8.

62 Viscometers—Application and Selection

C. H. KIM (1969, 1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995, 2003)

Definition of Viscosity: Absolute viscosity is the ratio of applied stress to resulting shear velocity; kinematic
viscosity is absolute viscosity divided by density.

Dynamic (absolute), poise = 1.0 dyne-sec/cm = 100 centipoise (cP) = 0.1 pascal-
2
Viscosity Units:
2
second (Pas or PI); Pas = 1.0 newton-second/m = 1.0 poiseuille (PI) = 1000 cP =
0.67 lbm/ft-sec
2 2
Kinematic viscosity, stoke = 1.0 cm /sec = 100 centistokes (cSt) = 0.00107 ft /sec

Types of Viscous Behavior: Newtonian or non-Newtonian; non-Newtonian fluids include pseudoplastic, dilatant,
plastic solid, thixotropic, and rheopectic types.

INTRODUCTION V
MOVING PLATE
F

In industrial plants, viscosity measurements serve to deter- L

mine the resistance of fluids to flow, define the behavior of
LIQUID LAYER
various concentrations of slurries, or measure the molecular F
STATIONARY PLATE
weight of polymers. Absolute viscosity is the ratio of applied F µV F/A
= :µ=
stress to resulting shear velocity, whereas kinematic viscosity A L V/L

is absolute viscosity divided by density. Viscometers are avail-

able to evaluate these and other characteristics in the labora-
tory and on line in a producing plant environment.
Sections 8.62 through 8.64 deal with viscosity measure-
ment. This section provides some general orientation on vis-
cometer selection and application, Section 8.63 discusses
laboratory units, and Section 8.64 covers industrial viscom-
eters. In addition, the reader is referred to the related detectors
that measure consistency (Section 8.18) and molecular
weight (Section 8.35).
This section begins with the discussion of viscous behavior
as it is governed by the laws of Stokes and Hagen–Posieuille.
This is followed by an orientation table that provides guide-
lines to assist the reader in the selection and application of
viscometers, in the form of a listing of the features and
capabilities of both laboratory and industrial viscometers.
Finally, the section is concluded with some definitions of
terms and units that are used in connection with viscometry
and with definitions of the different types of viscous behavior
exhibited by industrial fluids.
FIG. 8.62a
Viscosity is a fluid property that describes the amount of deformation
(V/L) that will result from a particular shear (F/A) that is applied
to the fluid.
resistance offered by the fluid, termed its viscosity. For gases
and newtonian liquids at constant pressure and temperature,
this resistance to deformation is called absolute viscosity.
The viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids varies, even when
the static pressure and temperature are fixed, because it also
changes as a function of the applied shear stress. In some
cases, viscosity may also vary with duration of the applied
shear stress. The viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid therefore
is frequently called apparent viscosity.
STOKE’S LAW
Stoke’s falling ball principle, published in 1851, was based
on his investigations of spheres falling through liquids.

2 r 2 ( ρS − ρL )g
THEORY OF VISCOUS BEHAVIOR υ= 8.62(1)
pµ

Viscosity is a fluid property that defines the fluid’s behavior where

when in motion. Because a fluid is a substance that is in a state ν = terminal velocity of fall, cm/sec
of continuous deformation when subjected to a shear stress r = radius of sphere, cm
ρs = density of sphere, g/cm
3
(Figure 8.62a), the rate of that deformation is a function of the

1700
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
 8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1701

ρL = density of liquid, g/cm

3
log [η] = log K + a log M
[η]
2 Y
g = gravity, cm/sec 2.0 a=
X
= 0.782
log (0.2) = log K + 0.782 log 104
µ = coefficient of viscosity, poise (−0.70) = log K + 0.782 (4)
1.5
log K = −3.828
K = 1.48 × 10−4
Hagan–Poiseuille Law
1.0
0.9
Capillary viscometers measure viscosity by detecting the
0.8
flow or the pressure drop of newtonian process liquid through 0.7
a capillary under isothermal laminar flow conditions. Accord- 0.6
ing to the Poiseuille law, the pressure drop of a newtonian 0.5
liquid passing through a capillary tube is directly proportional
0.4
to its viscosity if the fluid’s temperature and flow rate are
Y
kept constant. 0.3

