on her earlier anthropological
micro studies informed by public health perspectives going beyond cultural
emphasis linking with wider and larger socio-economic and political context. The
present paper is primarily based on secondary literature and tries to look at the
status of women and children's health and factors behind the high mortality and
morbidity among the tribes while addressing the heterogeneity among them and
their specific health needs. Due to paucity of desegregated data on the health of
women and children, this paper raises issues which need to be taken into
consideration for policy planning in health for tribal women. The argument in the
current paper is substantiated by the empirical research done among the 'Konda
Reddi' tribes of Andhra Pradesh and among the 'primitive tribal groups' - Great
Andamanese', 'Onges' and 'Jarawas', along with 'Nicobarese' - of Andaman and
Nicobar islands,.

Background

The tribal population comprising roughly eight percent of the total population of
India, i.e., about 68 million persons (excluding Jammu & Kashmir, 1991 census),
inhabit widely varying ecological and geo-climatic regions (hilly, forest, tarai,
desert, coastal, etc.) in different concentrations throughout the country. Most of the
Indian tribes have varied economy from subsistence agriculture to shifting
cultivation to hunting, gathering, herding and fishing, etc. Different developmental
works undertaken in the tribal terrains, due to their rich natural resources, displaced
and alienated the tribais from their land by the mainlanders and driven them further
into poverty, deprivation and dependency. The tribal sub-plans do provide
substantial financial outlays but in the absence of a holistic frame and co-ordinated
implementation, results have been less than expected. In order to address the health
of the women and children from the tribes it is necessary to take into consideration
various aspects, their geographical locations, their position in the continuum of
development, the literacy levels, the economic base, political participation, the
levels of integration and assimilation, and the external agencies and factors
impacting their lives.

Health Status of Tribal Women and Children

The socio-cultural problems tribal women, their economic rights, participation in

management, access to employment, food, health, etc., have not been focusse

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 HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN
64

much. There are only a few studi

1987; Singh, Vyas and Mann,
indicating existence of gender ine
participation in social and econ
reported that there is a need for p
time and place so that relevant
implemented. There is a greater n
status and role of tribal women
planning for their welfare more m
done on these lines.

Maternal and child health care is an important aspect of health seeking behaviour,
which is largely neglected among the tribais. The planners have to take into
consideration the lifestyle, beliefs, cultural milieu, social organization and the
channels of communication of the tribal people before introducing developmental
activities. The MCH services are almost non-existent and the childhood mortality is
comparatively high. Comprehensive area specific health related studies are limited;
most of the available studies are isolated, fragmentary and did not cover the various
dimensions of health affecting the status of tribal women (Basu, 1990).

Early marriage, successive pregnancies accompanied with low calorie of food

intake and inaccessibility, and under utilization of medical facilities lead to high
maternal morbidity and mortality rate. 'Maternal depletion' is thus the result of
early mating, continuous cycles of pregnancy and lactation. The inadequate diet
and uninterrupted overwork lead to cumulative disorders such as anaemia, general
malnutrition, premature aging and early death (Basu, 1990).

Table 1. Teenage Pregnancy (15-19 years), Motherhood (in %), TFR and
anaemia status

Percentage who are:

Percentage who have had a live birth

Percentage who are pregnant with first 4.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
child

Percentage who had begun childbearing

Number of women

Total Fertility Rate

Any Anaemia

NFHS - III (2

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Indian Anthropologist (2008) 38:2, 61-74 65

National Family Health Survey III (2005-06) provides inf

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, other Backward
not belong to these communities for a number of RCH
to the Millennium Development Goals. A comparative st
RCH components for SC, STs, OBCs and others against t
is given above.

Comparative picture of Scheduled Castes (SCs), sche

Backward Classes (OBCs) and others show that the statu
in all the social and health indicators. The following
and motherhood shows the proportion of women in the
started bearing children is higher among the women fr
communities than from OBC (16%) and others (12%).
the tribes is the highest with 3.12, followed by SC and

Nutritional anaemia is an acute problem for women i

tribal belts, with as high as 68.5% with any form of an
heavy workload and anaemia has a profound effect o
physical health. Anaemia lowers her resistance to fatigue
under conditions of stress and increases susceptibility t
malnutrition, which is quite common among the trib
health problem; especially for those having many pregn
affects the reproductive performance and the birth, wh
chances of survival and to its subsequent growth and dev

National Family Health Survey III (2005-06) also reports

lower access to antenatal care services and information
OBC and others. Large percentage of women in trib
(70.9%), compared to SC (58%), OBC (51.8%) and ot
tribes, 50.2% deliveries are done by dais (traditional
friends and relatives. The expectant mothers to a large
against tetanus. Studies have shown that 'crude' birth p
tribal groups like the Kutia, the Kondh, the Kharia, the
main causes of maternal mortality are considered to
practices of parturition, puerperal infection, anaemi
labour and sometimes ruptured uterus (Basu, 1 990).

