A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK

URDU
METER

F. W. Pritchet
Kh. A. Khaliq

2
 ~~ INTRODUCTION
TO THE NEW ONLINE VERSION ~~
We said at the end of Chapter 8 in the original print edition that real
ahl-e zabaan were made and not born. That may have been only
partially the case then, but it's all too true by now. Traditionally-
educated ustads are a dying breed. Classical Urdu poetry, like so much
else, belongs less and less to those who simply inherit it, and more and
more to those who seek it out and adopt it for their own.

The very forces that have deprived us of traditionally-educated ustads,

however, have brought us the internet. Now Urdu poetry is international,
and we can share with each other across time and space. And of course
we still have Mir and Ghalib, and so much else besides. So dig in, you
ahl-e zabaan of the future, and learn to use the tools. Classical ghazal
poetry is an astonishing delight. The rewards are so rich that you won't
exhaust them in a lifetime.

Fran Pritchett
New York, July 2003

INTRODUCTION
to the original print edition (South Asian Studies, University of
Wisconsin at Madison, 1987)
This handbook is designed to be of use to English-speaking students of
Urdu poetry. Above all it will be helpful to those students for whom
English is a native language. One of the authors is such a student, while
the other has been teaching such students for years. We have written the
kind of book we can best use ourselves, for our own work; other students
and teachers have also found our approach helpful. Our method does not
assume a native speaker's instinct, an intuitive perception, or an "ear" for
poetry. Even a completely tone-deaf and unintuitive student can learn to
scan Urdu poetry with great accuracy. And a student who does have an
"ear" can also learn to hear, recite, and enjoy the oral rhythms of the
poetry as immediately as any native speaker. A determined student can
even compose metrically correct verse himself; a number of Westerners
have done so.
We do, however, assume the student's ability to understand the words of
a poem in their normal prose sense, and to pronounce them carefully and
correctly. This does not mean that only advanced students should study
poetry. On the contrary: we feel strongly that even beginning students

3
can enjoy poetry, and can profit by exposure to it. But the poetry chosen
for study should be suited to the student's background. The student who
cannot recognize and pronounce most of the words of a poem, and
cannot generally understand their grammar, cannot properly scan that
poem. No method can enable him to do so, and certainly not ours. Such
a student needs a good dictionary, a good teacher, or an easier poem; he
must generally understand the poem's words in order to correctly
evaluate its meter.
Another sort of student who can profitably use our method is the native
speaker of Urdu (or the Hindi-speaker who has learned Urdu script) who
has a serious interest in recitation or composition, but finds traditional
Urdu poetics intimidating. Virtually all existing accounts of Urdu meter
start with the elaborate metrical systems of Arabic and Persian poetic
theory. These systems are complex enough in themselves, and must be
further modified to suit a language for which they were not originally
intended. Our method differs from traditional accounts in being
completely descriptive and practical; it is designed to meet the
immediate needs of the student, rather than to explicate the orthodox
system or to develop any other comprehensive theory. Our method starts
with the poetry as actually encountered, and explains its scansion in
what we think is the simplest and most efficient way. The native speaker
who prefers poetry to poetic theory will find our handbook convenient.
Finally, we hope that our work will be of interest to those fully
conversant with traditional Urdu poetic theory. It may offer a few new
perspectives, and suggest different ways of looking at familiar
phenomena.
The first draft of this handbook was compiled during the course of the
Berkeley Urdu Language Program in Pakistan, 1979-1980, and our
earliest debts are to people associated with that program. The Program
owes its long and healthy career to Professor Bruce Pray of the
University of California at Berkeley, who has been a friend and
counsellor to us both. Dr. Ruth Laila Schmidt, Field Director for 1979-
1980, arranged for us to have the time and freedom for this project. One
of the Program's teachers, Arif Vaqar, and one of its participants, Mark
S. Pegors, took an especially strong interest in the project, and their
continuing suggestions and criticisms were most helpful. All those
involved in the Program encouraged us, and gallantly endured the hours
of heated discussion which we inflicted upon them. In particular we
thank Altaf Fatima, who has been a very good friend to us both, for her
counsel, encouragement, and many cups of tea.

4
After the first draft of the book was prepared in Lahore during 1979-
1980, circumstances made it impossible for the authors to work together
in completing it: Frances Pritchett had to return to the United States,
while Khaliq Ahmad Khaliq remained in Lahore. The later drafts,
including the final one, were therefore prepared by F. Pritchett after her
return to the United States. Although Khaliq Sahib has had a chance to
see them in a general way, the final responsibility for the shape of the
book, and for any errors it may contain, must be borne by F. Pritchett.
She thanks all her Urdu students at Columbia University who have made
use of the successive drafts of this book and contributed their
suggestions; Randolph Thornton in particular has taken a serious interest
in the project.
Above all, the handbook owes incomparably much to the close scrutiny
given it by Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, who is, among many other
distinctions, perhaps the best modern authority on Urdu meter. Faruqi
Sahib was kind enough to prepare extensive notes which became the
basis for our discussion of feet and meters, and to suggest appropriate
entries for the Bibliography. He also gave us the benefit of his advice
and criticism throughout. The chance to draw on his specialized
knowledge in this field was invaluable, and we are most grateful.
We also thank Professor Gopi Chand Narang, of Delhi University;
Professor M. A. R. Barker, of the University of Minnesota at
Minneapolis; and Professor Ralph Russell, formerly of the School or
Oriental and African Studies of the University of London, for their most
valuable comments and suggestions. Professors Muhammad Umar
Memon and Narayana Rao of the University of Wisconsin at Madison
have also given encouragement and help to the project. The elegant and
beautiful Urdu script which appears in this volume is generated by a
program called "Khushnavis," designed by Professor Donald Becker of
the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Professor Becker was most
generous with his help in preparing the manuscript and designing its
printed format, and the book owes him the ultimate debt: it could not
have existed in its present form without his work.
Frances W. Pritchett
New York, 1987
Khaliq Ahmad Khaliq
Lahore, 1980

5
*INTRODUCTION*
*ONE == GENERAL RULES*
*1.0 == Why should you learn meter?*
*1.1 == Words, syllables, and letters*
*1.2 == Syllables: two letters or one*
*1.3 == Syllables: start with consonants if possible*
*1.4 == Syllables: follow pronunciation*
*1.5 == Long and short syllables*
*TWO == FLEXIBILITY*
*2.1 == Flexible words: the common monosyllables*
*2.2 == Flexible syllables: word-final vowels*
*2.3 == Flexible syllable divisions within words*
*2.4 == Flexible spellings to indicate scansion*
*THREE == SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS*
*3.1 == Word-grafting*
*3.2 == i.zaafat constructions*
*3.3 == o constructions*
*3.4 == al constructions*
*FOUR == IRREGULAR WORDS*
*4.1 == Orthography and pronunciation*
*4.2 == Irregular Persian words*
*4.3 == Irregular Indic words*
*4.4 == Irregular Arabic words*
*FIVE == METRICAL FEET*
*SIX == METERS*
*6.1 == Meter list*
*6.2 == Mir's "Hindi" meter*
*6.3 == The rubaa((ii meters*
*SEVEN == SCANNING AS CODE-BREAKING*
*EIGHT == FROM EYE TO EAR*
*NINE == BIBLIOGRAPHY*
*9.1 == Works in English*

6
*9.2 == Works in Urdu*
*TEN == EXERCISES*
*Exercises 1-6*
*Exercises 7-12*
*Exercises 13-18*
*Exercises 19-24*
*ELEVEN == NOTES TO EXERCISES*
*TWELVE == GLOSSARY*

7
ONE == GENERAL RULES

1.0 == Why should you learn meter?

Because it's there, of course. It was carefully put there by the classical
ghazal poets, and was completely expected by their audiences. No poet
wanted (or dared) to break the metrical rules; people ridiculed each other
for even the smallest accidental mistake. Meter was there because it was
indispensable to how the classical ghazal works. Here are some of the
things you can do with the help of meter:
*You can memorize verses very easily, because meter creates such
strong and consistent rhythmic patterns.
*You can recite verses with proper understanding and intonation, and
thus with much more pleasure for yourself and your audience; educated
listeners can easily tell whether somebody reciting a verse knows the
meter or not.
*You can compose ghazals of your own that are formally
indistinguishable from traditional ones.
*You can tell where there must, or might, or must not, be an i.zaafat
[i.zaafat]; this is often very important information.
*You can read na:zm [na:zm] and other forms of metrically freer
modern poetry with a much more subtle understanding of their
technique.
*You can detect many calligraphic or editorial errors, since most of them
create unmetrical lines.
*You can often reconstruct half-remembered verses in your mind, and
can tell whether they are formally correct.
NOTE: Urdu meter is not like English meter! If you have some
intuition and a reasonably good ear, you can read English poetry quite
well with very little knowledge of metrical theory. This is because there
is not, and never has been, any single universally-applied system of
English meter. Thus English metrical theory is retrospective fancy icing
on the cake. By contrast, Urdu meter is a large part of the cake itself.

8
It tells you exactly and reliably how the verses are made, and helps you
enjoy them to the fullest.

1.1 == Words, syllables, and letters

The basic units of analysis in our system are words, syllables, and
letters. Words are made of syllables, and syllables of letters. We don't
intend to define "word" in any special or technical way. We mean by
"word" what people generally mean in common usage: the smallest
independently meaningful unit of language. Given a line of poetry,
therefore, the student will have no trouble recognizing its division into
words.
The middle layer in the hierarchy, the syllable, is the crucial one for
metrical purposes. No line of poetry can be scanned until it has first been
broken into a series of syllables. Each word in the line of poetry must be
divided into metrical syllables according to the following three criteria.

1.2 == Syllables: two letters or one

The first criterion is that A SYLLABLE MUST CONSIST OF EITHER
TWO LETTERS OR ONE. For metrical purposes, LETTERS include:
*All the characters of the Urdu alphabet from alif [alif] to ye [ye], except
for the do-chashmii he [do-chashmii he] of aspiration and the nuun-e
;Gunnah [nuun-e ;Gunnah] of nasalization.
*The duplicate letter indicated by a tashdiid [tashdiid] on any letter.
*The madd [madd] which may appear over alif [alif].
*The hamzah [hamzah] sign, )) , when it appears within a word.
Letters do NOT include: the short vowels indicated by zer [zer], or zabar
[zabar], or pesh [pesh]; the dotless medial ye [ye] inserted into a word as
a "chair" for hamzah [hamzah]; the do-chashmii he [do-chashmii he] of
aspiration, and the nuun-e ;Gunnah [nuun-e ;Gunnah] of nasalization.
THE TREATMENT OF do-chashmii he: The do-chashmii he [do-
chashmii he] of aspiration, although it affects the pronunciation of the
syllable in which it occurs, is metrically invisible. This rule applies to
do-chashmii he in its proper modern usage, when it indicates an
aspirated consonant. The rule applies whether or not it is actually written
in the modern way, that is, as in khaanaa [khaanaa] rather than as in
kahnaa [kahnaa] . (Older texts often use a simple h , gol he [gol he] for
both forms.) The consonants which the do-chashmii he of aspiration may

9
normally follow are: b , p , t , ;T , j , ch , d , ;D , ;R , k , g [b, p, t, ;T, j,
ch, d, ;D, ;R, k, g].
In a few cases it may follow n [nuun], as in nannhaa , or l [laam], as in
duulhaa ; all such instances involve Indic words. Sometimes, however,
the two-eyed shape of do-chashmii he may be found outside the
environment of its proper usage, being written in place of the
independent letter gol he . In such cases it is to be treated as though it
were gol he .
THE TREATMENT OF ;N : The nuun-e ;Gunnah [nuun-e ;Gunnah]
of nasalization, although it affects the pronunciation of the syllable in
which it occurs, is also metrically invisible. It is often difficult for the
student to distinguish medial ;N the nasalizer from ordinary medial n ,
since they are written in the same way. We can offer one helpful rule of
thumb: in general, ;N the nasalizer can occur only after long vowels. The
only exceptions to this rule are a group of mostly Indic words in which
;N occurs in the first syllable. Except for a few rare cases--e.g.,
andheraa --these words begin with consonants: sa;Nbhalnaa ,
[sa;Nbhalnaa], sa;Nvaarnaa [sa;Nvaarnaa], mu;Nh [mu;Nh], ha;Nsnaa
[ha;Nsnaa], pha;Nsnaa [pha;Nsnaa], ba;Ndhnaa [ba;Ndhnaa], etc.
Almost all are verbs. Persian nouns, by contrast, more often have the full
n : rang [rang], band [band], rind [rind]. (The verb ra;Ngnaa
[ra;Ngnaa], however, has only a ;N .) Despite this handful of exceptions,
our rule that ;N occurs only after long vowels is generally reliable.

1.3 == Syllables: start with consonants

if possible
The second criterion is that A SYLLABLE MUST BEGIN WITH A
CONSONANT WHEREVER POSSIBLE. Since it's usually possible,
most syllables have one of the following forms:
*consonant + consonant, as in kab [kab]
*consonant + vowel, as in kaa [kaa]
*consonant alone, as in the k of kabhii [ka-bhii]
At the beginning of a word, it is not always possible for a syllable to
begin with a consonant. Thus the following forms also occur:
*a + vowel, as in the au of aur [au-r]
*a + consonant, as in ab [ab]
*a alone, as in the a of abhii [a-bhii]

10
*aa alone, as in the aa of aadmii [aa-d-mii]
It should be remembered that such syllables normally occur ONLY at
the beginning of a word. (The few exceptions to this pattern involve alif
madd ; most prominent among them is the word qur aan [qur-aa-n].
VOWELS: For metrical purposes, all the letters of the alphabet may be
considered to be consonants except:
* a , that is, alif , wherever it occurs
* aa , that is, alif madd , wherever it occurs
* o , ii , e -- that is, vaa))o and cho;Tii ye and ba;Rii ye --when they
occur as the SECOND letter in a syllable It should be remembered that
orthodox Urdu prosody, based on Arabic prosody, recognizes only
consonants, and considers all the letters of the alphabet to be consonants.
Our use of the terms "consonant" and "vowel" is a practical tactic for
mobilizing the linguistic intuitions of English speakers.
If o or either form of ye [ye] is doubled by a tashdiid [tashdiid], it is
pronounced both times as a consonant, as in tayyaar [tayyaar] or
ta.savvur [ta.savvur], even though it appears as the second letter of a
syllable. But this never changes the division of the syllables.
THE LETTER ((ain -- that is, (( --is usually pronounced as a vowel in
modern Urdu; sometimes it is not pronounced at all. Nevertheless, for
scansion purposes it behaves exactly like a consonant.
THE LETTER hamzah : Similarly, the letter )) [hamzah] within a word,
though of course it is pronounced as a glide, is to be treated for scansion
purposes as a consonant. Thus however problematical its status in Urdu
orthography and pronunciation, within our system it is clearly defined as
a letter and a consonant. It shares with all other consonants the ability to
begin a two-letter syllable, or to constitute a one-letter syllable, within a
word. (Vowels as a rule have this ability only at the beginning of a
word.) Furthermore, hamzah has one property all its own: it can never
appear as the second letter of a two-letter syllable.
By defining )) [hamzah] within a word as a full letter, we mean to
exclude the )) placed after a word-final alif in certain Arabic words. This
kind of Arabic )) is very rare and is almost never scanned at all even if it
does appear; see Section 4.4 for further discussion.
THE LETTER madd : The madd appears only over alif . The two
together, as aa , called alif madd , always form one syllable. The
appearance of madd thus always signals the beginning of a new syllable.
The syllable consisting of aa is the only all-vowel syllable which may

11
appear medially, within a word. But this is rare; almost always it occurs
at the beginning of a word.

1.4 == Syllables: follow pronunciation

The third criterion is that the division into syllables must follow normal
standard (prose) PRONUNCIATION as closely as possible. Much of the
time the syllable division will be obvious, even in the case of new
words.
In some cases, however, it will be necessary to ascertain the exact
pronunciation. Unfortunately, many Urdu dictionaries don't give
sufficiently detailed information on pronunciation to be helpful in
scanning. For most words, it's sufficient to ask an educated native
speaker and listen carefully to his or her pronunciation. Or you might
want to consult the very helpful book .si;h;hat-e alfaa:z , which provides
an extensive list of frequently mispronounced words (pp. 9-42), together
with their metrically correct breakdown into syllables. Or you could look
in your trusty Platts dictionary, or else consult the online Platts database
version.
THREE-LETTER THREE-CONSONANT WORDS: Especially hard
to pronounce and scan accurately are three-letter words composed of
three consonants. Most such words are Arabic in origin. The great
majority of these are divided into first a two-letter syllable, then a one-
letter syllable, as in qism [qis-m], mulk [mul-k], vaqt [vaq-t], farq [far-
q]. This tendency is particularly marked in those words which end in ;h
or (( , such as shar;h [shar-;h], sa:t;h [sa:t-;h], jam((a [jam-((a], qa:t((a
[qa:t-((a]. This division, inherited from Arabic, persists in poetry, even
though in many cases colloquial pronunciation has changed. There are
only a few exceptions: :tama(( [:ta-ma((], qada;h [qa-da;h], and the
convenient :tar;h which can be broken into either [:tar-;h] or [:ta-ra;h] at
the poet's pleasure.
Note that words that contain any of the letters ;s , ;h , ;z , .s , .z , :s , :z ,
(( , ;G [;s , ;h , ;z , .s , .z , :s , :z , (( , ;G ] are almost certainly Arabic in
origin. Words that contain p , ch , zh , g [p , ch , zh , g], or aspirated or
retroflex consonants, are definitely not.
A minority of three-letter three-consonant words, including both Arabic
and non-Arabic ones, are divided into first a one-letter syllable, then a
two-letter one, as in varaq [va-raq], qasam [qa-sam], magar [ma-gar],
;Gazal [;Ga-zal], nikal [ni-kal].
Words of this minority group normally change their syllable division
when normal grammatical transformations change their pronunciation.

12
For example: nikalnaa [ni-kal-naa] gives rise to nikal [ni-kal], but also to
niklaa [nik-laa] and niklo [nik-lo]; na:zar [na-:zar] gives rise to na:zre;N
[na:z-re;N] and na:zro;N [na:z-ro;N]. One common exception to this
pattern of change: ;Gala:t [;Ga-la:t] goes to ;Gala:tii [;Ga-la-:tii].
Such words as these do not, however, usually change their syllable
division when endings from Arabic and Persian grammar are applied:
na:zar [na-:zar] goes to na:zariyah [na-:za-ri-yah], :tarab [:ta-rab] goes
to :tarabiyah [:ta-ra-bi-yah]. But there are occasional exceptions to this
tendency too: qasam [qa-sam] goes to qasmiyah [qas-mi-yah].

1.5 Long and short syllables

In general, any syllable consisting of two letters is LONG, and any
syllable consisting of one letter is SHORT. The difference in
pronunciation is basically quantitative: a long syllable ideally takes
twice as long to say as a short one. In this book a long syllable will be
shown as (=) and a short syllable will be shown as (-). A syllable that
may be used as long or short, at the poet's pleasure, will be called a
FLEXIBLE syllable. It will be shown as (x). A flexible syllable may be
treated as long in some instances, and as short in others. But in each
individual instance, its value is as fixed as that of any other syllable.

13
TWO == FLEXIBILITY
So far we've discussed the firm, general rules of the Urdu metrical
system. Now we will deal with the system's flexible possibilities. If you
try sometime to write an Urdu poem yourself, you'll come to cherish
every form of flexibility that the system allows.

It should be remembered that flexible syllables are flexible, or subject to

change in length, only between one metrical environment and another,
between one particular occurrence and another. Once the meter of a
particular verse is known, and the syllable's position within the line is
known, the syllable is either long or short, period. (The rare instances of
continued flexibility are idiosyncratic and beyond our present scope.)
2.1 Flexible words == the common
monosyllables
Many one-syllable words in Urdu are flexible. They may thus be
scanned either long or short, whichever suits the immediate needs of the
metrical situation. All flexible words are TWO-LETTER ones, so that
their normal length would be long. All flexible words have one of the
following two forms:
*Consonant + vowel
*Consonant + h
Not all one-syllable words of these forms are equally likely to be
flexible. Words ending in ii , e , h are more likely to be flexible; those
ending in o, a bit less likely; those ending in a [alif], less likely still.
The likelihood of flexibility also depends on the nature and origin of the
word. Grammatically operative particles, pronouns, postpositions, etc.
are almost always flexible. Verb forms are generally flexible, except for
familiar imperatives which are always long. Arabic and Persian nouns
are almost always long, with no flexibility possible--for example, the
words nai , mai , :tai , jaa , juu , ruu , suu are always scanned as long.
The vocative address ai is nowadays always long, though in archaic
usage it was sometimes treated as short.
But these theoretical possibilities needn't be any problem, for by treating
ALL one-syllable words of the forms given above as potentially flexible
one never makes errors in ascertaining the meter of a poem. Here is a list
of common one-syllable words which ARE flexible. They are listed in
the GLOSSARY as well.
bhii
to , tuu

14
thaa , the , thii, thii;N
jo
do
saa , se , sii
se
so
kaa , ke , kii
ko
me;N , mai;N
ne
vuh , yih
ho
huu;N , ho;N
hii
hai , hai;N
yuu;N
In general, one-syllable words not on this list are not flexible, but can be
taken as long. The following common one-syllable words are virtually
ALWAYS LONG: taa , go , yaa . The two contractions vaa;N for
vahaa;N and yaa;N for yahaa;N are always long nowadays, but once in
a while may, in older poetry, occur as short. Despite their consonant
clusters, jyuuN , kyaa , kyuuN are each scanned as one long syllable.
Where a one-syllable word is repeated distributively or rhetorically, its
first occurrence is normally scanned as long, while its second may be
treated as flexible: Mir has used kyaa kyaa as (= -). But this is rare.
Three special one-syllable words are ALWAYS SHORT in modern
usage: bah for "with" in Persian constructions, kih which introduces
quoted discourse, and nah for negation. Mir does treat kih and nah as
long from time to time, but after him this is almost never done.
THE WORD aur : A special case, a law unto itself, is aur . It can be
scanned [au-r], (= -), as one would expect, or simply as one long
syllable, (=).