µ = (Kd ∆P)/VL
4
8.62(2)
X
0.2
where 104 2 × 104 5 × 104 105 2 × 105

µ = absolute viscosity, centipoise MOLECULAR WEIGHT

K = a constant FIG. 8.62b

d = inside diameter of a capillary tube, inches Viscometer calibration relates intrinsic viscosity to molecular weight.
∆P = pressure drop across the capillary tube, PSI
V = flow rate, GPH
L = length of the capillary tube, inches where
η = viscosity of the solution
Kinematic Viscosity η0 = viscosity of the solvent
c = solution concentration in grams per milliliter or grams
The capillary-tube viscometer can detect the kinematic vis- per deciliter
cosity in stokes by measuring both the pressure gradient and
the volumetric flow rate in a cylindrical tube of precisely Another definition of intrinsic viscosity is
known dimensions. The following equation describes the
Hagen–Poiseuille law, which governs the flow of fluids
In η/η0
through capillaries: [η] = lim 8.62(6)
c→ 0 c
µ πghR 4 t
υ= = 8.62(3) Intrinsic viscosity is related to molecular weight as
ρ 8VL
expressed by the Mark–Houwink equation,
where
υ = kinematic viscosity, stokes (cm /sec)
2
[η] = KM a or log [η] = log K + a log M 8.62(7)
µ = absolute viscosity, poises (dyne-sec/cm )
2

ρ = density of liquid, g/cm

3

2 where K and a are constants for a given polymer-solvent

g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec system at the temperature of the viscosity measurement.
h = vertical distance between ends of capillary, cm
R = radius of capillary, cm Non-Newtonian Fluids
L = length of capillary, cm
3
V = volume of liquid flowing, cm , in time t, sec The resistance to deformation (or viscosity) of Newtonian
substances is constant as the shear rate (velocity gradient)
Intrinsic Viscosity changes, if other such variables as temperature and pressure
are also constant. Their shear stress is a linear function of
To determine molecular weight of a polymer, the intrinsic the shear rate they experience while undergoing continuous
viscosity or limiting viscosity must be determined (Figure deformation.
8.62b). Intrinsic viscosity [η] is defined by the relationship, Non-Newtonian fluids do not have such a linear relation-
ship between shear stress to shear rate, even under constant
η − η0 η
[η] = lim = lim sp 8.62(4) pressure and temperature. The viscosity of non-Newtonian
c→ 0 η c c→ 0 c
0 fluids varies as a function of shear rate and, in some cases,
it also varies as a function of time. Therefore, one cannot
η − η0
ηsp = 8.62(5) speak of the viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid without spec-
η0 ifying the shear stress or the velocity gradient (shear rate) at

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

1702 Analytical Instrumentation

(6)
NEWTONIAN FLUID-(I)
(WATER, MOST OILS,
FORCE SALT SOLUTIONS)
(4) (2) PSEUDOPLASTIC
(SHEAR THINNING)
(6) (PAPER PULP, CATSUP) (3)
(5) (3) DILATANT
(SHEAR THICKENING)
SHEAR STRESS

VISCOSITY
(1)
(STARCH, QUICK SAND) (4)

(4) PLASTIC SOLID

(2) (CHEWING GUM, TAR)
(1)
(5) THIXOTROPIC
(3) (ASPHALTS, LARD, (2)
SILICA GEL)
(6) RHEOPECTIC (5)
(SHEAR THICKENING)
FLOW FLOW
GYPSUM IN WATER
SHEAR RATE (VELOCITY GRADIENT) SHEAR RATE (VELOCITY GRADIENT)

FIG. 8.62c
The viscosity and shear stress of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids when these fluids are deformed at various shear rates (velocity
gradients).

which the resistance to deformation is of interest. Consequently,
the viscometers used to measure non-Newtonian substances
must be provided with accurate means of detecting the veloc-
ity gradient.
Newtonian Fluids Figure 8.62c illustrates the behavior of
newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. When a fluid is new-
tonian (curve 1 in Figure 8.62c), its viscosity is unaffected
by share rate (flow velocity), and the relationship between
force (stress) and resulting flow (velocity) is linear. Some of
the newtonian fluids include gasoline, kerosene, mineral oils,
water, and salt solutions in water.
Pseudoplastics Pseudoplastics (curve 2) are shear-thinning
materials whose apparent viscosity drops as flow (shear rate)
rises. Some such substances exhibit a yield stress above
which the apparent viscosity drops, so that a unit increase of
driving force results in more and more flow. Pseudoplastic
materials include catsup, paper pulp, and printer’s ink.
Dilatant Fluids Dilatant (curve 3) materials are shear-thick-
ening substances. Their apparent viscosity increases as the
flow (shear rate) rises, and more and more stress (force) is
required to obtain the same increase in flow. Dilatant mate-
rials include quicksand, starch, peanut butter, and many
candy compounds.
exhibit hysteresis. They seem to “remember” their past his-
tory and, for example, when reagitated will require less horse-
power than was required during the first agitation. Thixotro-
pic substances include asphalt, lard, silica gel, most paints,
glues, and fruit juice concentrates.
Rheopectic Substances Rheopectic substances (curve 6)
also display hysteresis, but, instead of a shear-thinning behav-
ior, they display shear thickening. Their viscosity appears to
increase, and some will “set” after some duration of agitation.
Gypsum in water, for example, behaves in this manner.
Apparent Viscosity Readings It is important to understand
that the apparent viscosity of many different substances
depends on the design of the viscometer that is measuring it.
Each viscometer exposes the process sample to a different
experience in terms of shear stress and shear velocity, so non-
Newtonian substances will register different apparent viscos-
ity readings.
In process control, this is not a serious problem, because
one is likely to use the same viscometer all the time, and we
are not interested so much in the absolute viscosity of the
product as in making the same product one day to the next.
On the other hand, when viscosity specifications are passed
on from one plant to another, it is essential that the viscometer
used in making the measurement be specified.