Most of the tribes are dependent on their ecosystem: fo

streams, and in turn conserve and protect them. The fo
most parts of the world is women-centred. Food o
cultivation and from minor forest produces (MFP) like f
from the forest, extraction from herbs, roots and anima

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 , , HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN
00

these incur an excessive workload on women. Because of the extensive f

the trees, the distances between the villages and the forest areas ha
forcing the tribal women to walk longer distances in search of minor for
and firewood.

Given this, even women in advanced stages of pregnancy were required to work in
the agricultural fields or walk great distances to collect fuel and minor forest
produce (Dasgupta, 1988). Due to forest conservation Act, tribais are left with
small patch of land to till. As they cultivate the same land repeatedly, the land
becomes less fertile, and due to limited technology and inputs the quantity and
quality of the produce reduces. As a result of deforestation, the availability of food
for the tribal families has reduced. This has serious implications particularly for
those women who are responsible for the provision and distribution of food, in
cases of shortage; they even deprive themselves of food in order to feed others
(Ali, 1980; Reddy, 2007).

Very few women from the tribal areas among the Konda Reddi access the pre-
natal, peri-natal or post natal care offered by the formal institutions. The birthing is
most often home based with local dai or an older women and sometimes even
husband assisting in delivery. Most often they consult local shaman or folk healer
and have strong faith in their traditional knowledge. A strong and rich ethno
medicine and excellent knowledge of pharmacopeia has been reported by the
Konda Reddi, which is getting lost due to deforestation. Emphasis on family
planning has further made tribais to become resistant and suspicious about the
health services. However, the younger generation women among the Konda Reddi
intend to have fewer children because of the fear of painful birthing process and
old women continue to think it is better to have more children as they are not sure
of their survival till adulthood. It was commonly reported that they were children
of first mother or second mother. On probing it was found that surrogate marriage
practice was quite common and Konda Reddi men marry their deceased wife's
sister due to maternal mortality (Reddy, 2004).

Child Health among Tribes

Among the standard indicators of health, the neonatal mortality, post neonatal
mortality, infant mortality rate, child mortality and under five mortality are
generally considered as a crucial indicators of the health status of the child
population. The NFHS III gives a comparative picture among different population
groups, and shows worse child mortality, under five years mortality among STs,
followed by SC groups.

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Indian Anthropologist (2008) 38:2, 61-74 67

Table 2. All India Child Health Indicators acr

Neonatal Mortality 46.3 39.3 38.3 34.5

(NN)

Post Neonatal mortality 20.1 22.3 18.3 14.5

Infant Mortality

Child Mortality 23.2 35.8 17.3 10.8

Under Five Mortality 88.1 95.7 72.8 59.2

Source- NFHS- III (2005-06)

Table 3. Comparative picture of % of children age 12-2

specific vaccinations at any time before the survey

Vaccines

BCG

DPT I

II

III

Polio O

Measles

All Vaccines

No Vaccines

% with a 34.8 27.4 34.5 46.0

vaccination
card seen |

Sourc

A muc
from a

Malnu
depriv
in phy

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 ,0 HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN
OÖ

ST children under five years age classified as malnourished, according to

anthropometric indices and nutritional status- height -for-age, weight -for- height
and weight-for age, are more than SC, OBC and others (NFHS-III, 2005-06: 270).
ST children with any form of anaemia are 76.8% compared to SC (72.2%), OBC
(70.3%) and others (63.8%). Among the ST children 26.3% are with mild, 47.2%
moderate and 3.3% severe anaemia (NFHS III, 2005-06: 289). Three morbidity
conditions - fever, acute respiratory infection and diarrhoea - are the most
common forms of illness among the ST children.

Poverty is the prime cause for ill health, persistent morbidity and early death.
However, lack of access to right foods: iron, protein and micro-nutrients such as
iodine and vitamins, is the principal cause for the very high incidence of nutritional
deficiency disease: anaemia, diarrhoea, night blindness, goitre, etc. These factors
combine with lack of access to basic health care services is the main reason for the
unexceptionally adverse health indicators.