2.2 Flexible syllables == word-final

vowels
A flexible syllable is one which may be scanned either long or short. All
flexible syllables are two-letter ones; one-letter syllables are invariably
short. All flexible syllables have one of the following two forms:
*Consonant + vowel
*Consonant + h

15
Almost all flexible syllables in words of more than one syllable occur in
WORD-FINAL position. There are only a VERY few exceptions, of
which two notable ones are ko))ii , scanned (x x), and aa))iinah ,
scanned (= x x).
In words of more than one syllable, word-final two-letter syllables in
which the second letter is ii , e , h are almost always flexible. In words of
more than one syllable, word-final two-letter syllables in which the
second letter is o or a [alif] are often treated as flexible. In some words,
however, these syllables are always long. It's possible to give a few
general guidelines. Syllables containing o are more likely to be flexible
than those containing a [alif]. Such syllables in Indic words, especially
verb forms, are more likely to be flexible than similar syllables in
Persian and Arabic words; for example, rahaa from rahnaa [rahnaa] is
scanned (- x), while the Persian rihaa [rihaa] meaning "released" is
always scanned (- =).
The whole problem of when such word-final syllables are flexible, and
when they are not, is complex and controversial. It is not possible to
formulate exhaustive rules. For a discussion of this question see ((aruu.z
aahang aur bayaan , pp. 35-97. But it's only a problem for the theorist,
not in practice for the student. When ascertaining the meter of a poem,
ALL such word-final consonant + vowel or consonant + h syllables
should initially be considered flexible, and then there will be no
problem.
COMPOUND WORDS: Some compound words retain the original
flexibility of their separate parts: bandobast [ban-do-bas-t] is scanned (=
x = -), from [band o bast], and kaarobaar [kaa-ro-baa-r] as (= x = -),
from [kaar o baar]. Words like these are really petrified conjunct
expressions containing a medial o ; see Section 3.3 for discussion of o
constructions.
GRAMMATICAL FORMS: Equally flexible are future verb forms:
jaa))e gaa is scanned (= x x), from [jaa-))e-gaa], and so on for the other
forms. Flexibility also sometimes remains within the word after the
addition of nominative and oblique plural endings; this seems to occur
chiefly with words ending in uu . For example, aa;Nsuu is scanned (=
x), while aansuu))o;N is scanned (= x x). In some cases, these endings
even increase flexibility: juu is scanned (=), juu))e;N and juu))o;N both
(x x).

2.3 == Flexible syllable divisions within

words
A few words can undergo an optional redivision of their letters into
different syllable patterns. Naturally these are words full of consonants,
with few or no vowels to impose syllable breaks more strongly. We have

16
put as many of these as we thought useful into the Glossary. Here are
some of the commonest examples:
barhaman , "Brahmin": [bar-ha-man] scanned as (= - =); [ba-rah-man]
scanned as (- = =)
barahnah , "naked": [ba-rah-nah] scanned as (- = x); [bar-ha-nah]
scanned as (= - x)
;xi.zr , "Khizr": [;xi.z-r] scanned as (= -) [;xi-.zir] or [;xi-.zar] scanned as
(- =)
:tar;h , "manner": [:tar-;h] scanned as (= -); [;ta-ra;h] scanned as (- =)
gulistaa;N , "garden": [gu-lis-taa;N] scanned as (- = =); [gul-si-taa;N]
scanned as (= - =).
Words like gulistaa;N , in which the word-final ;N represents a shorter
variant of a full n, do not have flexible word-final syllables.
A large number of Arabic words which begin with a series of three
consonants offer the poet a special kind of flexibility in syllable division.
In modern Urdu, most such words are pronounced with an initial long
syllable, and may be scanned accordingly. However, they may also be
scanned according to their original Arabic pronunciation, with an initial
(- -) sequence. Here are some common examples:
barkat , "blessing": [bar-kat] scanned as (= =); [ba-ra-kat] scanned as (- -
=)
:zulmaat , "darkness": [:zul-maa-t] scanned as (= = -); [:zu-lu-maa-t]
scanned as (- - = -)
kalmah , "speech": [kal-mah] scanned as (= x); [ka-li-mah] scanned as (-
- x)

2.4 == Flexible spellings to indicate

scansion
Certain words offer the poet the option of changing their scansion by
changing their spelling. Such words are always scanned exactly as they
are written; the spelling informs the reader of the intended scansion.
Since they are hard to predict in advance, a number of the more
frequently occurring ones are listed in the Glossary. Here are some of
the commonest examples:
"story": afsaanah [af-saa-nah] scanned as (= = x); fasaanah [fa-saa-nah]
scanned as (- = x)
"my": meraa [me-raa] scanned as (= x); miraa [mi-raa] scanned as (- x)

17
"there": vahaa;N [va-haa;N] scanned as (- x); vaa;N [vaa;N] scanned as
(=)
"one": ek [e-k] scanned as (= -); yak [yak] scanned as (=); ik [ik] scanned
as (=)
"silence": ;xaamoshii [xaa-mo-shii] scanned as (= = x); ;xaamushii [xaa-
mu-shii] scanned as (= - x); ;xamoshii [;xa-mo-shii] scanned as (- = x)
The same choices are available for the feminine and plural forms of
meraa , and for the comparable forms of teraa, and for yahaa;N as for
vahaa;N .
THE LETTERS n AND ;N : Word-final n , if preceded by one of the
letters a , o , ii , e , may be transformed to ;N and scanned accordingly:
for example, bayaan [ba-yaa-n] scanned as (- = -) can be turned into
bayaa;N scanned as (- =), losing its word-final short syllable. In such
cases the word-final syllable ending in ;N is nearly always long.
Similarly, word-final ;N can be turned into a full n : gulistaa;N
[gulistaa;N] can turn into gulistaan [gulistaan], and thus add an extra
short syllable at the end.
OPTIONAL TASHDIID : Another kind of flexible spelling involves an
optional [tashdiid]. Orthography is not in this case a reliable guide, for
often the tashdiid is not written, but must nevertheless be assumed for
correct scansion. Most words of this kind are simple perfect forms of
certain common verbs. Usually, though not always, these verbs have
roots that end in kh . Note the following cases:
*very often with tashdiid : rakhaa , chakhaa
*sometimes with tashdiid : pakaa , u;Thaa
*rarely with tashdiid : likhaa
For example, rakha could be scanned either [ra-khaa], (- x), without the
[tashdiid], or [rak-khaa], (= x), with the [tashdiid]. The same applies to
the plural and feminine perfect forms of these verbs: rakhe, rakhii , etc.
Using such perfect forms in the past participle tends to decrease the
likelihood of a [tashdiid] being present: pakaa hu))aa, uTHaa hu))aa
never have a [tashdiid]. But while likhaa rarely has a [tashdiid], likhaa
hu))aa is a bit more likely to have one. To be on the safe side, perfect
forms of these verbs can initially be scanned (x x) when ascertaining the
meter of a poem. A few nouns may have optional [tashdiid]s which are
more often absent than present. Examples: dukaan [du-kaa-n] scanned as
(- = -), versus dukkaan [duk-kaa-n] scanned as (= = -); shakar [sha-kar]
scanned as (- =), versus shakkar [shak-kar] scanned as (= =).

18
THREE == SPECIAL
CONSTRUCTIONS
So far every kind of syllable pattern we've considered has existed within
the boundaries of a single word. But several special constructions can
generate syllables that ignore word boundaries.

3.1 == Word-grafting
Word-grafting is our term for an operation which the poet may choose to
perform on any suitable pair of adjacent words in a line of poetry. The
words are suitable if and only if the first word ends with a consonant,
and the second begins with a [alif] or aa [alif madd].
Word-grafting consists of pronouncing the two words as though they
were run together into one single long word, and scanning them
accordingly. If you have trouble performing word-grafting by merely
altering the pronunciation of the two words, you can duplicate the same
process orthographically by writing the second word without its [madd]-
-if a [madd] is present--or without its [alif] entirely, if a [madd] is not
present. After this initial shortening, the rest of the second word is
written as though it were a continuation of the first word. The resulting
long word is scanned normally. Here are some examples, covering a
range of metrical possibilities:
aa;xir is [aa-;xir is], normally (= = =), can be treated as though it were
aa;xiris [aa-;xi-ris], and scanned (= - =)
aap agar [aa-p a-gar], normally (= - - =), can be treated as though it
were aapagar [aa-pa-gar], and scanned (= - =)
aa;xir agar [aa-;xir a-gar], normally (= = - =), can be treated as though it
were aa;xiragar [aa-;xi-ra-gar], and scanned (= - - =)
aap aa;xir [aa-p aa-;xir], normally (= - = =), can be treated as though it
were aapaa;xir [aa-paa-xir], and scanned (= = =)
The effect of word-grafting is always to cram more words into a given
amount of metrical space, either by reducing the number of syllables
they are divided into, as in the second and fourth examples, or by
replacing a long syllable with a short one, as in the first and third
examples.

19
Word-grafting is one of the poet's subtlest and most versatile tools.
Though it alters the pronunciation of the words involved and transforms
their scansion, it never changes their orthography on the printed page.
The presence or absence of word-grafting can be determined only by
careful analysis of the metrical environment in which the relevant word-
pair occurs. But it certainly occurs less than half the time, so the first
reading of a line in an unknown meter cannot assume it.
Two words in succession, or even three or four, may be grafted, and the
metrical change can be quite dramatic: Ghalib's kaafir in a.snaam [kaa-
fir in a.s-naa-m], normally (= = = = = -), can be treated as
kaafirina.snaam [kaa-fi-ri-na.s-naa-m] and thus can be scanned (= - - =
= -).
SPECIAL CASES: Word-final ii , e , o may sometimes be pronounced
and scanned as consonants to permit word-grafting; but this is very rare.
Even rarer is the treatment of (( [((ain] as though it were a [alif] in order
to permit word-grafting, as in Mir's ;xaak ((anbar [;xaa-k ((an-bar]
which instead of its normal (= - = =) is treated in one poem as [;xaa-
k((an-bar], (= = =). Such liberties are no longer taken.

3.2 == i.zaafat constructions

An i.zaafat is a grammatical construction borrowed from Persian that
when placed between two nouns, makes the second modify the first;
when placed between a noun and an adjective, it affirms their mutual
relationship. It is commonly used both with Persian nouns and names
and with Arabic ones as well. Its metrical behavior varies according to
the last letter of the word on which it is placed.
AN [i.zaafat] ON A CONSONANT: When an [i.zaafat] is applied to a
word ending in a consonant, it joins with the last letter of the word to
form a flexible syllable. For example:
lab [lab] with an [i.zaafat] is scanned as [la-be], (- x)
mulk [mul-k] with an [i.zaafat] is scanned as [mul-ke] (= x)
diivaan [dii-vaa-n] with an [i.zaafat] is scanned as [dii-vaa-ne], (= = x).
But it causes no other changes in the word's scansion, even in three-letter
three-consonant words where such changes sometimes occur. Consider
the case of na:zar [na-:zar], "sight," which is scanned (- =). Its direct
plural form is na:zreN [na:z-re;N], (= x); its oblique plural form is
na:zro;N [na:z-ro;N], (= x); but with an [i.zaafat] it is scanned [na-:za-
re], (- - =). In this latter case the final syllable cannot be flexible,
because three shorts can never occur in a row; see Chapter 7.

20
ARABIC MONOSYLLABIC WORDS of the form "consonant +
consonant" sometimes have a special form which violates this rule. The
application of an [i.zaafat] to such words produces either an optional
[tashdiid], or with some words even a compulsory [tashdiid], on the
second of the two consonants. For example, fan [fan] with an [i.zaafat]
becomes either [fa-ne], (- x), or [fan-ne], (= x), with a [tashdiid] over the
n ; and ;xa:t [;xa:t] with an [i.zaafat] becomes either [;xa-:te], (- x), or
[;xa:t-:te], (= x).
There's no simple way to decide, on seeing a word of this kind, whether
it must, or simply might, have the [tashdiid]. The most convenient way
to allow for this effect is therefore initially to scan all Arabic two-
consonant words followed by an [i.zaafat] as "flexible"-flexible; though
technically speaking only the second syllable is a flexible one.
Apart from this case of two-consonant Arabic words, the rule for
[i.zaafat] on words ending in consonants is never broken.
AN [i.zaafat] ON AN [alif]: When an i.zaafat is applied to a word
ending in the letter a [alif], in modern orthography the letter e (that is, a
ba;Rii ye ) is added as a symbol of the [i.zaafat], and the [i.zaafat]
constitutes one flexible syllable. The [i.zaafat] may be indicated by the
letter e alone, or by the letter e with a )) [hamzah] above it, or
(incorrectly) by a [hamzah] alone, or, in some older books, by a [zer]
alone. All these forms are scanned identically. Moreover, in such cases
the word-final syllable ending in a [alif] is never flexible, but is always
scanned as LONG. Thus vafaa [vafaa], when followed by an [i.zaafat],
becomes [vafaa-e], (- = x).
AN [i.zaafat] ON A o: When an i.zaafat is applied to a word ending in o
pronounced as a vowel, usually it is treated the same way as in the case
of a [alif]. It thus receives the letter e to represent the [i.zaafat], and the
[i.zaafat] forms one flexible syllable. For example, kuu [kuu] followed
by an [i.zaafat] becomes [kuu-e], (= x).
In some cases, however, the application of [i.zaafat] to word-final
vowel- o causes that o to be pronounced and scanned as a consonant- o .
This usually happens when the vowel- o has the sound of [au], as
indicated by a [zabar]. For example, jau [jau] with an [i.zaafat] becomes
[ja-ve], (- x); .zau [.zau] with an [i.zaafat] becomes [.za-ve], (- x).
AN [i.zaafat] ON ii : When an i.zaafat is applied to a word ending in ii
pronounced as a vowel (that is, chho;Tii ye ), as a rule the [i.zaafat]
causes the word-final vowel- ii to be pronounced and scanned as a
consonant , and a normal consonant [i.zaafat] is formed. For example,
sho;xii [sho-;xii] with an [i.zaafat] becomes [sho-;xi-ye], (= - x);

21
dushmanii [dush-ma-nii] with an [i.zaafat] becomes [dush-ma-ni-ye], (=
- - x).
Sometimes, however, the poet may treat the word-final ii as a full vowel,
and give it an entirely separate [i.zaafat]-syllable like those given to a
[alif] and vowel- o . In this case the word itself terminates in a LONG
syllable, and the independent [i.zaafat]-syllable is almost always short.
For example, Atish writes saaqii-e azal [saaqii-e azal], making [saa-qii-
e] scan (= = -), rather than the usual [saa-qi-ye], (= - x).
AN [i.zaafat] ON e: When an i.zaafat is applied to a word ending in {e}
pronounced as a vowel, the application of the [i.zaafat] causes the
vowel- e to be pronounced and scanned as a consonant, and a normal
consonant [i.zaafat] is formed. For example, mai [mai] with an [i.zaafat]
becomes [ma-ye], (- x).

3.3 == o constructions
As an independent word, o (that is, the letter vaa))o ) means "and." In
Urdu it is normally pronounced as a long vowel [o]. It is borrowed
directly from Persian grammar, and occurs only between two Persian--or
sometimes Arabic--words or proper names. Its behavior is in many ways
similar to that of [i.zaafat]. When [o] follows a word ending in a
consonant, it joins with that consonant to make one flexible syllable: diin
o dil is scanned as [dii-no dil], (= x =). This is the normal pattern. And
just as with [i.zaafat], Arabic two-letter two-consonant words sometimes
receive a [tashdiid] on the word-final consonant before the [o]: ;xa:t
[;xa:t] followed by o might become either [;xa-:to], (- x), or [;xa:t-:to],
(= x).
o FOLLOWING a [alif]: When o follows a word ending in a [alif], it
always forms an independent syllable by itself. This independent
syllable is usually short, and the word-final syllable before it, ending in a
[alif], is always long. Thus vafaa [vafaa] with o usually becomes [va-faa
o], (- = -) though at times it might be treated as (- = =).
o FOLLOWING ii : When o follows a word ending in ii (that is, the
letter chho;Tii ye ), usually the same thing happens: it forms an
independent syllable. This independent syllable is usually short, and the
word-final syllable before it, ending in ii , is always long. Thus saadagii
o [sadaagii o] normally becomes [saa-da-gii o], (= - = -), though (= - =
=) may also occur.
Sometimes, however, it may happen that the o turns the vowel- ii into a
consonant, so that a normal consonant- o construction occurs: the ii and
the o together form one flexible syllable, and the syllable before it is thus

22
always reduced to a one-letter short one. Mir occasionally does this sort
of thing: badnaamii o [badnaamii o] is scanned as [bad-naa-mi-yo], (= =
- x), or shaadii o [shaadii o] as [shaa-di-yo], (= - x).
o FOLLOWING e OR o : When o follows a word ending in e or o ,
word-final vowels are usually turned into consonants, and scanned as
such. Having become consonants, they join with o as consonants
normally do: mai o [mai o] becomes [ma-yo], (- x); ;xusrau o [;xusrau o]
becomes [;xus-ra-vo], (= - x). Note that if the word-final o is already a
consonant, it readily behaves as the other consonants do: sarv [sarv]
when followed by o becomes [sar-vo], (= x).
o FOLLOWING h OR ;h }: When o follows a word ending in h , it
usually behaves in the consonant pattern, joining with the h to form a
single flexible syllable. But sometimes the h is pronounced and scanned
as a vowel; in this case the o forms an independent flexible syllable. The
same range of possibilities exists for ;h .

3.4 == al constructions
The Arabic particle al , usually pronounced [ul] in Urdu, appears
between two Arabic words, and unifies them into a phrase. Its
relationship with the second of the two words is quite simple: metrically
speaking, they are entirely separate. After the al comes a complete
break; scansion then begins afresh and proceeds normally. (The
distinction between shamsii [shamsii] and qamarii [qamarii] words
affects only pronunciation, with scansion remaining the same in either
case.)
The word before the al , however, unites intimately with it and is
scanned together with it. When the word before the al ends in a
consonant, the scansion technique is simple: pretend that the word is
written with merely an extra l at the end of it instead of the whole al ,
and pronounce and scan the word normally. Examples:
((aalam ul-;Gaib} [((aalam ul-;Gaib] is scanned [((aa-la-mul ;Gai-b], (= -
= = -)
an al-;haq [an al-;haq] is scanned [a-nal ;haq], (- = =)
lisaan ul-((a.sr [lisaan ul-((a.sr] is scanned [li-saa-nul ((a.s-r], (- = = = -)
((a:ziim ul-shaan [((a:ziim ush-shaan] is scanned [((a-:zii-mush shaa-n],
(- = = = -)

23
When the first word is a two-consonant word, it will always have a
[tashdiid] on its final consonant: rabb ul-ra;hiim [rabb ur-ra;hiim] is thus
scanned [rab-bur ra-;hii-m], (= = - = -).
In the rare cases when al follows a word ending in a vowel, expect
trouble! Assume that orthography will be thoroughly misleading and
will not correspond to actual pronunciation and scansion. The reality is
invariably shorter than the appearance, but it is hard to formulate general
rules since Arabic grammar is the determining factor. Notice the
following examples:
[bi] + al = [bil]:
baalkul [bi al-kul] becomes [bil-kul], (= =)
baalaaxir [bi al-aaxir] becomes [bil-aa-xir], (= = =)
baaliraadah [bi al-iraadah] becomes [bil-i-raa-dah], (= - = x)
fii + al = [fil]:
fii al-;haal [fii al-;haal] becomes [fil-;haa-l], (= = -)
fii al-faur [fii al-faur] becomes [fil-fau-r], (= = -)
fii al-;haqiiqat [fii al-;haqiiqat] becomes [fil-;ha-qii-qat], (= - = =)
consonant + o + al :
;zuu al-fiqaar [;zuu al-fiqaar] becomes [;zul-fi-qaa-r], (= - = -)
buu al-havas [buu al-havas] becomes [bul-ha-vas], (= - =)
The presence of a )) [hamzah] at the end of the first word, however,
prevents this kind of shortening of the vowel before al , as in maa)) al-
;hayaat [maa)) al-;hayaat], which remains [maa))-ul-;ha-yaa-t], (= = - =
-)

24
FOUR == IRREGULAR
WORDS
4.1 == Orthography versus
pronunciation
In Urdu, orthography and pronunciation correspond quite closely.
Orthography is thus a tremendous help in scanning: many words can be
scanned simply by dividing their letters into groups of one or two in
such a way that as many groups as possible start with a consonant,
without knowing their correct pronunciation at all. Our method is based
as much as possible on orthography, which is more concrete and thus
more accessible to the student who is not a native speaker. Linguistically
and theoretically this is not the most sophisticated approach, as we are
well aware; however, in practice it works remarkably well as a teaching
tool for English-speakers, and that is our chief concern here.
Moreover, in a few cases involving word-final (( [((ain], orthography
alone provides an accurate scansion, while modern pronunciation does
not. Words of this kind include shuruu(( [shu-ruu-((], mau.zuu(( [mau-
.zuu-((], nau(( [nau-((], mataa(( [ma-taa-((], ijtimaa(( [ij-ti-maa-((],
ta.sdii(( [ta.s-dii-((], and a number of others; all are scanned with an
extra word-final short syllable which can be clearly and regularly
deduced from the orthography but can almost never be heard in modern
pronunciation. These words form a small and special group, an
exception to the general rule that pronunciation prevails over
orthography.
Certain three-letter three-consonant Arabic words like shahr [shah-r],
sham((a [sham-((a], farq [far-q], etc. also seem to be scanned in ways
that reflect their Persian and Arabic backgrounds rather than their
modern pronunciation; these have been discussed in Section 1.4. Both
the word-final- (( words and these three-consonant words are of course
quite regular from the point of view of our own system, and in fact serve
to point up its virtues.
Above all, however, Urdu poetry is designed for oral recitation. Where
orthography and pronunciation differ, therefore, scansion normally
follows pronunciation. This fact gives rise to a category of words which
are NOT scanned as they (orthographically) should be. These words
which are written one way and pronounced another, and scanned as they
are pronounced, we will call irregular words. We mean, of course,

25
irregular from the point of view of our orthography-based system. There
are several main groups of such words. They are presented here roughly
in order of their frequency of occurrence in poetry.

4.2 == Irregular Persian words

CONSONANT-CLUSTER WORDS: A very common type of irregular
Persian word consists of or terminates in the following pattern: a
consonant, followed by a long vowel, followed by two consonants which
are pronounced as a conjunct and are scanned as though they were one
single letter. Most of the words in this pattern terminate in the following
way:
consonant + long vowel + s or sh + t
Examples include common words like dost [do-st], ziist [zii-st], raast
[raa-st], bardaasht [bar-daa-sht], gosht [go-sht]. The last two syllables of
such words are nearly always scanned (= -), instead of (= =) as our
system would suggest. VERY rarely, especially in archaic poetry, such
four-letter groups may be found scanned as (= - -) or even as a single
(=). But NEVER are they scanned with word-final (= =).
When such clusters are not word-final, however, they break up in the
normal scansion process, and the word is scanned quite regularly: dost
[do-st] is (= -), but the (Persian) plural form dostaa;N [do-s-taa;N] is (= -
=), and the abstract noun dostii [do-s-tii] is (= - x). Words ending in such
clusters are also scanned normally when followed by [i.zaafat] or by o as
an independent conjunction: dost-e [do-s-te] is scanned (= - x), and dost
o [do-s-to] is scanned (= - x).
Some Persian words contain the same kinds of clusters, but involving
different consonants: koft [ko-ft], taa;xt [taa-;xt], kaard [kaa-rd], paars
[paa-rs]. While much less common than the { s / sh + t } words, they too
are scanned (= -), and behave as described above.
This word-final pattern "consonant + vowel + consonant cluster" appears
chiefly in Persian words. It is impossible in Arabic. But it is not quite
confined to Persian words: a few Indic ones can be found as well, such
as maarg [maa-rg], shuudr [shuu-dr], bhiishm [bhii-shm]. It also occurs
in adopted English words: gaar;D [gaa-r;D], paark [paa-rk]. Though
these words are not common in poetry, the same scansion considerations
would apply to them as well.
SUPPRESSED- o WORDS: Another important type of Persian-derived
irregular word contains a largely suppressed o which is mostly ignored
in pronunciation, and entirely ignored in scanning. These suppressed- o

26
forms occur only after the letter ;x . Depending on what follows the { ;x
+ o }sequence, the words fall into several sub-groups.
Of all the Persian words which begin with {;x + o + consonant }, MOST
are pronounced and scanned as though the o were absent and were
replaced by a mere [pesh]. Common words of this kind include ;xvud
[;xud], scanned (=); ;xvush [;xush], scanned (=); ;xvurshiid [;xur-shii-d],
scanned (= = -), and ;xvushaamad ['xu-shaa-mad], scanned (- = =). It
should be noted, however, that a certain number of common words
beginning with {;x + o + consonant are pronounced and scanned quite
normally: ;xuub [;xuu-b], (= -); ;xuu [;xuu-n], (= -); ;xauf [;xau-f], (= -);
;xuu [;xuu], (=); ;xojah [;xo-jah], (= x). These are exceptions to the more
common pattern.
Other Persian words of the suppressed- o type contain the group { ;x + o
+ a [alif]}. Wherever this sequence occurs, the o is suppressed and the {
;x + o + a [alif]} sequence is pronounced and scanned as though it
consisted of ;xaa only. Examples: ;xvaahm;xvaah [;xaa-h-m-;xaa-h],
scanned (= - - = -); tan;xvaah [tan-xaa-h], scanned (= = -); ;xvaahish
[;xaa-hish], scanned (= =); ;xvaar [;xaa-r], scanned (= -). Note, however,
that the ;xvaa [;xavaa] of a few Arabic plural forms is scanned quite
normally and should not be confused with the Persian ;xvaa. Examples:
;xavaa.s [;xa-vaa-.s], scanned (- = -); ;xavaatiin [;xa-vaa-tii-n], scanned
(- = = -); i;xvaan [i;x-vaa-n], scanned (= = -).
There are also a few Persian words containing the group { ;x + o + e },
most of which contain the suppressed, unscanned o . Examples: ;xve
[;xe], scanned (=); ;xvesh [;xe-sh], scanned (= -). But not quite all are of
this irregular type: ;xved [;x-ve-d] is scanned normally, (- = -). Words
containing this { ;x + o + e } sequence are few and rare in any case.
Although it's a Persian word, piyaalah is sometimes scanned as though it
contained a consonant cluster--i.e., [pyaa-lah] (= x). But this is rare;
more often it is scanned normally, as [pi-yaa-lah] (- = x).

4.3 == Irregular Indic words

A group of irregular words of Indic origin contain conjunct consonants
that are scanned as though they were a single consonant. Many such
clusters are possible; the most common ones include the letter ye [y] as
the second consonant in the luster. Examples: byaah [byaa-h], pyaar
[pyaa-r], dhyaan [dhyaa-n], gyaan [gyaa-n], etc., all of which are
scanned (= -) regardless of their initial conjunct consonants. Since it is
hard to generalize about such conjunct consonants within the framework
of Urdu poetry, a good many examples are listed in the Glossary.

27
The interrogative monosyllables kyaa [kyaa] and kyuu;N [kyuu;N], and
the relative pronoun jyuu;N [jyuu;N], also belong to this group: they are
always scanned long (=). Although they are treated for metrical purposes
as though they contained only one consonant, they are almost never used
as flexible syllables.
The perfect forms of honaa [honaa}--namely, huu))aa , huu))e , huu))ii ,
huu))iiN --are all scanned as they are pronounced, (- x), rather than as
they are spelled. The familiar possessive forms tumhaaraa , tumhaare ,
tumhaarii are all scanned (- = x), as though the h in them were an
aspirator [do-chashmii he]. Similarly, the familiar ko form tumhe;N
[tumhe;N] and the emphatic form tumhii;N [tumhii;N] are both scanned
(- x), though they are usually written with h (that is, gol he ) rather than
[do-chashmii he].
Once in a while such consonant clusters may be scanned normally, as
two separate consonants. But this is quite rare.

4.4 == Irregular Arabic words

al CONSTRUCTIONS: Some words of Arabic origin are extraordinarily
irregular. Many such words begin with either baa [baa] or fiil [fii] in
their written forms, though the long vowels are not reflected in
pronunciation; two of the most common, for example, are baalkul and
fiil;haal , pronounced as though they were written [bilkul] and [fil;haal].
Words like these are really specially constructed phrases joined by the
particle al [al]. They have been discussed in Section 3.4.
WORDS ENDING WITH [tanviin]: Some Arabic adverbs used in Urdu
end in tanviin [tanviin], a mark which consists of two small diagonal
[zabar]-like slashes following just atop an a [alif]. Words which have the
[tanviin] are pronounced and scanned as though instead of a [alif] they
ended with the syllable an [an]. Common examples include faura:n,
yaqiina:n, :zaahira:n , pronounced and scanned as [fau-ra:n], [ya-qii-
na:n], and [:zaa-hi-ra:n].
In a few words the [tanviin] sits atop a taa-e mudavvarah [taa-e
mudavvarah] rather than an a [alif]. In such words the [taa-e
mudavvarah] and the [tanviin] join to become a word-final syllable
pronounced and scanned as tan [tan]. Words of this kind include
ishaarata:n [i-shaa-ra-ta:n] and iraadata:n [i-raa-da-ta:n].
WORDS WITH dagger-[alif]: Dagger-[alif] when it appears over a
consonant in certain Arabic words, as in ra;hm;aan [ra;hm;aan], is only
orthographically different from ordinary [alif]. It looks like a small

28
suspended dagger, and the [alif] sound follows the consonant it sits over.
It is scanned and pronounced as though it were a normal [alif].
Dagger-[alif] also occurs over ii (that is, the letter chho;Tii ye ). In this
case the dagger-[alif] and the ii together form one letter, a vowel, as in
lail;aa [lail;aa]. This vowel is usually pronounced and scanned as
though it were an [alif]. When a word-final vowel of this kind is
followed by an [i.zaafat], however, it is sometimes scanned as though it
were equivalent to ii rather than to [alif]. See Section 3.2 for discussion
of [i.zaafat] following ii .
WORD-FINAL [hamzah]: Some Arabic words ending in a [alif] may be
written with a )) [hamzah] after the [alif]. This [hamzah] is usually
omitted entirely; even if it is written, it is VERY rarely pronounced or
scanned. If it is ever scanned, it becomes an independent short syllable.
Words like umaraa)) [u-ma-raa))] or ((ulamaa)) [((u-la-maa))] may have
this kind of [hamzah]. A list of words which may have this word-final
[hamzah] appears in .sih;h;hat-e alfaa:z , pp. 56-57.
In a few Arabic words, o or a [alif] may (rarely) occur within the word
as a "chair" for )) [hamzah], but it is ignored when scanning. Such words
include the following; they are pronounced and scanned as though the
long vowels were merely [zabar] or [pesh]: taa))'a;s;sur [ta-))a;s-;sur];
taa))'ssuf [ta-))as-suf]; taa))'ammul [ta-))am-mul];muu))'a;s;sir [mu-
))a;s-;sir]; muu))'addab [mu-))ad-dab]; muu))'a;z;zin [mu-))a;z-;zin], all
scanned (- = =); mutaa))'a;s;sir [mu-ta-))a;s-;sir], scanned (- - = =);
jur))at [jur-))at], scanned (= =).
In each of these words the )) [hamzah] begins a new syllable, thus
observing our rule that [hamzah] can never be the second letter in a
syllable. Nowadays, however, the [hamzah] in such words is sometimes
not even written, though its effects on scansion are still very much there.
In a few other words containing a [alif] as a chair for [hamzah] within
the word, it is the [hamzah] that drops out of pronunciation, scansion,
and often orthography too, while plain [alif] remains. These words
include: maa))xu;z [maa))-xu;z] scanned (= =); and maa))muun [maa))-
muu-n] scanned (= = -).
WORDS WITH [kha;Rii zer]: The very few Arabic words with kha;Rii
zer [khaRii zer], a tiny vertical slash the size of ordinary [zer] under
word-final h [chho;Tii he], are pronounced and scanned as though the
word-final h with the [kha;Rii zer] under it were equivalent to hii [hii].
The VERY few words with do zer [do zer], two tiny slashes, under their
word-final consonants, are pronounced and scanned as though the word-
final consonant were followed by in [in].

29
Most of the words described in this section are quite RARE in Urdu
poetry, and are mentioned mainly for the sake of completeness, so that
the student who comes upon one unexpectedly for the first time will not
be dismayed. The student should also remember that the great name of
God, all;aah [al-l;aa-h], is always written in stylized orthography, and
may be scanned either (= = -) or, less commonly, (= =).
In dealing with such irregular words, it is often helpful to have a feel for
which language a given strange word is likely to come from. Remember
that the eight letters ;s , ;z , .s , .z , :t , :z , (( , q [;s, ;z, .s, .z, :t, :z, ((, q]
originate mostly in Arabic. By contrast, the three letters p , ch , g [p, ch,
g] are not found in Arabic, and words containing them will not be
Arabic. The letter zh , [zh] quite rare in Urdu, originates only in Persian.
The three retroflex consonants ;T , ;D , ;R [;T, ;D, ;R] come only from
the Indic side, as do all aspirated sounds except that of sh [sh].

30
FIVE == METRICAL FEET
Traditional Urdu prosody uses a set of words called afaa((iil [afaa((iil]
which are of great practical value to the student. Each of the afaa((iil
both names and metrically embodies one particular kind of foot, or rukn
[rukn]. A suitable inventory of the afaa((iil can thus provide an accurate
account of the metrical feet traditionally used in Urdu poetry.
Furthermore, the afaa((iil are used in every poetic and critical context, in
every formal and informal discussion of Urdu meter. Therefore the
student will certainly need and want to know them.
The afaa((iil all originate from the Arabic three-letter verb root { f + (( +
l }, or fa((l , meaning "to do." They are derived in fixed ways, and
transformed according to fixed rules, which were developed in the
context of classical Arabic and Persian poetic theory. If you want to
study the whole set of afaa((iil systematically, you'll find some suitable
works listed in the Bibliography. Our approach here is strictly practical:
we will look only at the afaa((iil actually used in Urdu poetry.
The afaa((iil are considered to be of two kinds: a small number of
original or saalim [saalim] ones, and a large number of variant or
muzaa((f [muzaa((f] forms derived from these. When a line of poetry can
be divided into feet in more than one way, the best division is considered
to be the one which relies more on original afaa((iil , and less on
variants.
The [afaa((iil] are listed below, with internal syllable divisions indicated,
along with the syllable patterns they represent and embody. The [saalim]
ones are starred. The order in which they are given is intended to make
them easily findable: those with the greatest number of initial long
syllables are listed first.
(= = =) [maf-((uu-lun] -- { maf((uulun }
(= = - =) [mus-taf-((i-lun]* -- { mustaf((ilun }
(= = -) [maf-((uu-l] -- { maf((uul }. Usually occurs as the first foot,
except in rubaa((ii [rubaa((ii].
(= =) [fa((-lun] -- {fa((lun }
(= - = =) [faa-((i-laa-tun]* -- { faa((ilaatun }
(= - = -) [faa-((i-laa-t] -- { faa((ilaat }

31
(= - =) [faa-((i-lun]* -- { faa((ilun }
(= - - =) [muf-ta-((i-lun] -- {mufta((ilun }. Rare.
(= -) [fa((-l] -- { fa((l }
(=) [fa((] -- { fa(( }. Usually occurs as the last foot; rare except in
[rubaa((ii]
(- = = =) [ma-faa-((ii-lun]* -- {mafaa((iilun }
(- = = -) [ma-faa-((ii-l] -- { mafaa((iil }. Rarely occurs as the first or last
foot.
(- = =) [fa-((uu-lun]* -- { fa((uulun }
(- = - =) [ma-faa-((i-lun] -- { mafaa((ilun }
(- = -) [fa-((uu-l] -- { fa((uul }
(- =) [fa-((al] -- { fa((al }
(- - = =) [fa-((i-laa-tun] -- { fa((ilaatun }
(- - = - =) [mu-ta-faa-((i-lun]* -- { mutafaa((ilun } . Rare.
(- - = -) [fa-((i-laa-tu] -- { fa((ilaatu }. Very rare; almost always occurs
as the first and third foot.
(- - =) [fa-((i-lun] -- { fa((ilun }. Almost never occurs as the first foot.
In the above list there are two afaa((iil with double identities. These can
be, and are, scanned in two different ways. They are:
{ fa((l }, scanned both as [fa((-l], (= -), and as [fa-((al], (- =)
{ fa((lun }, scanned both as [fa((-lun], (= =), and as [fa-((i-lun], (- - =)
There is nothing to be done about this; they must simply be accepted as
parts of the traditional system. Modifications in them to eliminate
ambiguity have often been proposed, but haven't been adopted in
practice.

32
SIX == METERS
A systematic discussion of Urdu meter, or ba;hr [ba;hr], would take us
into the thick of Arabic and Persian poetic theory. As in the case of the
afaa((iil , we must refer the theoretically-minded student to the works
suggested in the Bibliography. For practical purposes, we offer a list of
the meters commonly used in Urdu, with their full technical names, in an
order designed for easy reference: starting with meters with the greatest
number of initial long syllables, and ending with those with the fewest.
This list is not quite complete, but the meters not included in it are very
rare indeed. In the interest of simplicity, rare variants permissible within
certain meters are not shown. Classical poetry is basically confined to
the meters we have given; modern na:zm [na:zm], of course, often takes
liberties with the traditional meters, or even rejects them entirely.
We have shown the division of the meters into feet. The feet of course
correspond to the [afaa((iil] described in Chapter 5. Note that all Urdu
meters end with a long syllable--after which a short "cheat syllable" is
permitted to occur, at the poet's pleasure, in almost all meters--and that
three short syllables may never occur in succession.
For convenience in reference, the meters are arranged in order according
to their number of initial long syllables, from the ones with most initial
long syllables to the ones with fewest.
6.1 == The meter list
1 = = = /= - = / - = =
{ hazaj musaddas a;xram ashtar ma;h;zuuf } [hazaj musaddas a;xram
ashtar ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #9.
2 = = / - = = // = = / - = =
{ mutaqaarib mu;samman a;sram } [mutaqaarib mu;samman a;sram].
Has caesura.
3==-=/==-=/==-=/==-=
{ rajaz mu;samman saalim } [rajaz mu;samman saalim]
4 = = - / = - = = // = = - / = - = =
{ mu.zaari(( mu;samman a;xrab } [mu.zaari(( mu;samman a;xrab]. Has
caesura.