Anthropometric measurements that look at various nutritional indices show various

grades of nutritional anaemia and vitamin A deficiency. It is conventionally
believed that unhygienic personal habits and adverse cultural practices relating to
child rearing, breastfeeding and weaning practices are the factors behind poor
health among the tribal children. Tribal children, in fact, face certain adverse
realities like insufficient food intake, frequent infections, and lack of access to
health services. Under-nutrition is a well known contributory factor to high
mortality in children due to infectious diseases. High infant mortality and under
five mortality rates among scheduled tribes have been observed. The problem of
under-nutrition amongst pre-school tribal children needs to be addressed through
comprehensive preventive, promotive and curative measures. Studies further
suggest that the community needs to be educated about environmental sanitation
and personal hygienic practices, and also proper child rearing, breast-feeding and
weaning practices. However, appropriate nutritional programmes should be
designed to meet their requirements. A comprehensive child survival programme
with supplementary feeding, growth and development monitoring and early,
prompt treatment during illness needs to be devised and implemented, ensuring
community participation (Rao, 2005).

Interdisciplinary Approach

Maternal mortality is reported to be high among various tribal groups. Studies on

maternal and child health care practices are largely neglected in various tribal
groups. Most of the anthropological ethnographic studies come up with factors
behind their ill health as 'unhygienic practices,' 'lack of awareness,' 'fatalistic or
irrational unscientific view,' 'illiteracy,' and not seeking proper medical care.

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Indian Anthropologist (2008) 38:2, 61-74 69

Thus, the approach is 'reductionist' which blames th

practices. Very few studies have gone beyond these cu
behavioural recommendations and linked the ill he
political, ecological, developmental issues.

The issues of power differential and 'competence

patients, medical dominance, the vulnerability of patie
resistance is hardly studied with respect to the tribal
the functionalist analyses of power in the medica
tendency to focus on the micro properties of the inte
patients without analyzing the social and political conte
take place. The political economy approach views m
outcome of a power struggle among the number of dif
intent on achieving high status and power. Rarely stu
availability, un-affordability and inaccessibility to hea
have looked into the doctor - patient relationships (Sah

The non-utilization, alienation and non-compliance by

be understood not as an individual problem, ignoran
tribal population towards modern medicine but one nee
context of social status of the tribais in the social
differentials between the doctor or health worker and
studies need to be taken on these aspects of health car
the people.

It has been recognized that there are barriers to accessing services in terms of poor
connectivity to health centres because of distance, topography, and lack of public
transport; location disadvantage of sub-centres, PHCs, CHCs. There is a lack of
suitable transport facility for quick referral of emergency cases. From the
provider's side, lack of accommodation, poor infrastructure, large scale
absenteeism and vacancies, poorly trained and unmotivated manpower, are the
reasons for the near absence of health care services. Due to poor working
environment and incentives to work in remote areas, service providers do not feel
motivated to work, further adding to the weak monitoring and supervision system.

According to Tenth Plan document, in order to ensure adequate access to health

care services for the tribal population with 20,769 Sub-Centres, 3286 Primary
Health Centres and 541 Community Health Centres, 142 Hospitals and 78 mobile
clinics and 22305 dispensaries have been established in tribal areas. Under the
National Anti-Malaria Program (NAMP) 100 identified predominantly tribal
districts in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa
and Rajasthan are covered. In spite of all these, the access to and utilization of

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70 HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN

health care remains suboptimal and

population continue to be poor (GO
immediate concern which needs to
important action research.

Among the experiments for improv

tribais in Orissa, additional central ass
with a fixed tour schedule. In Karnata
are running PHCs in tribal areas. Th
due to the commitment of individuals
replicate and scale up (http://plann
/strgrp/stgp_fmlywel/sgfw_ch8.pdf.).

Challenges

There is no desegregated data on the h

outcome measures, and data on heal
micro studies now and then give a pro
Very few studies have tried to link th
issues of poverty, unemployment, ina
heavy dependence on wage employmen
of employment, low education and oth
make necessary modifications in the p
earning capital assets, employment, hu

The health of tribal women has to be

in various tribes pursue various econo
more prone to accidents, fatigue, u
Women who belong to the nomadic
different strategies to cater to their
cities, like those from Jharkhand and
their employers, need special attentio
the Kanjar on the roadside require
continuum of development, some tr
Rajasthan, are economically, educati
tribes, where the educational levels
deprived. Within the tribes there may

With the developmental activities and

is necessary to understand the impact
are lured for exchange of forest prod
alcoholism among the tribes of Andam

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Indian Anthropologist (2008) 38:2, 61-74 71

Andamanese and Jarawas. The situation has come to an extent that the Jarawa have
started begging on the roads. Further, opening of the tribal areas in many places
across states - whether in Jharkhand and Chattisgarh, or Nilgiri Hills or Andaman
and Nicobar islands - is going to bring in various vices and factors for ill health for
the tribal women. It is reported that the Reproductive Tract Infections and Sexually
Transmitted Infections have been contacted from outside in these places. It is to be
explored how far the developmental activities have brought economic gains and
what losses they have incurred.