33
5==-/=-=-/-==-/=-=
{ mu.zaari(( mu;samman a;xrab makfuuf ma;h;zuuf } [mu.zaari((
mu;samman a;xrab makfuuf ma;h;zuuf]
6==/--=/==/==/==/--=/==/==
{ mutadaarik mu;samman mu.zaa((af maq:tuu(( ma;xbuun }
[mutadaarik mu;samman mu.zaa((af maq:tuu(( ma;xbuun]. Very rare.
May also be used in a flexible form in which any odd-numbered long
may be replaced by two shorts.
7 = = - / - = = = // = = - / - = = =
{ hazaj mu;samman a;xrab } [hazaj mu;samman a;xrab]. Has caesura.
8==-/-==-/-==-/-==
{ hazaj mu;samman a;xrab makfuuf ma;h;zuuf } [hazaj mu;samman
a;xrab makfuuf ma;h;zuuf]
9==-/-=-=/-==
{ hazaj musaddas a;xrab maqbuu.z ma;h;zuuf } [hazaj musaddas a;xrab
maqbuu.z ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #1.
10 = - = = / = - = = / = - = = / = - =
{ ramal mu;samman ma;h;zuuf } [ramal mu;samman ma;h;zuuf]
11 = - = = / = - = = / = - =
{ ramal musaddas ma;h;zuuf } [ramal musaddas ma;h;zuuf]
12 = - = / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - = / = - =
{ mutadaarik mu;samman mu.zaa((af saalim } [mutadaarik mu;samman
mu.zaa((af saalim]. Sometimes used with only four feet; in this case the
[mu.zaa((af] is dropped from its name.
13 = - = / = - = / = - = / =
{ mutadaarik mu;samman maq:tuu(( ma;h;zuuf } [mutadaarik
mu;samman maq:tuu(( ma;h;zuuf]
14 =* - = = / - = - = / = =
{ ;xafiif musaddas ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu(( } [;xafiif musaddas
ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #15. *The first
syllable is properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
15 =* - = = / - = - = / - - =
{ ;xafiif musaddas ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf } [;xafiif musaddas ma;xbuun
ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #14. *The first syllable is properly long,
but may be replaced with a short.
16 =* - = = / - - = = / = =
{ ramal musaddas ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu(( } [ramal musaddas

34
ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #17. *The first
syllable is properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
17 =* - = = / - - = = / - - =
{ ramal musaddas ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf } [ramal musaddas ma;xbuun
ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #16. *The first syllable is properly long,
but may be replaced with a short.
18 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / = =
{ ramal mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu(( } [ramal
mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #19.
*The first syllable is properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
19 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / - - =
{ ramal mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf } [ramal mu;samman
ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #18. *The first syllable is
properly long, but may be replaced with a short.
20 = - = / - = = = // = - = / - = = =
{ hazaj mu;samman ashtar } [hazaj mu;samman ashtar]. Has caesura.
21 = - = / - = - = // = - = / - = - =
{ hazaj mu;samman ashtar maqbuu.z } [hazaj mu;samman ashtar
maqbuu.z]. Has caesura.
22 = - - = / = - = // = - - = / = - =
{ munsari;h mu;samman ma:tvii maksuuf } [munsari;h mu;samman
ma:tvii maksuuf]. Has caesura.
23 = - - = / = - = - / = - - = / =
{ munsari;h mu;samman ma:tvii man;huur } [munsari;h mu;samman
ma:tvii man;huur]
24 = - - = / = - - = / = - =
{ sarii(( musaddas ma:tvii maksuuf } [sarii(( musaddas ma:tvii maksuuf]
25 = - - = / - = - = // = - - = / - = - =
{ rajaz mu;samman ma:tvii ma;xbuun } [rajaz mu;samman ma:tvii
ma;xbuun] Has caesura.
26 - = = = / - = = = / - = = = / - = = =
{ hazaj mu;samman saalim } [hazaj mu;samman saalim]. Not allowed to
have extra unscanned short syllable at the end.
27 - = = = / - = = = / - = =
{ hazaj musaddas ma;h;zuuf } [hazaj musaddas ma;h;zuuf]
28 - = = / - = = / - = = / - = =
{ mutaqaarib mu;samman saalim } [mutaqaarib mu;samman saalim]

35
29 - = = / - = = / - = = / - =
{ mutaqaarib mu;samman ma;h;zuuf } [mutaqaarib mu;samman
ma;h;zuuf]
30 - = - / = = / - = - / = = / - = - / = = / - = - / = =
{ mutaqaarib mu;samman mu.zaa((af maqbuu.z a;slam } [mutaqaarib
mu;samman mu.zaa((af maqbuu.z a;slam]
31 - = - / = = / - = - / = = / - = - / = =
{ mutaqaarib musaddas mu.zaa((af maqbuu.z a;slam } [mutaqaarib
musaddas mu.zaa((af maqbuu.z a;slam]
32 - = - = / - = - = / - = - = / - = - =
{ hazaj mu;samman mazbuu.z } [hazaj mu;samman maqbuu.z]
33 - = - = / - - = = / - = - = / = =
{ mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu(( } [mujta;s
mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf maq:tuu((]. May be used with #34.
34 - = - = / - - = = / - = - = / - - =
{ mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf } [mujta;s mu;samman
ma;xbuun ma;h;zuuf]. May be used with #33.
35 - = - = / - - = = / - = - = / - - = =
{ mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun } [mujta;s mu;samman ma;xbuun].
Does not have caesura.
36 - - = - / = - = = // - - = - / = - = =
{ ramal mu;samman mashkuul } [ramal mu;samman mashkuul] Has
caesura.
37 - - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - =
{ kaamil mu;samman saalim } [kaamil mu;samman saalim]
Each meter is described by a series of Arabic terms, the first of which is
the name of the basic meter itself. The second is either mu;samman
[mu;samman], describing a meter with four feet, or musaddas
[musaddas], describing a meter with three feet. The rest of the terms
describe the modifications, zi;haafaat [zi;haafaat], by which the basic or
saalim meter has been converted into the particular meter being
described.
At the end of a line of poetry in any of these meters, an extra short
syllable may be added if the poet chooses. This short syllable is not
scanned. This syllable almost always consists of a true one-letter short
syllable, or of a syllable of the form { )) [hamzah] + vowel}. This short
"cheat syllable" is permitted in all the meters except #26.

36
Many meters on the above list have a natural caesura, or break, halfway
through each line. All such meters have the following pattern of feet:
foot A, foot B; break; foot A, foot B. In these meters, an extra short
syllable, unscanned, may be added to the end of the first half of the line,
just before the caesura. Meters which permit this extra unscanned short
syllable before the caesura are: #2, #4, #7, #20, #21, #22, #25, #36. Note
that #35 does not have such a caesura. The caesura was not traditionally
recognized in Urdu-Persian metrical theory; it was first explored by
Hasrat Mohani [ ;hasrat mohaanii ] in ma((aa))ib-e su;xan [ma((aa))iib-
e su;xan] (Kanpur, 1941), and has since been studied by S. R. Faruqi in
((aruu.z aahang aur bayaan .
Most traditional genres of poetry may be written in any meter. The
;Gazal [Gazal], qa.siidah [qa.siidah], and mar;siyah [mar;siyah] offer
this freedom, as do most of the minor genres. The ma;snavii [ma;snavii]
is traditionally supposed to be written in one of the following meters: #1
with #9; #11; #14 with #15; #16 with #17; #24; #27; #28; #29. But this
is not binding, only customary. Permissible meters for the rubaa((ii
[rubaa((ii], however, are very clearly spelled out; see Section 6.3 for
details. Free verse, or aazaad na:zm [aazaad na:zm], tends to use either
#28 or "Hindi" meter (see Section 6.2).
You might have noticed certain pairs of meters-- #1 and #9, #14 and
#15, #16 and #17, #18 and #19, #33 and #34-- which differ only in that
the next-to-last syllable consists of one long (=) in the first member of
the pair, which is replaced by two shorts (- -) in the second member.
From a practical point of view, it does indeed seem as though these are
permutations of a single meter. But from a theoretical point of view, they
are quite separate; poems are sometimes written using only one member
of the pair. So we have shown them separately, but have also indicated
their close affiliation.
Sometimes, when scanning, the student may encounter quite deviant-
seeming poems, in which often every single line seems different from
the next. This might occur in dealing with the flexible variant form of
#6. More common than this form, however, is Mir's "Hindi" meter,
which will be dealt with below.
6.2 == Mir's "Hindi" meter
Mir introduced, or at least used extensively and made popular, a meter
very unlike the meters of conventional prosody. (Actually the meter was
first used by Mir Jafar Zatalli [miir ja((far za:tallii] (d. 1712) in a few of
his longish satirical poems.) Although expressible in terms of the
standard afaa((iil , this meter is highly irregular. The lines are equal in

37
length in that they all have eight feet, but they do not always contain an
equal number of syllables. Hardly anything is absolutely fixed in this
meter except that the last syllable in each line must be long, short
syllables must occur in pairs, and the short syllables in each pair may be
separated by no more than one long.
Usually the first four feet contain eight long syllables or their equivalent
(with two short syllables counted as equal to one long), and the last four
feet contain seven long syllables, for a total line equal to fifteen long
syllables. Yet other variations of this meter, used by Mir and others,
contain fourteen long syllables (seven plus seven) or sixteen long
syllables (eight plus eight). As with other meters, an extra short syllable,
unscanned, is allowed at the end of the line.
There has been a great deal of controversy over whether this meter was
invented by Mir--or rather, as it now appears, by Zatalli--or somehow
already exists within the conventional framework, or is a Hindi meter
modified and adapted for Urdu. Most prosodists now hold the latter
view; certainly this is basically a moric meter like many Indic meters,
rather than a positional one like those of the traditional Perso-Arabic
system. Within the traditional system, this meter could be called {
mutaqaarib mu;samman mu.zaa((af } [mutaqaarib mu;samman
mu.zaa((af] with varying modifications. A half-length form of it which
has been described as { mutaqaarib mu;samman a;sram a;slam abtar }
[mutaqaarib mu;samman a;sram a;slam abtar] is also sometimes used in
Urdu. On the whole, however, these theoretical discussions are not too
helpful to the student who wants to use the meter in practice.
Here then is a form of ostensive definition of Mir's "Hindi" meter: a list
of the various configurations which commonly occur in its first four feet.
They are shown in the traditional [afaa((iil] patterns into which they
could be broken:
a) = = / = = / = = / = =
b) = = / = = / = - / - = =
c) = = / = - / - = = / = =
d) = = / = - / - = - / - = =
e) = - / - = = / = = / = =
f) = - / - = = / = - / - = =
g) = - / - = - / - = = / = =
h) = - / - = - / - = - / - = =
Each of these patterns contains the equivalent of eight long syllables.
Usually the second half of the line contains the equivalent of seven long

38
syllables. Its customary patterns differ from those given above only by
the omission of the final long syllable.
Another form of definition is that used by Russell and Matthews and
Shackle. It is an admirably simple one. It envisions the meter as
generated by a pattern like the following, in which every even-numbered
long syllable except the eighth can be replaced at will by two short
syllables:
= ( = ) / = ( = ) / = ( = ) / = = // = ( = ) / = ( = ) / = ( = ) / =
This is a convenient and powerful way to think of the meter, and offers a
breakdown of syllables more simple and lucid than that offered by the
regular [afaa((iil]--as can be seen by comparing it with patterns (a)
through (h) shown above. We recommend it to the student as the best
general analytical notion of this meter.
However, both of the above attempts at schematization eventually break
down. Mir simply uses this meter in more complex and idiosyncratic
ways than can be shown in these or any diagrams. Sometimes he does
break the eighth long syllable into two shorts, thus disposing of the
"caesura" as a reliable metrical constant; sometimes his word boundaries
themselves flow over the "caesura," thus disposing of it as a semantic
organizing principle. (And in any case the break in this meter never
permits an extra unscanned short syllable before it, as do the more solid
caesuras in the regular meters.) It's true that more often than not the
break does seem to be there, but it is certainly optional rather than
compulsory. Here is an example from Mir's fifth divan which abolishes
the caesura on all levels:
{ shahr se yaar savaar hu))aa jo savaad me;N ;xuub ;Gubaar hai aaj }
This line can be broken up as follows:
[shah-r se yaa-r sa-vaa-r hu-))aa jo sa-vaa-d me;N ;xuu-b ;Gu-baa-r
hai aa-j]
= - - /= - - /= - - /= - - /= - - /= - - /= - - /= (-)
This is not the only line in which Mir violates the caesura metrically, or
in which he violates it semantically, but it is one of the few in which he
violates it both ways at once. It seems also to be the only line in any of
his divans in which he breaks every single even-numbered long syllable
into two short syllables.
Moreover, in this meter short syllables can also sometimes occur in a
kind of syncopated pattern, (- = -), which is not allowed for in any of the
above diagrams. An example of this syncopated pattern appears in the

39
fourth verse of Ghazal Six, by Jur'at, in the Exercises. Even in this
syncopated form short syllables do, however, always occur in pairs.
What then do you really need to know about this meter? Basically, that it
can be recognized by its remarkable length--hardly any of the regular
meters are as long--and its alarmingly erratic syllable pattern. It can be
generally understood according to Russell's model, with suitable
reservations about the caesura (not always present), the pairs of short
syllables (they sometimes have a long between them) and the line length
(it can vary by a syllable or two, and truncated versions of the meter can
also be used). It's a very rhythmic and lively meter, a great pleasure to
recite; with just a bit of practice, it becomes quite familiar.

6.3 == The rubaa((ii meters

The rubaa((ii [rubaa((ii], or quatrain, is, like most genres of Urdu
poetry, adopted from Persian, and has an extremely rigid metrical
scheme. The [rubaa((ii] is written in a modified form of the hazaj [hazaj]
meter. There are twenty-four fixed forms prescribed for it, and a
[rubaa((ii] may contain any four of them. However, twelve of the
twenty-four are distinguished only by the presence of a final short
syllable that in fact need not be scanned at all, so in fact there are only
twelve genuine forms. Of these, only six have been commonly used in
Urdu.
All the rubaa((ii forms contain the equivalent of ten long syllables, no
more than three of which ever consist of pairs of short syllables. All
short syllables occur in pairs; the halves of each pair are never separated
by more than one long. The first two syllables, and the last syllable, are
always long. All the forms have four feet, and the last foot is always the
shortest. The [rubaa((ii] meter has no caesura; as in most other meters,
an extra short syllable is allowed at the end of each line.
Here is a list of the rubaa((ii forms used in Urdu, roughly in order of
popularity. All the meter names start with hazaj mu;samman [hazaj
mu;samman...
POPULAR: [hazaj mu;samman...
1==-/-==-/-==-/-=
...a;xrab makfuuf majbuub] { a;xrab makfuuf majbuub }...
2==-/-==-/-===/=
...a;xrab makfuuf abtar] { a;xrab makfuuf abtar }...
3==-/-=-=/-===/=
...a;xrab maqbuu.z abtar] { a;xrab maqbuu.z abtar }...

40
4==-/-=-=/-==-/-=
...a;xrab maqbuu.z makfuuf majbuub] { a;xrab maqbuu.z makfuuf
majbuub }...
5===/=-=/-==-/-=
...a;xram ashtar makfuuf majbuub] { a;xram ashtar makfuuf majbuub }...
6 = = = / = - = / - = = = / = ...a;xram ashtar abtar] { a;xram ashtar abtar
}...
RARE: [hazaj mu;samman...
7==-/-===/===/=
...a;xrab a;xram abtar] { a;xrab a;xram abtar }...
8==-/-===/==-/-=
...a;xrab majbuub] { a;xrab majbuub }...
9===/===/==-/-=
...a;xram a;xrab majbuub] { a;xram a;xrab majbuub }...
10 = = = / = = = / = = = / =
...a;xram abtar] { a;xram abtar }...
11 = = = / = = - / - = = = / = ...a;xram a;xrab abtar] { a;xram a;xrab
abtar }...
12 = = = / = = - / - = = - / - =
...a;xram a;xrab makfuuf majbuub { a;xram a;xrab makfuuf majbuub }...
Inspired by Russell's simplification of Mir's meter, here is what might be
called the Pritchett formulation of rubaa((ii meter: a set of ten long
syllables which may be grouped into (nontraditional) feet of three, three,
three, and one long syllables. The final long in each foot may be freely
replaced by two shorts, and the second foot ONLY may be freely
replaced by (= - = -). This is what it looks like in schematic form:
1 2 3 / 4 5 6 / 7 8 9 / 10
= = (=) / = = (=) / = = (=) / =
(- -) / (- -) / (- -) /
/ (= - = -) / /

It seems that this diagram will generate all the rubaa((ii meters, and it
certainly has the merit of conciseness. However, what the student really
needs to know about [rubaa((ii] meter is that a poem four lines long with
a rhyme scheme AABA or AAAA is most probably going to turn out to
BE a {rubaa((ii}. Then you can look it up in this book until you get used
to it. In our experience it takes longer to get used to than most meters,
but its subtlety and sophistication make it well worth the effort.

41
SEVEN == SCANNING AS
CODE-BREAKING
Using the material in this book, you can determine the meter of almost
any Urdu poem with complete accuracy. The only condition is that you
must have enough lines to work with. Eight lines are usually more than
sufficient. Two lines are sometimes not enough.
When you are new to the process, it's important to work calmly and
carefully and pay full attention. The normal process of scanning is so
reassuringly mechanical that mistakes and anomalies can seem quite
disconcerting. And as we will see, some uncertainties are inevitable on
the first reading. But the encouraging truth is that after all, all traditional
and most modern poetry CAN most definitely be scanned. Urdu meter is
a far more powerful and reliable tool for the student than English meter.
Start with the first word in the first line, and divide it into syllables
according to the three basic criteria (Sections 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4). Work
from orthography first; very often it is sufficient in itself. If it is not,
pronounce the word mentally for guidance. Consider whether there are
any flexible syllables in the word (Section 2.2), or any special features
that might make its scanning unusual (Sections 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4). Mark
down its syllables in sequence as long, short, or flexible--you can use
any sort of notation you like, as long as it can reflect these three
possibilities. If the word is a monosyllable, consider whether it may be
flexible (Section 2.1).
Then deal with the second word. You can write down the syllables either
from left to right, as we have done for typographical convenience in this
book, or from right to left, as flows more naturally from working with
Urdu script; a consistent method of your own is the main necessity. If
some syllable puzzles you, leave its space blank, or mark it in lightly
(pencil is more convenient than pen for this kind of work). Scan three or
four lines in this way, trying to keep the syllables properly aligned in
vertical columns as you go.
After three or four lines you will almost always notice a pattern
emerging, though you'll very often find one or two lines skewed or
disarranged somehow, coming out too long or too short. Remember to
allow for the extra, unscanned short syllable which may occur at the end
of the line in almost all meters, and which does not count in determining
the line length. All lines of poetry officially end with a long syllable,
since all the meters do. If some lines still seem irregular in length, scan a
few more lines, until the weight of evidence is sufficient to tell you the

42
normal line length. Then go over the idiosyncratic lines carefully for one
or more of the following tricky features:
*the word aur [aur], which is scanned either (= -), or merely (=). It is
so common that it is in a class by itself as a source of error.
*possible cases of word-grafting (Section 3.1). Word-grafting often
reduces the number of syllables by one, so an extra syllable in a line can
often be removed by detecting the presence of word-grafting.
*metrical peculiarities. You might be dealing with one of those pairs of
meters which permit the substitution of two shorts for one long, usually
in the next-to-last syllable. Uniquely, the pair consisting of meters #1
and #9 permits such substitution in the third syllable. (These pairs of
freely combinable meters are enumerated at the end of Section 6.1.)
Some of these meters also permit the first syllable, normally long, to be
replaced at will with a short (meters #14-#19). Also, be alert for the
extra, unscanned short syllable permitted before the caesura in meters
which have a caesura; see Section 6.1 for details.
These features, which can be detected only AFTER the initial scanning
process, account for almost all irregularities in the number of syllables
per line. If any irregularity remains, set aside the line in which it occurs
for later study. When in doubt, scan more lines and consider them all
together; the pattern will emerge more and more clearly.
Very rarely, but once in a while, you'll encounter a situation in which a
pattern simply fails to emerge, in which each line seems to be quite
different in length and pattern from other lines. If this happens, the most
probable diagnosis is Mir's "Hindi" meter (Section 6.2); check the
patterns and the length to see if this is the case. Remember that a half-
length form of this meter, though quite uncommon, does sometimes
occur. Then there is meter #6 (Section 6.1), which like "Hindi" meter
permits frequent substitution of two shorts for one long, and thus can
vary greatly from line to line. Another possibility is that you are dealing
with a rubaa((ii [rubaa((ii]. Usually you will know beforehand if this is
the case, since the [rubaa((ii] meters are such a distinctive group
(Section 6.3), and since [rubaa((ii] poetry normally comes in four-line
units which rhyme AABA or AAAA.
If you're dealing with "Hindi" meter or one of its cousins, you will know
it. Otherwise, you'll be able to normalize the length of enough lines to
make the pattern clear. You will then have orderly vertical columns of
syllables. If the nth vertical column contains all long or (most
improbably) all short syllables, you will have no doubt about the length
of the nth syllable of the line. If the column contains a mixture of longs

43
and flexibles, or a mixture of shorts and flexibles, the true length of the
syllable will still be clear. Write the proper mark below each column,
separated from it by a line or a bit of space.
What if the column contains all flexibles? If you want to be perfectly
sure of your ground, scan more lines. But a column of five or six
flexibles usually indicates a short syllable. The reason for this is that the
normal processes of syllable division produce more long syllables than
short ones. All flexible syllables are two-letter ones: they are thus
properly "long" syllables, which may also be pressed into service as
short ones. In particular, all the common monosyllabic words which the
poet can most conveniently shuffle around to fit the meter are either long
or long-turned-flexible (Section 2.1). Thus when the poet wants a long
syllable, he has a large stock to choose from and the odds are against his
using a whole column of flexible longs and no inflexible longs. But
when he wants a convenient short syllable, he has much less scope for
choice, so the odds are much greater that he would come to select a
whole column of flexibles. The longer the column of flexibles, the
greater the probability that the syllable in question is short.
Except in the case of the peculiar meters described above, it is
impossible for a single column to contain both long and short syllables.
It may often happen that all the syllables in your column appear to be of
the same kind, or else flexible, with only a single glaring aberration. If
there is any doubt, scan more lines until the weight of evidence makes
the proper scansion clear. Then focus on the aberration. Consider the
following possibilities:
*possible word-grafting (Section 3.1). If word-grafting is permissible
in the situation and would correct the scansion, it should be assumed to
have taken place.
*the possible presence of a [tashdiid], even if it is not written; or the
erroneous insertion of a tashdiid by the calligrapher where there should
not be one.
*the possible presence of an [i.zaafat], even if it is not written; or the
erroneous insertion of an i.zaafat where there should not be one.
*the possibility of an Arabic, Persian, or Indic word that falls under
some special irregular scansion rule; see Chapter 4 and the Glossary.
*the possibility of a misspelled word-- it's possible that a word with a
flexible spelling to indicate scansion (Section 2.4) has in fact been
misspelled by the calligrapher.

44
*the possibility of confusion between n and ;N . There could be
confusion between [nuun] and [nuun-e ;Gunnah], with one being
erroneously present while the other is metrically correct.
*the amphibious role of o ii e as vowels or consonants, depending on
syllable division.
If none of these possibilities can account for the discrepancy, remember
that editors and calligraphers do often make mistakes. Compare your
edition of the text with some other if possible, to check its accuracy. It is
all too easy for the calligrapher to write kar [kar] for ke [ke], shaah
[shaah] for shah [shah], or the reverse. Such mistakes, all but
undetectable in prose, can have a great effect on scanning, and it is
necessary to be alert for them. It is much more likely that there's some
such mistake in transmission, than that the poet wrote a line flagrantly
out of meter. However, pronunciation and poetic practice have varied
somewhat with time and place; the oldest poets may have archaic
usages, and the newest may be experimentally taking liberties.
If the poet has done something idiosyncratic, or if there is a textual
problem, you will be well able to isolate and investigate it. If you have
enough lines to work with, no small anomaly can possibly confuse you:
you can always break the code. But sometimes you may want to scan a
very short poem, or a single two-line shi((r [shi((r]. No method, and
certainly not ours, can guarantee you perfect success. There are enough
kinds of flexibility and uncertainty built into Urdu meter so that
mechanical accuracy requires a good deal of redundancy. However, if
you are willing to venture, it is usually possible to make excellent
educated guesses. Scan the lines in the normal way as best you can.
Usually you arrive at a result which leaves at least one flexible syllable
even in the final resolution. A column consisting of only two flexibles
has no more than about a 60-40 chance of representing a short syllable.
Sometimes you can make use of the rule that three short syllables never
occur in a row. But usually you need more help than this. If the meter is
a common one, you may be able to recognize it; then you will know for
sure what the flexible syllables really are.
Even if you don't recognize the meter, you may be able to figure it out
by recognizing the feet. The great majority of Urdu meters contain four
feet. And the great majority of four-foot meters contain two or more
identical feet among the four. Remember that the middle feet are more
likely to be longer, often four-syllable ones; the last foot is often very
short (two or three syllables), and the first foot is also often short (three
syllables). A good working knowledge of the afaa((iil [afaa((iil]
(Chapter 5) is obviously very helpful in this process. Remember that

45
none of the [afaa((iil] end with two short syllables, and only one-third of
the [afaa((iil] end with one short syllable. Two short syllables together
usually occur at the beginning of a foot. Try to envision the breakdown
of your scansion into feet. If you can discover two or more identical feet,
you can often resolve any remaining flexible syllables by seeing the
correspondences. If your scansion reveals a caesura pattern (foot A, foot
B, foot A, foot B), you can easily determine the true length of any
flexible syllables. If your meter appears shorter than average, it is
probably a three-foot one. Three-foot meters are very likely not to have
any identical feet.
If none of these shortcuts works, you can always take the meter list
(Section 6.1), and plow through it until you recognize your meter;
though the list is not exhaustive, it contains meters for something like
95% of the meters you will normally encounter. For rare and exotic
meters, you can check in Barker or Grahame Bailey. Don't let a difficult-
looking meter intimidate you. Even educated native speakers have
trouble when given small samples of exotic meters. If you are careful
and persistent, you can eventually figure out almost anything.
A NOTE ON na:zm [na:zm]: Modern na:zm are actually much closer
to traditional metrical conventions than might be expected. The paaband
na:zm [paaband na:zm], "regular verse," always uses one of the
traditional meters, and traditional rhyming elements as well. The na:zm-
e mu((arraa [na:zm-e mu((arraa], "blank verse," also uses a traditional
meter, though it is unrhymed.
Undoubtedly aazaad na:zm [aazaad na:zm], "free verse," takes liberties
with traditional meters. Yet the particular meter any aazaad na:zm is
taking liberties with can almost always be recognized. Suppose that the
traditional meter consists of the sequence: foot A, foot B, foot C, foot D.
Then the aazaad na:zm might have lines in foot-sequences like the
following: ABC / ABCD / A / AB / CDA / B / CDAB / CD, and so on.
Sometimes a foot itself may begin at the end of one line and end at the
beginning of the next. Lines may also be stretched by the duplication of
medial feet: ABBBCD, ABBCCD, etc. But the omission of a foot (ACD,
BD) does not usually occur. Common Hindi meters are sometimes
adapted and used in [aazaad na:zm], but in general the traditional meters,
though modified, remain quite recognizable.
There is also of course na:srii na:zm [na;srii na:zm], the "prose poem."
Works of this genre deliberately avoid meter. As a rule they can't be
scanned in any systematic way.

46
EIGHT == FROM EYE TO
EAR
Once the code has been broken, and the proper meter of a poem is
known, we abandon our invaluable analytical notion of the flexible
syllable. A flexible syllable may be long in one instance and short in
another: we call it flexible to show that we do not yet know which it is in
the instance we are considering. But once we DO know the meter,
there's no longer any such thing as a flexible syllable. Every syllable is
either long or short. (Some meters--#14-#19--may begin with either a
long or a short syllable. If the first word in the line is a flexible
monosyllable, it might seem that it would retain its flexibility. But in fact
in such cases the word is always read as long.)

Scanning a poem accurately on paper is, given enough lines, a purely

mechanical process. Reciting it properly is not. Yet we find that most
students can learn to recite with some competence, and benefit by doing
so. Recitation helps the student memorize, pronounce, analyze, and
enjoy the poetry much more easily. And since Urdu poetry is so much
part of an oral tradition which includes simple ta;ht ul-laf:z [ta;ht ul-
laf:z] recitation, unaccompanied tarannum [tarannum] performance, and
full-scale singing in a classical raag [raag], the student who hears and
recites, as well as reads, has much better access to the poetry as native
speakers experience it.
Before trying to recite a poem, you should thoroughly learn its meter. It
is easiest to do this in terms of feet: traditionally educated native
speakers learn meters as a series of afaa((iil [afaa((iil]. You may find it
easier to substitute your own nonsense words. To express the sequence (-
= = =), it may be easier to say da-dum-dum-dum than mafa((aiilun
[mafaa((iilun]; similarly, dum-da-dum-dum may replace faa((ilaatun
[faa((ilaatun], etc. Any combination of syllables that works for you will
do, especially when you are just starting, but try to choose your set and
stick to it.
When you practice reciting, choose a meter with three or four identical
feet for your first attempt. Meter #10 or #26 would be a good one to
begin with; both are easy and popular. Start with the fundamental idea
that a long syllable takes roughly twice as much time to say as a short
one. You can even use a metronome to get the feel of it. Or tap on the

47
table at a steady rate, holding a long syllable for two taps and a short
syllable for one. Go as slowly as necessary at first, and get the rhythm
RIGHT. Practice the first foot until you get it, then add the rest one by
one, until you can say the whole line in slow, clumsy but ACCURATE
rhythm. Be especially careful to make long syllables twice as long
quantitatively, in duration, rather than giving them extra stress or a
heavy accent as in English. It is insidiously easy to slide over from
quantitative into qualitative emphasis, especially at first. That is why
slow careful mechanical practice is of the greatest importance. Only
when the rhythm has been thoroughly mastered should the words of the
poem be gradually substituted for whatever set of foot-naming words
you have been using.
The first meter learned in this way may be slow going. But later ones
become easier surprisingly quickly, since the basic feet keep recurring,
and your ear becomes accustomed to quantitative distinctions. The most
helpful thing is the constant recurrence of a handful of really common
meters. You will quickly learn to be comfortable with them and will be
able to recite new poetry in them with great ease, even on the first try.
Eventually, you will learn to recognize them almost on sight and you'll
no longer need to use pencil and paper, except for rare meters. You'll be
able to recite a line of poetry in your head in one or two possible meters,
and see which one works. Only rarely will very unusual meters perplex
you--as they perplex native speakers. You can then scan systematically
with pencil and paper, and teach yourself the meter once you have
worked it out. But as a rule you will be able to identify the most
common meters even from their first few syllables.
For reference, here is a list of the most common meters, in order of
decreasing popularity. Naturally in different genres and different
periods, preferences have varied. This list is an over-all one, prepared for
us by Shamsur Rahman Faruqi. The number assigned to each meter is its
number in Section 6.1.
#19 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / - - =
#18 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / = = Frequently used together. *This long
syllable may be replaced by a short.
#5 = = - / = - = - / - = = - / = - =
#10 = - = = / = - = = / = - = = / = - =
#26 - = = = / - = = = / - = = = / - = = =
#34 - = - = / - - = = / - = - = / - - =
#33 - = - = / - - = = / - = - = / = = Frequently used together.

48
#8 = = - / - = = - / - = = - / - = =
#7 = = - / - = = = // = = - / - = = = Has caesura.
#15 =* - = = / - = - = / - - =
#14 =* - = = / - = - = / = = Frequently used together. *This long syllable
may be replaced by a short.
In A Textbook of Urdu Prosody and Rhetoric, Pybus gives his own
version of such a list (pp. 44-46): #26, #8, #10, #18-19, #5, #33-34, #28,
#30 (in its half-length form), #14-15. Note that the first six meters are
the same in each list, though differently ordered.
Once your recitation is mechanically correct, you should take note of the
subtleties. Notice that some short syllables are extra short, especially
word-final one-letter ones (e.g., in dard [dar-d]; kaam [kaa-m]; dilchasp
[dil-chas-p]). Practice your favorite lines until you can keep the meter
perfect without thinking about it: the more you internalize the meter, the
more you can afford to try embellishments and experiments in recitation.
Listen to records or tapes. Classical Urdu Poetry, by Barker and Salam,
is accompanied by a set of six cassette tapes that contain recitations and
metrical patterns for a number of poems from the book; many students
find them helpful. If possible, have native speakers recite for you. Don't
be dismayed if you have trouble hearing the meter at first. It will come
with practice.
At some point you may feel like trying your hand at composing a poem
of your own. More non-native-speakers than you might think have
written Urdu poetry, and some have even done it reasonably well. If
you've assimilated the material in this book you will be able to write
metrically perfect poetry with only rare mistakes on small esoteric
points. Start with simple words, and ideas that are not too complicated.
Check the Glossary for some of the forms of flexibility available to you
as a poet in particular words, and remember the beauties of word-
grafting (Section 3.1) as well. You will come to have a lively
appreciation of the flexible monosyllables (Section 2.1). Nothing will
make you admire the achievement of the great poets more than wrestling
with the same artistic constraints and choices yourself.
If you are serious, the traditional thing to do is to show your poetry to an
ustaad [ustaad], a senior poet whom you respect, for criticism and
revision. A poem must be more than metrically correct to be appreciated:
its rhythm should be flowing, ravaa;N [ravaa;N] and its language well-
chosen, fa.sii;h [fa.sii;h]. These criteria are subtle and intuitively
determined. There's more to it than this, of course; even Ghalib had his
troubles with the connoisseurs of his day. You could do worse than

49
make a study of Ghalib and Mir; this website provides a great deal of
material for doing so.
If you are lucky enough to find a good ustaad , pay close attention to
him or her (the feminine form of ustaad is ustaanii [ustaanii]). Such an
ustad may suggest many changes. Don't be discouraged. Ask questions,
and think carefully about the criteria your ustad is using. Read more
poetry. Memorize verses that you like, and recite them to yourself. If
you persevere, you'll be rewarded. The best reward will be a far more
sensitive and sophisticated understanding of how Urdu poetry works--
how it is created, evaluated, and enjoyed. The true ahl-e zabaan [ahl-e
zabaan], who knows and loves the poetry fully, is made and not born.

50
NINE == BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 == Works in English
BAILEY, T. Grahame. "A Guide to the Metres of Urdu Verse." Bulletin
of the School of Oriental and African Studies 2 9,4 (1937-39):969-
985.
Contains an exhaustive and well-organized list of meters, which the
student may find helpful. Long and short syllables are given, together
with the corresponding [afaa((iil] in transliteration, and the basic one-
word name of the meter. Bailey also gives a separate, short list of the
most common meters that is convenient for quick reference. In his brief
introduction (pp. 969-972) he makes some confusing and very doubtful
statements about Urdu meter. But most of the article consists of the
meter list. This is not perfect: for example, 20.2 is wrongly scanned;
13.1 and 15.14 are extremely unlikely in Urdu; 24.1 is entirely
nonexistent. Moreover, he constantly interprets a meter with the
permitted "cheat syllable" used at the end as a whole separate meter.
Still, the list is thorough and basically useful.
BARKER, M. A. R., and S. A. Salam. Classical Urdu Poetry. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Spoken Languages Services, Inc., 1977. 3 vols.
Volume I contains: Appendix I: Urdu Poetics-- A.130 Scansion (pp.
xxxv-xl); A.140 Measure and Metre (pp. xl-xlvi); A.150 Catalexis (pp.
xlvi-lxiv). An account which touches on all the major points of metrical
theory and presents them with accuracy and technical sophistication.
Syllables are defined as "heavy (CVC or CV) and light (CV)," where C
= consonant, V = long vowel, and V = [zer], [zabar], or [pesh]. Thus
agar [a-gar] is scanned CV-CVC, kaam [kaa-m] as CV-CV. To some
students this notation is confusing. The list of meters is given in a form
that makes it hard to consult quickly: meters are described only in terms
of [afaa((iil], which are in turn given only in the authors' transliteration.
But references are provided, so that the student can look up examples of
the meter as they occur in the anthology. This book is an excellent
reference work for students with enough background to make use of it.
Any student who can use our book can move on to Barker's work for
further study.
ELWELL-SUTTON, L.P. The Persian Metres. London: Cambridge
University Press, 1976. xiv, 285 p.
The author's main thesis is that Persian meters are not derived from the
Arabic. It's a very controversial idea, but presented with an admirable

51
amount of analytic detail. The transliteration system is not too easy to
decipher. This work will be of interest only to the advanced student, and
preferably one with a working knowledge of Persian.
KIERNAN, Victor, trans. and ed. Poems by Faiz. London: George
Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1971. 288 p.
This is a beautiful book for the student who is just learning to read Urdu
and wants to practice reading as well as scanning poetry. It contains a
good selection of Faiz's best poetry in gorgeous calligraphy, careful and
reliable transliterations of each poem on facing pages, and both literal
and "poetic" translations. Learners always find this book most attractive
and helpful. The student should, however, beware of pp. 13-14 of the
Preface, in which Kiernan illustrates his view that stress is "clearly
important" in Urdu poetry by giving some common meters used by Faiz
in terms of shorts and longs, "with accents added to mark stress." The
placement of these accent marks is apparently determined only by his
own intuition. The value of that intuition can easily be judged: in every
one of his six examples, the poem that he cites to illustrate a certain
meter is not in that meter at all.
MANUEL, Peter L. "The Relationship between Prosodic and Musical
Rhythms in Urdu Ghazal-Singing." In: Studies in the Urdu Gazal and
Prose Fiction, ed. by Muhammad Umar Memon. Madison: Center for
South Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1979. Pp. 101-119.
An interesting and informative article. It contains some minor
inaccuracies in the description of meters; the student who has used this
handbook will easily spot them. But they do not affect the points being
made about performance theory and practice.
MATTHEWS, D. J., and C. Shackle. An Anthology of Classical Urdu
Love Lyrics; Text and Translations. London: Oxford University Press,
1972. 283 p.
Contains: Appendix I: Notes on Prosody and Meter (pp. 210-213). An
extremely condensed account of Urdu meter, basically accurate though
inevitably oversimplified. Scansion rules are briefly given. The meter
list contains all the meters appearing in the book, described in terms of
longs and shorts, with full references so that the poems in which a
particular meter is used can easily be located. A note of caution: the
patterns given are sometimes misleadingly simple. The optional initial
short syllable in certain meters is not shown, even though it occurs in
poems in the book (e.g. 15.5, pp. 128-9). But considering the brief scope
of this account, it is a very good one.

52
PLATTS, John T. A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and
English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1884 (1st ed.) and many later
reprints in England and New Delhi. viii, 1259 p.
While this classic dictionary has nothing directly to do with meter, it's
the English-speaking student's best friend, and anyone who doesn't
already own it should get it. Fortunately various Indian and sometimes
Pakistani editions are constantly kept in print, and are not even very
expensive as modern books go. No one who does anything with classical
Urdu literature should be without it. The fact that it's now available
online doesn't at all exempt the serious student from needing to own it.
Even better is to own two copies. (Or more, of course.)
PYBUS, Captain G.D. A Textbook of Urdu Prosody and Rhetoric.
Lahore: Ramakrishna and Sons, 1924. viii, 151 p.: ON THIS SITE.
Contains: Part I: Prosody-- Chapter 2, Scansion (pp. 6-16); Chapter 3,
Metre (pp. 17-21); Chapter 4, Catalexis (pp. 22-46) (on the derivation of
meters); Appendix I-- Specimens of the common metres for practice in
scansion (pp. 126-133). This is a treasure of a book and we recommend
it above every other for the serious student. It explains traditional Urdu
prosody accurately and in considerable detail, starting with saakin
[saakin], "quiescent," and muta;harrik [muta;harrik], "movent," letters
and proceeding to the [afaa((iil], then to the meters and their derivations.
It is as lucidly written as possible, given the very complex material it is
dealing with. Any student interested in reading Urdu works on meter
should certainly master the material in this book first. Other chapters in
Part I besides those mentioned above are also useful, and Part II,
"Rhetoric," is worth reading as well. This is the only book in English
that teaches the student to understand Urdu poetry the way the literarily
educated native speaker has traditionally done.
QURESHI, Regula. "Tarannum: the Chanting of Urdu Poetry."
Ethnomusicology 13,3 (Sept. 1969):425-468.
-------. "Islamic Music in an Indian Environment: the Shi`a Majlis."
Ethnomusicology 25,1 (Jan. 1981):41-71.
-------. Sufi Music of India and Pakistan: Sound and Meaning in the
Qawwali. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. With
cassettes.
The author of these and many other books and articles is a musician
herself who sings and plays ghazal beautifully. Much of her work will be
of interest to students for its account of the ways in which Urdu poetry is
sung and recited nowadays, especially in Islamic religious contexts.

53
RUSSELL, Ralph. "Some Problems of the Treatment of Urdu Metre."
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Apr. 1960), pp. 48-58.
Begins with a discussion of the difficulties of traditional scansion, and
proceeds to a critique of Grahame Bailey's approach. Russell then
develops the thesis that stress, or ictus, "is almost as important an
element in Urdu metre as quantity is" (p. 57). His argument rests heavily
on the example of Mir's "Hindi" meter. This example may well be
considered, however, a dubious one on which to base wider
generalizations about Urdu meter. An interesting presentation of a
controversial thesis.
RUSSELL, Ralph, and Khurshidul Islam. Three Mughal Poets: Mir,
Sauda, Mir Hasan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968. xxii,
290 p.
Contains: Appendix: A Complete Ghazal of Mir (pp. 271-277). Russell
and Islam here give an account of Mir's "Hindi" meter in qualitative
Western metrical terms, as a sequence of "spondees" and "dactyls" with
a "beat" on the odd-numbered syllables. An intriguing approach, once
again emphasizing stress, or ictus. If this approach can be applied at all
to Urdu meter, it is certainly to "Hindi" meter rather than to the more
conventional meters.
RUSSELL, Ralph. A Primer of Urdu Verse Metre. London: by the
author, mimeographed and ringbound, 1974. Pages not numbered.
Contains Russell's views on the nature of Urdu meter, in a simplified
form appropriate to students just beginning to study the subject (Lessons
1-4). Offers examples consisting of ghazals by Momin, Zafar, and
Ghalib (Lessons 5-8) and a passage from Hali's [musaddas] (Lesson 9),
all transliterated, scanned, translated, and discussed. The book also
reproduces Bailey's meter list (minus Bailey's introduction) in Appendix
2. A helpful treatment of the subject, in a disarmingly colloquial style.
Russell suggests, for example, a resemblance between the common
meter (= - = = / = - = = / = - = = / = - =) and the rhythmic structure of
"Oh My Darlin' Clementine." A beginning student could certainly use
this book with enjoyment and profit, though it's impossible to agree with
its insistence on stress as an analytical approach to Urdu meter.
THIESEN, Finn. A Manual of Classical Persian Prosody; With
Chapters on Urdu, Karakhandic and Ottoman Prosody. Wiesbaden:
Otto Harrassowitz, 1982. 274 p.
A detailed and sophisticated account; the author is not only learned in
the classical theory, but also at home with modern linguistic methods of

54
notation and analysis. Thiesen's specific account of Urdu prosody (pp.
181-209) is devoted mostly to the ways in which it deviates from the
Persian norms he has already discussed. Examples are given throughout,
in both original script and transliteration, with translations. For the
advanced student who wants to put Urdu meter in as thoroughly Persian
a perspective as possible, this book will be of great value. It also
contains an account of the circles or "wheels" used by Arabic and
Persian prosodists to generate all the classical meters (pp. 102-165), and
a meter list (pp. 227-255) of the meters as used in Persian.