The tribes who inhabit the areas of ethnic conflict, like in North East, Naxal
conflict in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Andhra Pradesh, have serious
implications on the mental health of people. Women who are migrating to urban
areas as domestic labour, and those who are forced into drug and sex trafficking
have separate health needs. How to address the health needs of such a population is
a major challenge. The limited studies among the tribes and their health are due to
various reasons, starting from lack of funds to logistic problems and there are very
few social scientists who are willing to study in the remote and inaccessible areas.

Looking Ahead

In retrospect it becomes clear that the behaviouristic and culture specific studies are
not going to go too far in improving the health of the women and children in the
tribal areas. An interdisciplinary approach to tribal health is necessary to improve
the health status of the tribais. It is necessary to have a better understanding of their
living conditions and bring women to the centre stage of development. Safe
drinking water, roads, electricity, schools, and functional and affordable health
services are to be provided in the vicinity. Also, there is a need to ensure
livelihoods and food security to the tribais, especially to women and children.
Further, we need to ensure and protect their rights over the forest and other natural
resources in their areas.

It is imperative to take cognizance of the tribal situation vis-a-vis their ecosystem.

There is an immediate need to recognize and protect the traditional knowledge,
customs and practices of indigenous people. Further, there is a need for ethno-
botanical investigation and scientific enquiry to preserve their knowledge and
protect their valuable source of knowledge from vanishing. In order to reduce the
burden of women in collecting firewood, focus should be to increase the biomass in
nature and conservation of biodiversity. Women should be fully involved in
decision-making and in the implementation of sustainable development activities.
Priority should be given to gender-sensitive, participatory action-oriented research
and policy analysis. Measures should be taken to develop and include
environmental, social and gender impact analysis as an essential step in the

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 72 HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN

development and monitoring of pro

up that there is a need for a holisti
equity and development. Further as
food security, unemployment, h
resources, access to safe drinking
groups.

There are many urgent issues which need attention. Detailed information are
needed on maternal malnutrition, nutritional anaemia, nutritional status of pregnant
women and their nature of workload, the distribution of food within the family and
its effect on the nutritional status of women, the complications of pregnancy and of
childbirth, practices for parturition, maternal mortality, birth weight of children,
infant and childhood mortality and their sex differentials, nature of maternal and
child health care practices, attitude towards family planning, etc. Data base on all
the tribes has to be generated.

Tribal development strategies need to be more human-centred, which means

having an agenda that consists of provisioning of basic education, basic health care,
and capacity building within the framework of a stable and sustainable land use
policy, where there is a basic inter-linkage of the individual activities. It also means
better targeting so as to ensure an equitable development process. The development
paradigm will need to make health centre stage in the overall development strategy
(Rao, 1998).

The primary health care for tribal areas must be conceived and planned anew. The
priority problems must be decided based on the disease pattern of the concerned
tribal population. Problems like, accidents, burns, Sickle Cell disease, malaria,
T.B., leprosy, sexually transmitted disease, endemic goitre may need special
attention. Trained workers from outside may not be stable in the tribal areas, so the
tribais need to be selected and trained. Indigenous systems of health care and
indigenous practitioners should be incorporated into health care planning. Greater
role for voluntary organizations is required.

In order to generate data bank, compilation of all the micro studies published and
unpublished in various states should be done. Further, conduct a national survey
and produce desegregated data on the health conditions of various tribes. More
research studies should be carried out to see the implications of tourism in the
scheduled areas on the health of the women and children. Stringent and strict laws
should be made and implemented to protect the rights of the tribal people. Policy
related to use of forest lands, and health of the tribes should be favourable to the
tribes.

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Indian Anthropologist (2008) 38:2, 61-74 73

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. R.K. Mutatkar and Dr. Siva Prasad for their
would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editors

Note

This is a revised version paper of the paper presented in a national conference at India International
Centre, organized by Council for Social Development" dated 11-12 April, 2006.

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74 HEALTH OF TRIBAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN

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