9.2 == Works in Urdu

[in Urdu alphabetical order by title]
aahang-e shi((r by abuu :zafar ((abd ul-vaa;hid [aahang-e shi((r] by
[abuu :zafar ((abd ul-vaa;hid]. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Urdu
Academy, 1978.
This work discusses meter and rhyme in great detail, making reference
to the Hindi system as well. It is hard to use, since it is unsystematic and
somewhat rambling. It contains a helpful glossary of terms, pp. 327-386.
ba;hr ul-fa.saa;hat by najm ul-;Ganii [ba;hr ul-fa.haa.hat] by [najm ul-
;Ganii]. Lucknow: Naval Kishor Press, 1885 (1st ed.); 1926 (2nd ed.);
1927 (3rd ed.). 1232, 2 p.
This voluminous work on Urdu poetics contains one sizable chapter,
perhaps a couple of hundred pages, on meter. It is more commonly used
as a reference today than the other works named in this section. It is
simpler, more detailed, and better organized than the works by Auj or
Faqir.
chiraa;G-e su;xan by mirzaa yaas yagaanah changezii [chiraa;G-e
su;xan] by [mirzaa yaas yagaanah changezii]. Lucknow: Siddiq Book
Depot, 1927(?) [1914]. c.144 p.
This work, first published in 1914, is unsystematic and disorganized. It
is notable, however, for listing ALL variants, even the rarest and oddest,
of the Urdu meters.
;hadaa))iq ul-balaa;Gat by shams ud-diin faqiir [;hadaa))iq ul-
balaa;Gat] by [shams ud-diin faqiir]. Trans. by imaam ba;xsh .sahbaa))ii
[imaam ba;xsh .sahbaa))ii]. Kanpur: Naval Kishor Press, 1915. 192 p.
The famous Indian rhetorician and poet Shamsuddin Faqir composed the
original work in Persian in 1768. It was translated into Urdu in 1842; the
translator replaced the Arabic and Persian examples with ones drawn
from Urdu. The work deals with all branches of literature, and includes

55
an extensive chapter on meter (pp. 123-174). It is comparatively well-
organized and non-theoretical; it includes chapter headings, which make
it easier to consult than some similar works.
dars-e balaa;Gat , ed. by shams ur-ra;hm;aan faaruuqii [dars-e
balaa;Gat], ed. by [shams ur-ra;hm;aan faaruuqii]. New Delhi: Bureau
for the Promotion of Urdu, Government of India, 1981. 192 p., index.
A primer on meter designed for undergraduates; very simply written, it
is accurate and avoids controversial issues. It seeks to explain scansion
and other metrical issues in language understandable to modern native
speakers with no special background. The book also contains an unusual
glossary of Urdu poetic terms and their nearest English counterparts.
The chapters on meter, scansion, and rhyme were written by Faruqi, and
most of the rest carefully edited by him. This book is in print, and would
be an excellent starting point for the student who is ready to read
metrical material in Urdu.
zar-e kaamil ((ayaar by mu:zaffar ((alii asiir [zar-e kaamil ((ayaar] by
[mu:zaffar ((alii asiir]. Lucknow: Naval Kishor Press, 1903. 2nd ed.; 308
p.
A translation of the famous Persian treatise mi((yaar ul-ash((aar ,
attributed to na.siir ud-diin :tuusii (d. 1079). The original work, without
its numerous examples, is only about sixty pages long, and Asir's is a
parallel-text version with commentary. A condensed but thorough and
systematic account of Arabic and Persian meter. Extremely abstruse, and
considered to be the most authoritative work on the subject.
.si;h;hat-e alfaa:z by sayyid badr ul-;hasan [.si;h;hat-e alfaa:z] by
[sayyid badr ul-;hasan]. Delhi: Kutbkhanah Anjuman Taraqqi-e Urdu,
1977. 119 p.
The whole book consists of a series of lists of Urdu words that are
difficult or problematical for various reasons. The book is clearly laid
out and contains an index; the student should have no trouble using it.
Perhaps the most helpful list is that of frequently mispronounced words
(pp. 9-42). Each word in the list is followed by its metrically correct
division into syllables.
((aruu.z aahang aur bayaan by shams ur-ra;hm;aan faaruuqii [((aruu.z
aahang aur bayaan] by [shams ur-ra;hm;aan faaruuqii]. Lucknow: Kitab
Nagar, 1977. 258 p., index.
Thoughtful and original discussions of some problematical aspects of
Urdu meter, by a critic versed in both Urdu and English poetic theory.
The essays are difficult, but well worth the effort for the serious student.

56
Among the topics discussed: flexible syllables, the caesura (not
recognized at all in traditional theory), the creation of seemingly
different rhythms within the same meter. The book also includes a
glossary of traditional metrical terms (pp. 250-258), with clear and
concise definitions.
((ilm-e ((aruu.z o qaafiyah o taarii;x go))ii by ;hasan kaa:zim ((aruu.z
ilaahaabaadii [((ilm-e ((aruu.z o qaafiyah o taarii;x go))ii] by[;hasan
kaa:zim ((aruu.z ilaahaabaadii]. Allahabad: by the author, 1974. 96 p.
This small volume is not notable for orderly arrangement or clear
presentation. However, it is generally accurate, and very handy for quick
reference.
qavaa((id ul-((aruu.z by .safiir bilgraamii [qavaa((id ul-((aruu.z] by
[.safiir bilgraamii].1844(?).
Safir Bilgrami was a shaagird of Ghalib's; this book is considered quite
authoritative.
kiliid-e ((aruu.z by zaar ((allaamii [kiliid-e ((aruu.z] by [zaar ((allaamii].
Patiala, 1981. 208 p.
Said to have been available from the Editor of sham((a-e ;xayaal ,
Gangoh, Saharanpur. The author is a well-known prosodist of the old
school; his ustaad in prosody and poetry was si;hr ((ishqaabaadii (d.
1978), a famous and expert student of meter. Allami claims that a
student can learn prosody directly from this book without additional
instruction. Yet in fact, his style is jerky, his presentation unsystematic,
and his definitions often cryptic. At times he implies that the rules of
classical prosody are sacrosanct, but at other times he deviates from the
rules without giving any reason for it. He spends much of his time
providing examples of rare variant meters of types so unusual that they
hardly ever actually occur. However, he provides detailed and useful
charts of the meters and variations, or zi;haafaat [zi;haafaat], which are
for the most part extremely accurate. He provides a small chapter on
rhyme as well.
miqyaas ul-ash((aar by mirzaa mu;hammad ja((far auj [miqyaas ul-
ash((aar] by [mirzaa mu;hammad ja((far auj]. Lucknow: Matba`-e
Ja`fari, 1886. 336, 4 p.
The most exhaustive, authoritative, and painstaking of the classical
works on Urdu meter.
9.3 == Web resources
At present, the only site I know of is one maintained by Mr. Mohammed
Khashan: [site]

57
TEN == EXERCISES 1-6
These ghazal excerpts are meant for practice. They have been taken from
M. A. R. Barker and S. A. Salam, Classical Urdu Poetry, volume 1; the
page numbers refer to their location in this volume. All the poems in
Barker's volume 1 have been literally translated, with full explanations,
in volume 2 of the same work; thus no translations will be provided here.
Errors of calligraphy in Barker's edition have been corrected, and a few
editing choices have been differently made. The ghazals appear in
abbreviated form, with some verses omitted, but the first and last verses
are always included. Scansions and explanatory notes for the ghazals are
given in Chapter 11.
GHAZAL 1 by Vali Dakhani, p. 92:
kiyaa mujh ((ishq ne :zaalim ko aab aahistah aahistah
kih aatish gul ko kartaa hai gulaab aahistah aahistah
vafaadaarii ne dilbar kii bujhaayaa aatish-e ;Gam kuu;N
kih garmii daf((a kartii hai gulaab aahistah aahistah
((ajab kuchh lu:tf rakhtaa hai shab-e ;xilvat me;N gulruu suu;N
;xi:taab aahistah aahistah javaab aahistah aahistah
adaa o naaz se aataa hai vuh raushan-jabii;N ghar suu;N
kih jyuu;N mashriq suu;N nikle aaftaab aahistah aahistah
valii mujh dil me;N aataa hai ;xayaal-e yaar be-parvaa
kih jyuu;N a;Nkhyaa;N mane;N aataa hai ;xvaab aahistah aahistah

GHAZAL 2 by Khvajah Mir Dard, p. 122:

tuhmate;N chand apne ;zimme dhar chale
jis li))e aa))e the so ham kar chale
zindagii hai yaa ko))ii :tuufaan hai
ham to is jiine ke haatho;N mar chale
sham((a ke maanind ham is bazm me;N
chashm tar aa))e the daaman tar chale
kyaa hame;N kaam in gulo;N se ai .sabaa
ek dam aa))e idhar uudhar chale
dard kuchh ma((luum hai yih log sab
kis :taraf se aa))e the kiidhar chale

GHAZAL 3 by Mir, pp. 127-128:

milne lage ho der der dekhiye kyaa hai kyaa nahii;N
tum to karo ho .saa;hibii bande me;N kuchh rahaa nahii;N
buu-e gul aur rang-e gul dono;N hai;N dilkash ai nasiim
lek baqadr-e yak nigaah dekhiye to vafaa nahii;N

58
shikvah karuu;N huu;N ba;xt kaa itne ;Ga.zab nah ho butaa;N
mujh ko ;xudaa nah ;xvaastah tum se to kuchh gilaa nahii;N
chashm-e safed ashk-e sur;x aah-e dil-e ;hazii;N hai yaa;N
shiishah nahii;N hai may nahii;N abr nahii;N havaa nahii;N
ek faqa:t hai saadagii tis pah balaa-e jaa;N hai tuu
((ishvah karishmah kuchh nahii;N aan nahii;N adaa nahii;N

GHAZAL 4 by Mir, pp. 128-129:

hastii apnii ;hubaab kii sii hai
yih numaa))ish saraab kii sii hai
naazukii us ke lab kii kyaa kahiye
pankha;Rii ik gulaab kii sii hai
baar baar us ke dar pah jaataa huu;N
;haalat ab i.z:taraab kii sii hai
mai;N jo bolaa kahaa kih yih aavaaz
usii ;xaanah-;xaraab kii sii hai
miir un niim baaz aa;Nkho;N me;N
saarii mastii sharaab kii sii hai

GHAZAL 5 by Mir, p. 130:

((ishq hamaare ;xayaal pa;Raa hai ;xvaab ga))ii aaraam gayaa
jii kaa jaanaa ;Ther gayaa hai .sub;h gayaa yaa shaam gayaa
((ishq kiyaa so diin gayaa iimaan gayaa islaam gayaa
dil ne aisaa kaam kiyaa kuchh jis se mai;N naakaam gayaa
haa))e javaanii kyaa kyaa kahye shor saro;N me;N rakhte the
ab kyaa hai vuh ((ahd gayaa vuh mausam vuh hangaam gayaa

GHAZAL 6 by Mus'hafi, p. 178:

nah vuh raate;N nah vuh baate;N nah vuh qi.s.sah kahaanii hai
faqa:t ik ham hai;N bistar par pa;Re aur naatavaanii hai
bhalaa mai;N haath dho bai;Thuu;N nah apnii jaan se kyuu;N kar
;xiraam us ke me;N ik aab-e ravaa;N kii sii ravaanii hai
tuu yuu;N be-pardah ho jaayaa nah kar har ek ke aage
nayaa ((aalam hai teraa aur na))ii kaafir javaanii hai
nah tanhaa gul garebaa;N phaa;Rte hai;N dekh is saj ko
chaman me;N aab-juu bhii chaal par us kii divaanii hai
tirii baato;N ne to ay mu.s;hafii jii ko jalaa ;Daalaa
;xuda ke vaas:te chup rah yih kyaa aatish zabaanii hai
TEN == EXERCISES 7-12
GHAZAL 7 by Jur'at, p. 191:
baal suljhaanaa tiraa kanghii se dil uljhaa))e hai
aur bikhre dekh kar bas jii hii bikhraa jaa))e hai

59
sur;x ;Dore dekh kyaa hii jaal me;N pha;Nstaa hai dil
nikle;N hai;N kyaa kyaa adaa))e;N jab kih tuu sharmaa))e hai
rang par chahre ke hai kyaa hii javaanii kii chamak
aur bhare gaalo;N pah jii bose ko kyaa lalchaa))e hai
;Gash me;N ho jaataa hai jii bas ((i:tr kii buu baas par
jha;T se jur))aat ke gale jab aa ke tuu lag jaa))e hai

GHAZAL 8 by Jur'at, pp. 193-194:

bhuul ga))e tum jin rozo;N ham ghar pah bulaa))e jaate the
hote the kyaa kyaa kuchh charche ((aish manaa))e jaate the
kyaa kyaa kuchh thii ;xaa:tirdaarii kyaa kyaa pyaar kii baate;N thii;N
kis kis ;Dhab se chaah jataa kar rab:t ba;Rhaa))e jaate the
karte the tum un kii ;xvushaamad jo the hamaare ma;hram-e raaz
har har baat pah kyaa kyaa un ke naaz u;Thaa))e jaate the
nang hai yaa ab naam se aisaa jahaa;N likhaa ho mi;Tvaa do
yaa pa;Rhne ko juraa))t hii ke shi((r likhaa))e jaate the

GHAZAL 9 by Atish, p. 218:

;hasrat-e jalvah-e diidaar li))e phirtii hai
pesh-e rauzan pas-e diivaar li))e phirtii hai
maal-e muflis mujhe samjhaa hai junuu;N ne shaayad
va;hshat-e dil sar-e baazaar li))e phirtii hai
ka((bah o dair me;N vuh ;xaanah-bar-andaaz kahaa;N
gardish-e kaafir o dii;Ndaar li))e phirtii hai
kisii .suurat se nahii;N jaa;N ko qaraar ai aatish
:tapish-e dil mujhe naachaar li))e phirtii hai
GHAZAL 10 by Atish, p. 218:
yih aarzuu thii tujhe gul ke ruu bah ruu karte
ham aur bulbul-e betaab guftaguu karte
mirii :tara;h se mah o mahr bhii hai;N aavaarah
kisii ;habiib kii yih bhii hai;N justajuu karte
jo dekhte terii zanjiir-e zulf kaa ((aalam
asiir hone kii aazaad aarzuu karte
nah puuchh ((aalam-e bargashtah :taal((ii aatish
barastii aag jo baaraa;N kii aarzuu karte
GHAZAL 11 by Zauq, p. 297:
use ham ne bahut ;Dhuun;Dhaa nah paayaa
agar paayaa to khoj apnaa nah paayaa
muqaddar par hii gar suud o ziyaa;N hai
to ham ne yaa;N nah kuchh khoyaa nah paayaa
kahe kyaa haa))e za;xm-e dil hamaaraa
dahan paayaa lab-e goyaa nah paayaa

60
na:ziir us kii kahaa;N ((aalam me;N ai ;zauq
kahii;N aisaa nah paa))egaa nah paayaa

GHAZAL 12 by Zauq, pp. 298-299:

laa))i ;hayaat aa))e qa.zaa le chalii chale
apnii ;xvushii nah aa))e nah apnii ;xvushii chale
bahtar to hai yihii kih nah dunyaa se dil lage
par kyaa kare;N jo kaam nah be-dil-lagii chale
ho ((umr-e ;xi.zr bhii to kahe;Nge bavaqt-e marg
ham kyaa rahe yahaa;N abhii aa))e abhii chale
naazaa;N nah ho ;xirad pah jo honaa ho ho vuhii
daanish tirii nah kuchh mirii daanishvarii chale
dunyaa ne kis kaa raah-e fanaa me;N diyaa hai saath
tum bhii chale chalo yuu;N hii jab tak chalii chale

TEN == EXERCISES 13-18

GHAZAL 13 by Momin, p. 307:
a;sar us ko ;zaraa nahii;N hotaa
ranj raa;hat-fazaa nahii;N hotaa
tum hamaare kisii :tara;h nah huu))e
varnah dunyaa me;N kyaa nahii;N hotaa
ek dushman kih char;x hai nah rahe
tujh se yih ai du((aa nahii;N hotaa
tum mire paas hote ho goyaa
jab ko))ii duusraa nahii;N hotaa
kyuu;N sune ((ar.z-e mu.z:tar ai momin
.sanam aa;xir ;xudaa nahii;N hotaa

GHAZAL 14 by Momin, p. 312:

vuh jo ham me;N tum me;N qaraar thaa tumhe;N yaad ho kih nah yaad
ho
vahii ya((nii va((dah nibaah kaa tumhe;N yaad ho kih nah yaad ho
vuh na))e gile vuh shikaayate;N vuh maze maze kii ;hikaayate;N
vuh har ek baat pah ruu;Thnaa tumhe;N yaad ho kih nah yaad ho
huu))e ittifaaq se gar baham to vafaa jataane ko dam bah dam
gilah-e malaamat-e aqrabaa tumhe;N yaad ho kih nah yaad ho
ko))ii baat aisii agar huu))ii kih tumhaare jii ko burii lagii
to bayaa;N se pahle hii bhuulnaa tumhe;N yaad ho kih nah yaad ho
jise aap ginte the aashnaa jise aap kahte the baavafaa
mai;N vahii huu;N momin-e mubtalaa tumhe;N yaad ho kih nah yaad ho

GHAZAL FIFTEEN by Ghalib, p. 319:

61
baskih dushvaar hai har kaam kaa aasaa;N honaa
aadmii ko bhii muyassar nahii;N insaa;N honaa
vaa))e diivaanagii-e shauq kih har dam mujh ko
aap jaanaa udhar aur aap hii ;hairaa;N honaa
((ishrat-e qatl-gah-e ahl-e tamannaa mat puuchh
((iid-e na:z:zaarah hai shamshiir kaa ((uryaa;N honaa
((ishrat-e paarah-e dil za;xm-e tamannaa khaanaa
la;z;zat-e resh-e jigar ;Garq-e namakdaa;N honaa
;haif us chaar girah kap;Re kii qismat ;Gaalib
jis kii qismat me;N ho ((aashiq kaa garebaa;N honaa

Ghazal 16 by Ghalib, pp. 319-320:

yih nah thii hamaarii qismat kih vi.saal-e yaar hotaa
agar aur jiite rahte yihii inti:zaar hotaa
tire va((de par jiye ham to yih jaan jhuu;T jaanaa
kih ;xvushii se mar nah jaate agar i((tibaar hotaa
ko))ii mere dil se puuchhe tire tiir-e niim kash ko
yih ;xalish kahaa;N se hotii jo jigar ke paar hotaa
;Gam agarchih jaa;N-gusil hai pah kahaa;N bache;N kih dil hai
;Gam-e ((ishq agar nah hotaa ;Gam-e rozgaar hotaa
yih masaa))il-e ta.savvuf yih tiraa bayaan ;Gaalib
tujhe ham valii samajhte jo nah baadah ;xvaar hotaa

Ghazal 17 by Ghalib, p. 321:

dahr me;N naqsh-e vafaa vajah-e tasallii nah huu))aa
hai yih vuh laf:z kih sharmindah-e ma((nii nah huu))aa
mai;N ne chaahaa thaa kih andoh-e vafaa se chhuu'Tuu;N
vuh sitamgar mire marne pah bhii raa.zii nah huu))aa
huu;N tire va((dah nah karne pah bhii raa.zii kih kabhii
gosh minnat-kash-e gulbaang-e tasallii nah huu))aa
kis se ma;hruumii-e qismat kii shikaayat kiije
ham ne chaahaa thaa kih mar jaa))e;N so vuh bhii nah huu))aa
mar gayaa .sadmah-e yak-junbish-e lab se ;Gaalib
naatavaanii se ;hariif-e dam-e ((iisii nah huu))aa

Ghazal 18 by Ghalib, pp. 321-322:

sab kahaa;N kuchh laalah o gul me;N numaayaa;N ho ga))ii;N
;xaak me;N kyaa .suurate;N ho;Ngii kih pinhaa;N ho ga))ii;N
yaad thii;N ham ko bhii rangaarang bazm-aaraa))iyaa;N
lekin ab naqsh o nigaar-e :taaq-e nisyaa;N ho ga))ii;N
niind us kii hai dimaa;G us kaa hai raate;N us kii hai;N
terii zulfe;N jis ke baazuu par pareshaa;N ho ga))ii;N

62
ham muva;h;hid hai;N hamaaraa kesh hai tark-e rusuum
millate;N jab miT ga))ii;N ajzaa-e iimaa;N ho ga))ii;N
yuu;Nhii gar rotaa rahaa ;Gaalib to ai ahl-e jahaa;N
dekhnaa in bastiyo;N ko tum kih viiraa;N ho ga))ii;N
TEN == EXERCISES 19-24

Ghazal 19, by Ghalib, pp. 324-325:

gar ;xaamushii se faa))idah a;xfaa-e ;haal hai
;xvush huu;N kih merii baat samajhnii mu;haal hai
kis parde me;N hai aa))inah-pardaaz ai ;xudaa
ra;hmat kih ((u;zr-;xvaah lab-e be-savaal hai
hai hai ;xudaa na;xvaastah vuh aur dushmanii
ai shauq-e munfa((il yih tujhe kyaa ;xayaal hai
hastii ke mat fareb me;N aa jaa))iyo asad
((aalam tamaam ;halqah-e daam-e ;xayaal hai

GHAZAL 20 by Ghalib, p. 331:

hai baskih har ik un ke ishaare me;N nishaa;N aur
karte hai;N mu;habbat to gu;zartaa hai gumaa;N aur
yaa rab vuh nah samjhe hai;N nah samjhe;Nge mirii baat
de aur dil un ko jo nah de mujh ko zabaa;N aur
har chand subuk dast huu))e but-shikanii me;N
ham hai;N to abhii raah me;N hai sang-e giraa;N aur
paate nahii;N jab raah to cha;Rh jaate hai;N naale
ruktii hai mirii :tab((a to hotii hai ravaa;N aur
hai;N aur bhii dunyaa me;N su;xanvar bahut achchhe
kahte hai;N kih ;Gaalib kaa hai andaaz-e bayaa;N aur

GHAZAL 21 by Dagh, p. 367:

yaa rab hai ba;xsh denaa bande ko kaam teraa
ma;hruum rah nah jaa))e kal yih ;Gulaam teraa
jab tak hai dil ba;Gal me;N har dam ho yaad terii
jab tak zabaa;N hai mu;Nh me;N jaarii ho naam teraa
hai tuu hii dene vaalaa pastii se de bulandii
asfal maqaam meraa a((al;aa maqaam teraa
ma;hruum kyuu;N rahuu;N mai;N jii bhar ke kyuu;N nah luu;N mai;N
detaa hai rizq sab ko hai fai.z ((aam teraa
yih daa;G bhii nah hogaa tere sivaa kisii kaa
kaunain me;N hai jo kuchh vuh hai tamaam teraa

GHAZAL 22 by Dagh, pp. 371-372:

((ajab apnaa ;haal hotaa jo vi.saal-e yaar hotaa
kabhii jaan .sadqe hotii kabhii dil ni;saar hotaa

63
ko))ii fitnah taa qiyaamat nah phir aashkaar hotaa
tire dil pah kaash :zaalim mujhe i;xtiyaar hotaa
yih mazah thaa dil-lagii kaa kih baraabar aag lagtii
nah tujhe qaraar hotaa nah mujhe qaraar hotaa
tire va((de par sitam-gar abhii aur .sabr karte
agar apnii zindagii kaa hame;N ((itibaar hotaa
tumhe;N naaz ho nah kyuu;N kar kih liyaa hai daa;G kaa dil
yih raqam nah haath lagtii nah yih ifti;xaar hotaa

GHAZAL 23 by Akbar Ilahabadi, pp. 396-397:

;xudaa ;haafi:z musalmaano;N kaa akbar
mujhe to un kii ;xvush-;haalii se hai yaas
kahaa majnuu;N se yih lail;aa kii maa;N ne
kih be;Taa tuu agar kar le em ai paas
to faura:n byaah duu;N lail;aa ko tujh se
bilaa diqqat mai;N ban jaa))uu;N tirii saas
kahaa majnuu;N ne yih achchhii sunaa))ii
kujaa ((aashiq kujaa kaalij kii bakvaas
dil apnaa ;xuun karne ko huu;N maujuud
nahii;N man:zuur ma;Gz-e sar kaa aamaas
yahii ;Thahrii jo shar:t-e va.sl-e lail;aa
to isti((faa miraa baa ;hasrat o yaas

GHAZAL 24 by Iqbal, p. 425:

kabhii ai ;haqiiqat-e munta:zar na:zar aa libaas-e majaaz me;N
kih hazaaro;N sijde ta;Rap rahe hai;N mirii jabiin-e niyaaz me;N
tuu bachaa bachaa ke nah rakh use tiraa aa))iinah hai vuh aa))iinah
kih shikastah ho to ((aziiztar hai nigaah-e aa))iinah-saaz me;N
nah kahii;N jahaa;N me;N amaa;N milii jo amaa;N milii to kahaa;N
milii
mire jurm-e ;xaanah-;xaraab ko tire ((afv-e bandah-navaaz me;N
nah vuh ((ishq me;N rahii;N garmiyaa;N nah vuh ;husn me;N rahii;N
sho;xiyaa;N
nah vuh ;Gaznavii me;N ta;Rap rahii nah vuh ;xam hai zulf-e ayaaz
me;N
jo mai;N sar bah sijdah huu))aa kabhii to zamii;N se aane lagii .sadaa
tiraa dil to hai .sanam aashnaa tujhe kyaa milegaa namaaz se

64
ELEVEN == NOTES TO
EXERCISES
GHAZAL ONE by Vali Dakhani, p. 92:

METER: #26, - = = = / - = = = / - = = = / - = = =
In this ghazal word-grafting occurs at the start of the radiif [radiif] every
time it appears: for example, aab aahistah is scanned as though it were
aabaahistah [aa-baa-his-tah]. See Section 3.1. Technical terms like
radiif are explained in the Ghalib index of terms, and by Barker in
volume 1, in "Appendix I: Urdu Poetics," pp. xxiii-lxiv. Barker also
discusses Urdu meter in some detail, in a relatively traditional manner.
This ghazal contains a number of Dakhani forms like mujh [mujh] for
mere [mere], kuu;N [kuu;N] for ko [ko], suu;N [suu;N] for se [se],
mane;N [mane;N] for me;N [me;N]. Their frequency decreases in later
ghazals.
VERSE 1: mujh [mujh] is scanned (=), since the do-chashmii he of
aspiration does not count as a letter. See Section l.l.
VERSE 2: aatish-e ;Gam is an i.zaafat [i.zaafat] construction, and is
scanned [aa-ti-she-;Gam], (= - x =). See Section 3.2.
VERSE 3: ((ajab [((ajab] and lu:tf [lu:tf] are both three-consonant
Arabic words; in this case the first is scanned (- =) and the second, more
typically, (= -). See Section 1.4. Word-grafting: ;xi:taab aahistah is
treated as ;xi;taabaahistah [xi-:taa-baa-his-tah].
VERSE 4: adaa o naaz [a-daa o naa-z] involves a construction with o ;
see Section 3.3. jyuu;N [jyuu;N] is scanned (=); see Section 2.1.
VERSE 5: a;Nkhyaa;N [a;Nkh-yaa;N] is archaic; it is scanned (= =).
;xvaab [;xvaa-b], scanned (= -), is an irregularly spelled Persian word;
see Section 4.2.
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GHAZAL TWO by Mir Dard, p. 122:

METER: #11, = - = = / = - = = / = - =
VERSE 1: li))e [li-))e] is scanned (- x), for )) counts as a full consonant;
see Section 1.1.
VERSE 2: ko))ii [ko-))ii] is a uniquely flexible word, scanned (x x); see
Section 2.2.
VERSE 4: uudhar [uu-dhar], scanned (= =), is spelled in a manner now
archaic to signal the intended scansion. Note the contrast with the
normal spelling, and scansion, of idhar [i-dhar] (- =). Word-grafting:
kaam in is treated as kaamin [kaa-min].

65
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GHAZAL THREE by Mir, pp. 127-128:

METER: #25, = - - = / - = - = // = - - = / - = - = Has caesura.
VERSE 1: der der [de-r de-r], is scanned (= - = -), so it would seem not
to fit the meter. But in meters with a caesura, like this one, an extra
unscanned short syllable may occur just before the caesura; see the
discussion in Section 6.1. The final r in the second der thus need not
count in the scansion.
VERSE 2: Since the verse contains several special features like [i.zaafat]
and word-grafting, here is its breakdown into syllables and feet: [buu-e
gu-lau/-r ran-ge gul// do-no;N hai;N dil/-ka-shai na-sii-(m)] [le-k ba-
qad/-re yak ni-gaa(-h)// de-khi-ye to/ va-faa na-hii;N]. Note that an extra
unscanned syllable can be present before the caesura, like the (-h) at the
end of nigaah , and/or at the end of the line, as in the case of the (-m) at
the end of nasiim . See Section 6.1.
VERSE 3: ;xvaastah [;xvaa-s-tah] is an irregularly spelled Persian word,
scanned (= - x). See Section 4.2.
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GHAZAL FOUR by Mir, pp. 128-129:

METER: #14 =* - = = / - = - = / = = *This syllable, while normally
long, may occasionally be replaced with a short, at the poet's pleasure.
VERSE 2: ik [ik] by its spelling signals a scansion of (=); see Section
2.4.
VERSE 3: Word-grafting: baar baar us is treated as baarbaarus [baa-r
baa-rus]; ;haalat ab is treated as ;haalatab [;haa-la-tab].
VERSE 4: aavaaz [aa-vaa-(z)] contains the extra short "cheat syllable"
permitted at the end of the line in almost all meters. The second line
begins with the less common but permissible short syllable, rather than
the official long syllable shown in the pattern.
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GHAZAL 5 by Mir, p. 130:

METER: "Hindi" meter; see Section 6.2. In order to help you get used
to this meter, here is a breakdown into syllables. Long syllables are
shown in bold:
((ish-q ha-maa-re ;xi-yaa-l pa-;raa hai // ;xvaa-b ga-))ii aa-raa-m ga-
yaa
jii kaa jaa naa ;The-r ga-yaa hai // .sub-;h ga-yaa yaa shaa-m ga-yaa

66
((ish-q ki-yaa so dii-n ga-yaa ii- / maa-n ga-yaa is-laa-m ga-yaa
dil ne ai-saa kaa-m ki-yaa kuchh // jis se mai;N naa-kaa-m ga-yaa
haa-))e ja-vaa-nii kyaa kyaa kah-ye // sho-r sa-ro;N me;N rakh-te the
ab kyaa hai vuh ((ah-d ga-yaa vuh / mau-sam vuh han-gaa-m ga-yaa
Note that in the first line of the second verse, and the second line of the
third verse, word overlaps prevent the lines from having a true caesura
break after the eighth syllable.
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GHAZAL 6 by Mus'hafi, p. 178:

METER: #26, - = = = / - = = = / - = = = / - = = =
VERSE 1: aur [aur] is here scanned as (=) rather than (= -) as it
normally would be; it is scanned again this way in Verse 4. This is one
of its possibilities; see Section 2.1.
VERSE 2: Word-grafting: ;xiraam us is treated as ;xiraamus [;xi-raa-
mus].
VERSE 4: divaanii [di-vaa-nii] has replaced the normal spelling
diivaanii [dii-vaa-nii], in order to permit and suggest a scansion of (- =
x). This is now archaic. See Section 2.4.
VERSE 5: tirii [ti-rii] has replaced the normal spelling terii [te-rii], in
order to change the scansion to (- x). See Section 2.4.
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GHAZAL 7 by Jur'at, p.191:

METER: #10 = - = = / = - = = / = - = = / = - =
VERSE 2: kyaa [kyaa] is almost always (=); see Section 2.1. For
pha;Nstaa [pha;Ns-taa] see Section 1.2.
VERSE 3: For rang [ran-g] see Section 1.2. The word aur [aur],
normally (= -), is here scanned (=); see Section 2.1.
VERSE 4: jur))aat [jur-))at] is scanned (= =); see Section 4.4.
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GHAZAL 8 by Jur'at, pp. 193-194:

METER: "Hindi" meter; see Section 6.2.
VERSE 2: pyaar [pyaa-r] is an irregularly spelled Indic word, scanned
(= -); see Section 4.3.
VERSE 3: ;xvushaamad is really [;xu-shaa-mad]; see Section 4.2.
VERSE 4: jahaaN likhaa ho [ja-haaN li-khaa ho] contains an example of
the rare scansion pattern (- = -), in [ja-haaN li-], rather than (= - -) as is
the norm in this meter. See Section 6.2.

67
[back to top of page]

GHAZAL 9 by Atish, p. 218:

METER: #18, =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / = =
#19, =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / - - = These two closely related meters
are often used together. *This syllable, while normally long, may
occasionally be replaced with a short, at the poet's pleasure.
VERSE 3: The first line of this verse is the only one in this excerpt that
is composed in meter #18 rather than its more common companion #19.
Word-grafting: bar andaaz is treated as barandaaz [ba-ran-daa-z].
VERSE 4: Both lines of this verse begin with a short syllable, rather than
the more common long syllable shown in the official pattern. Word-
grafting: qaraar ai is treated as qaraarai [qa-raa-rai].
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GHAZAL 10 by Atish, p. 218:

METER: #34 - = - = / - - = = / - = - = / = =
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: ham aur is treated as hamaur [ha-mau-r].
VERSE 2: The writing of mahah [mahh], "moon," with two h's in
sequence is merely an orthographic convention, like that used with
kahah , the root of kahnaa , to distinguish it from kih [kih]. It does not
affect the scansion, which remains [ma-ho mah-r].
VERSE 4: :taali((ii is scanned [:taa-li-((ii]. Remember that (( is a full,
regular consonant in metrical terms; see Section 1.3.
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GHAZAL 11 by Zauq, p. 297:

METER: #27 - = = = / - = = = / - = =
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: khoj apnaa is treated as khojapnaa [kho-jap-
naa].
VERSE 4: Word-grafting: na:ziir us is treated as na;ziirus [na-:zii-rus].
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GHAZAL 12 by Zauq, pp. 298-299:

METER: #5 = = - / = - = - / - = = - / = - =
VERSE 1: ;xvushii is really [;xu-shii]; see Section 4.2.
VERSE 3: bavaqt-e marg is [ba-vaq-te mar-g]. It could also be written
bah vaqt-e marg , of which it's just a shortened form.
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GHAZAL 13 by Momin, p. 307:

68
METER: #14 =* - = = / - = - = / = =
#15 =* - = = / - = - = / - - = These two closely related meters are often
used together. *This syllable, while normally long, may occasionally be
replaced with a short, at the poet's pleasure.
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: a:sar us is treated as a:sarus [a-:sa-rus]; this
verse begins with the variant short-syllable opening.
VERSE 2: The first line is in meter #15. huu))e is really [hu-))e], (- x);
see Section 4.3.
VERSE 3: The first line is in meter #15.
VERSE 4: ko))ii is to be considered (x x). See Section 2.2.
VERSE 5: Word-grafting: mu.z:tar ai is treated as mu.z:tarai [mu.z-:ta-
rai]; .sanam aa;xir is treated as .sanamaa;xir [.sa-na-maa-;xir]. The
second line begins with the variant short-syllable opening.
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GHAZAL 14 by Momin, p. 312:

METER: #38 - - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - =
VERSE 1: Note the scansion of tumhe;N [tu-mhe;N], which is (- x) in
accordance with its pronunciation, though it is more often spelled with h
than with [do-chashmii he]. See Section 4.3. Both kih [kih] and nah
[nah] are virtually always short; see Section 2.1.
VERSE 2: Word-grafting: har ek is treated as harek [ha-re-k].
VERSE 3: huu))e [hu-))e] is an irregularly spelled Indic word, scanned
(- x); see Section 4.3. Note that the doubled letter created by the tashdiid
[tashdiid] on the t in ittifaaq counts as fully as any other letter in the
scansion: [it-ti-faa-q].
VERSE 4: The protean word ko))ii is always to be scanned (x x). Note
that tumhaare is scanned [tu-mhaa-re], (- = x); see Section 4.3.
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GHAZAL 15 by Ghalib, p. 319:

METER: #18 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / = = *This syllable, while
normally long, may occasionally be replaced with a short, at the poet's
pleasure.
VERSE 2: Note the way the vowel- ii turns into a consonant before an
[i.zaafat]: diivaanagii-e shauq becomes [dii-vaa-na-gi-ye shau-q], (= = -
- = = -); see Section 3.2. In this case the [i.zaafat] syllable has to be long,
to avoid having the forbidden three shorts in a row. Also note the double
word-grafting: udhar aur aap is treated as udharauraap [u-dha-rau-raa-
p].
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69
GHAZAL 16 by Ghalib, pp. 319-320:
METER: #37 - - = - / = - = = // - - = - / = - = = Has caesura.
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: agar aur is treated as agaraur [a-ga-rau-r].
VERSE 2: ;xvushii is really [;xu-shii]; see Section 4.2. Word-grafting:
agar i((tibaar is treated as agari((tibaar [a-ga-ri((-t-baa-r].
VERSE 3: ko))ii [ko-))ii] is, as ever, (x x).
VERSE 4: Word-grafting: ;Gam agarchih is treated as ;Gamarchih
[;Ga-ma-gar-chih].
VERSE 5: masaa))il-e ta.savvuf is [ma-saa-))i-le ta-.sav-vuf].
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GHAZAL 17 by Ghalib, p. 321:

METER: #19 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / - - =
#18 =* - = = / - - = = / - - = = / = = These two closely related meters are
often used together. *This syllable, while normally long, may
occasionally be replaced with a short, at the poet's pleasure.
VERSE 1: vajah-e tasallii is [vaj-he-ta-sal-lii].
VERSE 2: The first line is in #18.
VERSE 4: The first line is in #18.
VERSE 5: The first line is in #18. .sadmah-e yak-junbish-e lab is [.sad-
ma-he yak-jun-bi-she lab].
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GHAZAL 18 by Ghalib, pp. 321-322:

METER: #10 = - = = / = - = = / = - = = / = - =
VERSE 1: laalah o is [laa-la-ho]; see Section 3.3.
VERSE 2: Word-grafting: bazm-araa))iyaa;N is treated as
bazmaaraa))iyaa;N [baz-maa-raa-))i-yaa;N].
VERSE 3: Word-grafting: dimaa;G us is treated as dimaa;Gus [di-maa-
;Gus].
VERSE 4: muva;h;hid is scanned [mu-va;h-;hid]. Note the presence of
the extra unscanned "cheat syllable"--the m of rusuum [ru-suu-m]-- at
the end of the first line.
VERSE 5: yuu;Nhii is scanned as [yuu;N hii], (x x).
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GHAZAL 19 by Ghalib, pp. 324-325:

METER: #5 = = - / = - = - / - = = - / = - =
VERSE 1: The spelling ;xaamushii , rather than the usual ;xaamoshii ,
points to the scansion [;xaa-mu-shii]; see Section 2.4. ;xvush is really
[;xush]; see Section 4.2.

70
VERSE 2: aa))inah , a remarkably flexible word, is here scanned (= x
x), and spelled accordingly; see Section 2.2. ((u;zr-;xvaah is scanned
[((u;z-r-;xvaa-h]; see Section 4.2.
VERSE 3: na;xvaastah is scanned [na-;xvaa-s-tah]; see Section 4.2.
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GHAZAL 20 by Ghalib, p. 331:

METER: #8 = = - / - = = - / - = = - / - = =
This ghazal should be considered to have the optional "cheat syllable" at
the end of every verse, in the form of the r in aur [au-r].
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: har ik [har ik] is treated as harik [ha-rik]; note
that the spelling of ik [ik] points to its scansion as (=) rather than (= -).
VERSE 2: Word-grafting: dil un is treated as dilun [di-lun].
VERSE 3: huu))e is really [hu-))e]. shikanii is [shi-ka-nii].
VERSE 5: Word-grafting: bahut achchhe is treated as bahutachchhe
[ba-hu-tach-chhe].
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GHAZAL 21 by Dagh, p. 367:

METER: #4 = = - / = - = = // = = - / = - = = Has caesura.
[back to top of page]

GHAZAL 22 by Dagh, pp. 371-372:

METER: #37 - - = - / = - = = // - - = - / = - = = Has caesura.
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: ((ajab apnaa is treated as ((ajabapnaa [((a-ja-
bap-naa].
VERSE 2: Word-grafting: phir aashkaar is treated as phiraashkaar [phi-
raa-sh-kaa-r].
VERSE 3: Word-grafting: baraabar aag is treated as baraabaraag [ba-
raa-ba-raa-g].
VERSE 4: Word-grafting: agar apnii is treated as agarapnii [a-ga-rap-
nii].
VERSE 5: tumhe;N is [tu-mhe;N], (- x).
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GHAZAL 23 by Akbar Ilahabadi, pp. 396-397:

METER: #27 - = = = / - = = = / - = =
Strictly speaking, this is not a ghazal but a qi:t((ah [qi:t((ah]. See Barker
vol. I, pp. xxvi-xxvii. Note that yaas [yaa-s], paas [paa-s], and all the
other rhyming words end in the short "cheat syllable" permitted at the
end of a line.
VERSE 1: ;xvush is really [;xush]; see Section 4.2.
VERSE 2: Word-grafting: em ai , "M.A.," is treated as emai [e-me].

71
VERSE 3: For faura:n [fau-ran] see the [tanviin] part of Section 4.4.
byaah [byaa-h] is an irregular Indic word, scanned (= -); see Section 4.3.
VERSE 4: Word-grafting: dil apnaa is treated as dilapnaa [di-lap-naa].
[back to top of page]

GHAZAL 24 by Iqbal, p. 425:

METER: #38 - - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - = / - - = - =
VERSE 1: Word-grafting: na:zar aa is treated as na:zaraa [na-:za-raa].
VERSE 2: aa))iinah is scanned (= x x); see Section 2.2.
VERSE 3: In the word ((afv [((af-v], the v is a consonant, and so
receives a normal consonant [i.zaafat], becoming [((af-ve].
VERSE 5: huu))aa is really [hu-))aa].

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12 == GLOSSARY
This glossary contains exceptional words of all kinds that you may find it
useful to know about. It includes only selected examples of the more
"regularly" irregular words of Persian origin described in Section 4.2, and of
the extremely irregular Arabic words described in Section 4.4. It does
include a large number of Indic conjunct words (described in Section 4.3),
and many miscellaneous irregularly scanned words. It also includes as many
words of flexible syllable division and spelling (Section 2.3 and Section 2.4)
as possible, together with the basic flexible monosyllables (Section 2.2). It's
good for browsing as well as reference. It will be useful to anyone trying to
write poetry, and also to anyone reading poetry texts in which many
editorial or calligraphic errors occur--because such errors often involve
incorrect substitutions among the variant choices for words like those in this
glossary.

The glossary is in Urdu alphabetical order. Where two or more scansions

and/or spellings are possible for a word, we've tried to enter the most
commonly used forms first.
[aa-p hii] (= - x), (= x), "one's own self" { aap hii }
[aa-phii] (= x) { aaphii }
[aa-pii] (= x) { aapii }
[u-;Thaa] (- x), perf. of [u;Thnaa] { u;Thaa }
[u;T-;Thaa] (= x) { u;T;Thaa }
[aa-;xir] (= =), "finally" { aa;xir }
[aa-;xii-r] (= = -) { aa;xiir }
[a-;xii-r] (- = -) { a;xiir }
[i-dhar], [u-dhar] (- =), "here," "there" { idhar }
[ii-dhar, uu-dhar] (= =) { iidhar }
[az] (=), "from, by, with" (Pers.) { az }
[zi] (-) { z }
[a-shar-fii] (- = x), name of a gold coin { asharfii }
[ash-ra-fii] (= - x) { ashrafii }
[aa-sh-kaa-r] (= - = -), "apparent" { aashkaar }
[aa-sh-kaa-raa] (= - = x) { aashkaaraa }
[aa-shi-yaa-nah] (= - = x), "nest" { aashiyaanah }
[aa-shi-yaa;N] (= - =) { aashiyaa;N }
[aa-gaa-h] (= = -), "aware" { aagaah }
[aa-gah] (= x) { aagah }
[al-laa-h] (= =), (= = -), "God" { allaah }

73
 [um-mii-d] (= = -), "hope" { ummiid }
[u-mii-d] (- = -) { umiid }
[an-jhuu] (= x), (- x), archaic for "tears" { anjhuu }
[in-shaa)) al-laah] (= = = =), (= = = = -), "God willing" { inshaa)) allaah }
[au-r] (= -), (=), "and" { aur }
[aa-))ii-nah] (= x x), "mirror" { aa))iinah }
[aa-))i-nah] (= - x) { aa))inah }
[e-k] (= -), "one" { ek }
[ik] (=) { ik }
[yak] (=) { yak }
[bil aa-;xir] (= = =), "finally" { baalaa;xir }
[bil far-.z] (= = -), "suppositionally" { baalfar.z }
[bil kul] (= =), "entirely" { baalkul }
[bah an-daa-zah] (- = = x), "according" { bah andaazah }
[ba-an-daa-zah] (- = = x) { baandaazah }
[bach-chah] (= x), "child" { bachchah }
[ba-chah] (- x) { bachah }
[bar-ha-man] (= - =), "Brahman" { barhaman }
[ba-rah-man] (- = =) { barahman }
[ba-rah-nah] (- = x), "naked" { barahnah }
[bar-ha-nah] (= - x) { barhanah }
[ba((-.z] (= -), "a number of" { ba((.z }
[ba((-.ze] (= x) { ba((.ze }
[bul ha-vas] (= - =), "sensualist" { buu al-havas }
[buu-s-taa-n] (= - = -), "garden" { buustaan }
[bus-taa-n] (= = -) { bustaan }
[bah] (-), "with" (Pers.) { bah }
[ba-hut] (- =), "much, many" { bahut }
[bah-ut] (= -), archaic { bahut }
[bhii] (x), "too" { bhii }
[bhii-tar] (= =), "inside" { bhiitar }
[bhi-tar] (- =) { bhitar }
[byaa-h] (= -); (- = -), "wedding" { byaah }
[ba-yak] (- =), [bah] + [yak] { bayak }
[byo-paa-r] (= = -), "business" { byopaar }
[paa-))o;N] (= x), "foot" { paa))o;N }
[paa;N-v] (= x) { paa;Nv }
[pach-chii-s] (= = -), "twenty-five" { pachchiis }
[pa-chii-s] (- = -) { pachiis }
[par-vaa] (= =), "care" { parvaa }
[par-vaa-h] (= = -) { parvaah }
[prii-t] (= -), "love" { priit }
[pa-re-t] (- = -), "ghost" { pret }
[pre-m] (= -), "love" { prem }

74
 [pa-kaa] (- x), "cooked, ripened" { pakaa }
[pak-kaa] (= x) { pakkaa }
[pa-naa-h] (- = -), "refuge" { panaah }
[pa-nah] (- =) { panah }
[pah] (x), "on" { pah }
[pa-hu;Nch-naa] (- = x), "to arrive" { pahu;Nchnaa }
[po;N-ch-naa] (= - x), archaic { po;Nchnaa }
[phu-vaa-r] (- = -), "drizzle" { phuvaar }
[phu-haa-r] (- = -) { phuuhaar }
[phvaa-r] (= -) { phvaar }
[pyaa-r] (= -), (- = -), "love" { pyaar }
[p-yaa-lah] (- = x), (= x), "cup" { pyaalah }
[pai-raa-han] (= = =), "robe" { pairaahan }
[pai-ra-han] (= - =) { pairahan }
[pa-yaa-m] (- = -), "message" { payaam }
[pai-;Gaa-m] (= = -) { pai;Gaam }
[pa-yam-bar] (- = =), "Prophet" { payambar }
[pai-;Gam-bar] (= = =) { pai;Gambar }
[pe-sh-vaa-z] (= - = -), "gown" { peshvaaz }
[pish-vaa-z] (= = -) { pishvaaz }
[taa] (=), "up to, until" { taa }
[ta-))a;s-;sur] (- = =), "effect" { taa))';s;sur }
[ta-))as-suf] (- = =), "grief" { taa))'ssuf }
[ta-))am-mul] (- = =), "hesitation" { taa))'mmul }
[ta-;xay-yul] (- = =), "imagination" { ta;xayyul }
[ta;x-))ii-l] (= = -) { ta;x))iil }
[ta((-))ii-n] (= = -), "appointing" { ta(())iin }
[ta-((ay-yun] (- = =) { ta((ayyun }
[tak] (=), "until" { tak }
[ta-lak] (- =) { talak }
[tu-mhaa-raa] (- = x), same for fem. and plur., "your" { tumhaaraa }
[ta-nuu-r] (- = -), "oven" { tanuur }
[tan-nuu-r] (= = -) { tannuur }
[tan-duu-r] (= = -) { tanduur }
[to] (x), "then" { to }
[tuu] (x), "you" { tuu }
[thaa] (x), same for fem. and plur., "was" { thaa }
[tahh] (=), "under" { tahah }
[ta-))ii;N] (- =), (=), (= =), "oneself" { ta))ii;N }
[te-raa] (= x), same for fem. and plur., "your" { teraa }
[ti-raa] (- x), same for fem. and plur. { tiraa }
[tev-rii] (= x), "brow" { tevrii }
[tyuu;N] (=), "in that way" { tyuu;N }
[jib-ra-))ii-l] (= - = -), "Gabriel" { jibra))iil }
[jib-rii-l] (= = -) { jibriil }

75
 [jib-hah] (= x), "forehead" { jibahah }
[ji-dhar] (- =), "the place where" { jidhar }
[jii-dhar] (= =) { jiidhar }
[jur-))at] (= =), "courage" { jur))aat }
[jur-aat] (= =) { juraat }
[juz-v] (= -), "part" { juzv }
[juz] (=) { juz }
[ja-gah] (- x), usually (- =), "place" { jagah }
[jaa-gah] (= x), usually (= =) { jaagah }
[jo] (x), "the one who" { jo }
[ju-vaa] (- =), "gambling" { juvaa }
[juv-vaa] (= =), rare { juvva }
[j-vaa-r] (- = -), "millet" { jvaar }
[jii] (x), honorific particle { jii }
[jyuu;N] (=), "the way in which" { jyuu;N }
[cha-khaa] (- x), perf. of [chakhnaa] { chakhaa }
[chak-khaa] (= x) { chakkhaa }
[chuu-hi-yaa] (= - x), "mouse" { chuuhiyaa }
[chuh-yaa] (= x) { chuhiyaa }
[chyuu;N-;Tii] (= x), var. of [chii;N;Tii], "ant" { chyuun;Tii }
[;xaa-mo-shii] (= = x), "silence" { ;xaamoshii }
[;xa-mo-shii] (- = x) { ;xamoshii }
[;xaa-mu-shii] (= - x) { ;xaamushii }
[;xi.zr] (= -), "Khizr" { ;xi.zr }
[;xi-.zir] (- =), "Khizir" or "Khizar" { ;xi.zir }
[;xa:t-rah] (= x), "danger" { ;xa:trah }
[;xa-:tar] (- =) { ;xa:tar }
[;xvaa-m-;xvaa-h] (= - = -), "willy-nilly" { ;xvaam;xvaah }
[;xvaa-hish] (= =), "longing" { ;xvaahish }
[;xud] (=), "self" { ;xvud }
[;xu-shii] (- x), "happiness" { ;xvushii }
[daa-man] (= =), "skirt" { daaman }
[daa-maa-n] (= = -) { daamaan }
[du;x-tar] (= =), "daughter" { du;xtar }
[du;x-t] (= -) { du;xt }
[du-kaa-n] (- = -), "shop" { dukaan }
[duu-kaa-n] (= = -) { duukaan }
[duk-kaa-n] (= = -) { dukkaan }
[dulhan] (- =), (= =), "bride" { dulhan }
[duulhan] (- =), (= =) { duulhan }
[do] (x), "two," "give" { do }
[do-baa-rah] (x = x), "twice" { dobaarah }
[du-pa;T-;Tah] (- = x), "long scarf" { dupa;T;Tah }
[do-pa;T-;Tah] (= = x) { dopa;T;Tah }
[do-raa-haa] (x = x), "fork in the road" { doraahaa }

76
 [do-zaa-nuu] (x = x), "kneeling" { dozaanuu }
[do-gaa-naa] (= = x); (- = x), "double" { dogaanaa }
[duu-lhaa] (= =), "bridegroom" { duulhaa }
[duu-lah] (= x), rare { duulah }
[duu-))ii] (x x), "twoness" { duu))ii }
[da-han] (- =), "mouth" { dahan }
[da-haa-n] (- = -) { dahaan }
[da-haa-nah] (- = x) { dahaanah }
[dhyaa-n] (= -), "concentration" { dhyaan }
[dii-gar] (= =), "other" { diigar }
[di-gar] (- =) { digar }
[dii-vaa-nah] (= = x), "mad" { diivaanah }
[di-vaa-nah] (- = x), archaic { divaanah }
[raa-s-tah] (= - x), "road" { raastah }
[ras-tah] (= x) { rastah }
[raa-h] (= -), "road" { raah }
[rah] (=) { rah }
[ru;x-saa-r] (= = -), "cheek" { ru;xsaar }
[ru;x-saa-rah] (= = x) { ru;xsaarah }
[ra-khaa] (- x), same for fem. and plur., "kept" { rakhaa }
[rak-khaa] (= x), same for fem. and plur. { rakkhaa }
[ruu-bah] (= x), "fox" { ruubah }
[ruu-baa-h] (= = -) { ruubaah }
[rah-gu-z;ar] (= - =), "road" { rahguz;ar }
[raa-h-gu-z;ar] (= - - =) { raahguz;ar }
[rah-gu-z;aa-r] (= - = -) { rahguz;aar }
[raa-h-gu-z;aa-r] (= - - = -) { raahguz;aar }
[zaq-quu-m] (= = -), name of an infernal tree { zaqquum }
[za-quu-m] (- = -) { zaquum }
[za-maa-nah] (- = x), "era" { zamaanah }
[za-maa;N] (- =) { zamaa;N }
[za-maa-n] (- = -) { zamaan }
[za-man] (- =) { zaman }
[zin-haa-r] (= = -), "beware" { zinhaar }
[zii-n-haa-r] (= - = -) { ziinhaar }
[saa] (x), "-ish" { saa }
[saa-jan] (= =), "lover" { saajan }
[sa-jan] (- =) { sajan }
[saa-))ii-s] (= = -), "groom" { saa))iis }
[sa-))ii-s] (- = -) { sa))iis }
[sai-s] (= -) { sais }
[sa-rhaa-naa] (- = x), "headboard" { sarhaanaa }
[si-kan-dar] (- = =), "Alexander" { sikandar }
[is-kan-dar] (= = =) { iskandar }
[so] (x), "thus" { so }

77
 [sau] (=), "100" { sau }
[suu] (=), "direction" { suu }
[sa-vaa-r] (- = -), "horseman" { savaar }
[as-vaa-r] (= = -), rare { asvaar }
[svaa;N-g] (= -), "folk opera" { svaa;Ng }
[saa;N-g] (= -) { saa;Ng }
[su-var] (- =), "pig" { suvar }
[suu-raa-j] (= = -), "Swaraj" { suuraaj }
[sva-raa-j] (- = -) { svaraaj }
[sih] (x), "three" { sih }
[sii] (x), "-ish" { sii }
[se] (x), "from, with," "-ish" { se }
[si-yaa-h] (- = -), "black" { siyaah }
[si-yah] (- x) { siyah }
[shaa-h] (= -), "king" { shaah }
[shah] (=) { shah }
[shub-hah] (= -), "suspicion" { shubahah }
[shu-tur] (- =), "camel" { shutur }
[ush-tur] (= =) { ushtur }
[sha-raa-r] (- = -), "spark" { sharaar }
[sha-rar] (- =) { sharar }
[sha-raa-rah] (- = x) { sharaarah }
[sha-kar] (- =), "sugar" { shakar }
[shak-kar] (= =) { shakkar }
[.saa-buu-n] (= = -), "soap" { .saabuun }
[.saa-bun] (= =) { .saabun }
[.su-var] (- =), pl. of [.suurat], "face" { .suvar }
[:tar-;h] (= -), "manner" { :tar;h }
[:ta-ra;h] (- =); (- x), (modern) { :tara;h }
[:ta-raf] (- =), "direction" { :taraf }
[:tar-f] (= -) { :tarf }
[:ta-ma((] (- =), "greed" { :tama(( }
[:tam-((a] (= -) { :tam((a }
[fi-ran-g] (- = -), "European" { firang }
[af-ran-g] (= = -) { afrang }
[fu-zuu;N] (- x), "increasing" { fuzuu;N }
[af-zuu;N] (= x) { afzuu;N }
[fa-saa-nah] (- = x), "story" { fasaanah }
[af-saa-nah] (= = x) { afsaanah }
[fu-sur-dah] (- = x), "sorrowful" { fusurdah }
[af-sur-dah] (= = x) { afsurdah }
[fu-suu;N] (- x), "increasing" { fusuu;N }
[af-suu;N] (= x) { afsuu;N }
[fu-;Gaa;N] (- x), "sighing" { fi;Gaa;N }
[af-;Gaa;N] (= x) { af;Gaa;N }

78
 [fi-gaa-r] (- = -), "wounded" { figaar }
[af-gaa-r] (= = -) { afgaar }
[fu-laa;N] (- =), "such-and-such" { fulaa;N }
[fa-laa-naa] (- = x) { falaanaa }
[fil-;haa-l] (= = -), "at present" { fii al-;haal }
[fil-;ha-qii-qat] (= - = -), "in reality" { fii al-;haqiiqat }
[qur-aan] (= = -), "Qur'an" { qur aan }
[qu-raa-n] (- = -), rare { quraan }
[kaa] (x), "of" { kaa }
[kaa-sah] (= x), "bowl" { kaasah }
[kaa-s] (= -) { kaas }
[krish-n] (= -), "Krishna" { krishn }
[ki-naa-rah] (- = x), "riverbank" { kinaarah }
[ka-naa-r] (- = -) { kinaar }
[ko] (x), "to" { ko }
[ko))ii] (x x); archaic variant (=); "anyone, any" { ko))ii }
[kih] (-); archaic variant: (=); "that" { kih }
[kahh] (=), root of [kahnaa] { kahah }
[kho-))e] (= x), "lost" { kho))e }
[kho))e] (=), archaic { kho))e }
polite imperative of [kahnaa] (- - x) { kahiye }
(= x) { kahye }
[kii] (x), "of" { kii }
[ke] (x), "of" { ke }
[kyaa] (=), "what" { kyaa }
[ki-yaa-rii] (- = x), "flowerbed" { kiyaarii }
[kyaa-rii] (= x) { kyaarii }
[kyuu;N] (=), "why" { kyuu;N }
[gaa-h] (= -), "place" { gaah }
[gah] (=) { gah }
[gar] (=), "if" { gar }
[a-gar] (- =) { agar }
[gar-chah] (= x), "although" { garchah }
[a-gar-chah] (- = x) { agarchah }
[gur-sa-nah] (= - x), "hungry" { gursanah }
[gu-ras-nah] (- = x) { gurasnah }
[gar-han] (= =), "eclipse" { garhan }
[ga-han] (- =) { gahan }
[gu-lis-taa;N (- = =), "garden" { gulistaa;N }
[gul-si-taa;N] (= - =) { gulsitaa;N }
[gu-naa-h] (- = -), "sin" { gunaah }
[gu-nah] (- x) { gunah }
[go] (=); very rare: (-); "although" { go }
[guu-ruu] (- =), "religious teacher" { guuruu }
[gu-ruu] (- =) { guruu }

79
 [gau-har] (= =), "pearl" { gauhar }
[gu-har] (- =) { guhar }
[ga-))e] (- x), "went" { ga))e }
[ga))e] (=), archaic { ga))e }
[gyaan] (= -), "knowledge" { gyaan }
[laa-sh] (= -), "corpse" { laash }
[laa-shah] (= x) { laashah }
[li-khaa] (- x), same for fem., plur.; "wrote" { likhaa }
[lik-khaa] (= x), same for fem., plur. { likkhaa }
[lo-haa-r] (- = -), "blacksmith" { lohaar }
[lu-haa-r] (- = -) { luhaar }
[le-kin] (= =), "but" { lekin }
[le-k] (= -), archaic { lek }
[maa-rg] (= -), "road" { maarg }
[maa-shaa)) al-laah] (= = = =), (= = = = -), "as God wills" { maashaa))
allaah }
[ma-;aa-l] (- = -), "property" { ma;aal }
[maa))-muu-n] (= = -), same as [maamuun], "safe" { maa))muun }
[maa-h] (= -), "moon" { maah }
[mah] (=) { mah }
[mi.s-ra((] (= =), "line of verse" { mi.sra(( }
[mi.s-ra((h] (= =) { mi.sra((h }
[mi.s-raa-((] (= = -) { mi.sraa(( }
[mu-vaa] (- x), "wretch" { muvaa }
[muu-))ii] (- x) { muu))ii }
[muu-))e] (- x) { muu))e }
[mau-j] (= -), "wave" { mauj }
[mau-jah] (= x) { maujah }
[mu-))a;x-;xar] (- = =), same as [muva;x;xar], "latter" { muu))a;x;xar }
[mu-))ad-dab] (- = =), same as [muvaddab], "courteous" { muu))addab }
[mu-))ar-ri;x (- = =), same as [muvarri;x], "chronicler" { muu))arri;x }
[muu;Nhh] (=), same as [mu;Nh], "mouth" { muu;Nhah }
[mi-yaa;N] (- x), (term of address or endearment) { miyaa;N }
[myaa;N] (=) { myaa;N }
[me-raa] (= x), same for fem. and plur., "my" { meraa }
[mi-raa] (- x), same for fem. and plur. { miraa }
[me;N] (x), "in" { me;N }
[mai;N] (x), "I" { mai;N }
[mii-naa-r] (= = x) "tower" { miinaar }
[mi-naa-r] (- = -) { minaar }
[naa-;xuu-n] (= = -), "fingernail" { naa;xuun }
[naa-;xun] (= =) { naa;xun }
[naa-gaa-h] (= = -), "unaware" { naagaah }
[naa-gahh] (= x) { naagahah }

80
 [naa-))o] (= x), "boat" { naa))o }
[naa-v] (= x) { naav }
[ni-baa-h-naa] (- = - x), "to uphold" { nibaahnaa }
[ni-bhaa-naa] (- = x) { nibhaanaa }
[na-dii] (- x), "river" { nadii }
[nad-dii] (= x) { naddii }
[nash-tar] (= =), "lancet" { nashtar }
[ne-sh-tar] (= - =) { neshtar }
[nash-))ah] (= x), "intoxication" { nash))ah }
[na-shah] (- x) { nashah }
[na-:zaa-rah] (- = x), "sight" { na:zaarah }
[na:z-:zaa-rah] (= = x) { na:z:zaarah }
[ni-gaa-h] (- = -), "glance" { nigaah }
[ni-gah] (- x) { nigah }
[nan-haa] (= x), "tiny" { nanhaa }
[nau] (=), "nine," "new" { nau }
[na-vaa-b] (- = -), "Navab" { navaab }
[nav-vaa-b] (= = -) { navvaab }
[nau-shah] (= x), "bridegroom" { naushah }
[nau-shaa-h] (= = -) { naushaah }
[nah] (-); (=), rare and archaic; "not" { nah }
[nah] (-), "neither" { nah }
[nai] (=), archaic { nai }
[ne] (x), ergative marker { ne }
[na-yas-taa;N] (- = =), "reed-thicket" { nayastaa;N }
[nai-si-taa;N] (= - =) { naisitaa;N }
[var-nah] (= x), "otherwise" { varnah }
[va-gar-nah] (- = x) { vagarnah }
[vuh] (x), "he, she it" { vuh }
[va-haa;N] (- x), "there" { vahaa;N }
[vaa;N] (=), archaic { vaa;N }
[vai] (=), rare and archaic, "they" { vai }
[haa-))e] (= x), "alas" { haa))e }
[haay] (=) { hay }
[ho] (x), subjunc. or fam. imp. of [honaa] { ho }
[hu-))aa] (- x), "occurred" { huu))aa }
[hu-))e] (- x) { huu))e }
[hu-))ii] (- x) { huu))ii }
[hu-))ii;N] (- x) { huu))ii;N }
[ho-sh-yaa-r] (= - = -), "alert" { hoshyaar }
[hush-yaa-r] (= = -) { hushyaar }
[ho;N] (x), "might be" { ho;N }
[huu;N] (x), "am" { huu;N }
[hii] (x), emphatic particle { hii }
[hai] (x), "is" { hai }

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 [hai;N] (x), "are" { hai;N }
[yaa] (=); (x), archaic; "or," "oh" { yaa }
[yuu-rish] (= =), (- =), "assault" { yuurish }
[yih] (x), "this" { yih }
[ya-haa;N] (- x), "here" { yahaa;N }
[yaa;N] (=), archaic { yaa;N }
[yuu;N] (x), "in such a way" { yuu;N }
[ye] (=), rare and archaic, "these" { ye }

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