Plastic Solids Plastic solids (curve 4) are true plastics in Conversion among Units of Viscosity
the sense that they normally behave like solids, but, when Newton’s hypothesis defines absolute viscosity of fluid as
the shear stress (force) reaches their yield point, they start to
behave as viscous fluids and start to “cold flow.” Most plas- shear stress shear stress
tics, chewing gum, tar, and some oils exhibit this behavior. absolute viscosity = =
shear rate velocity gradient
8.62(8)
Thixotropic Materials Thixotropic materials (curve 5) are ( F/A)g
= c , poise
usually pseudoplastics (shear-thinning substances), but they ( u/l)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1703

(dynamic) viscosity. For additional viscosity conversion

TABLE 8.62d tables and charts, refer to Tables A.2p, A.2q, and A.2r in
Viscosities of Different Materials in Different Units of Viscosity,
Appendix A.2.
Measured at Constant Temperature of 70°F (23°C)*
Saybolt Kinematic Viscosity The value of the kinematic viscosity
a
Universal Centistokes Centipoise Typical Liquid 2
(SSU) (cSt) (cp) @ 70°F
b (in cm /sec units) can be obtained approximately from the
indications of the following viscometers (which all give their
31 1.00 1.0 Water
readings in seconds) by the associated equations.
35 2.56 2.05 Kerosene
50 7.40 5.92 No. 2 fuel oil Saybolt Universal,
80 15.7 12.6 No. 4 fuel oil when 32 < t < 100, υ = 0.00226t − 1.95/t
100 20.6 16.5 Transformer oil when t < 100, υ = 0.00220t − 1.35/t
200 43.2 34.6 Hydraulic oil
Saybolt Furol,
300 65.0 52.3 SAE 10W oil
when 25 < t < 40, υ = 0.00224t − 1.84/t
500 110 88.0 SAE 10 oil
when t > 40, υ = 0.216t – 0.60/t
1,000 220 176 SAE 20 oil
2,000 440 352 SAE 30 oil Redwood No. 1 (English),
5,000 1,100 880 SAE 50 oil when 34 < t < 100, υ = 0.00260t – 1.79/t
10,000 2,200 1,760 SAE 60-70 oil when t > 100, υ = 0.00247t − 0.50/t
50,000 10,800 8,640 Molasses B
Redwood Admiralty
a
Centistokes × specific gravity = centipoise. Specific gravity is (English), υ = 0.027t − 20/t
assumed to be 0.8 except in the case of water. Engler (German), υ = 0.00147t − 3.74/t
b
Use actual specific gravity for liquid in question.
*
Courtesy of Cole-Parmer Instrument Co. While the kinematic viscosity unit of stokes are not much
used anymore, one stoke is equivalent to 100 centistokes
2 2
(cSt), or 0.00107 ft /sec, or 0.0001 m /sec.
TABLE 8.62e
Conversion between Centipoise (cP) and Other Units of Absolute
Viscosity
Name (Definition) Abbreviation Value Equivalent to 1 cP VISCOMETER SELECTION AND APPLICATION
2
kgf-sec/m — 0.00010197
kgm/m-hr — 3.6 Table 8.62f, which is an orientation table, lists all available
lbf-sec/ft
2
— 0.00002088 viscometers and compares the features of the various designs
lbf-sec/in.
2
— 0.000000175
to assist the reader in selecting the right one for the applica-
tion at hand. When several choices appear to be acceptable
lbm/ft-sec — 0.000672
for a particular application, the reader is advised to read about
lbm/ft-hr — 2.42 each in the following sections before making the final selec-
lbm/in.-sec — 0.000056 tion. Section 8.63 covers the laboratory-type viscometer
2
Pascal-seconds (N-sec/m ) Pas 0.001 designs, and Section 8.64 describes the industrial in-line
Poises Ps 0.01 detectors.
2
Poiseuille (N-sec/m ) PI 0.001

Selection
where
F = total load force, gram force In selecting a viscometer for a specific task, the following
2
A = area of plate, cm should be determined:
l = thickness of fluid between plates, cm
u = velocity, cm/sec 1. Is this instrument for laboratory use or for continuous
gc = Newton’s acceleration caused by gravity, 980.665 measurement in the plant for control?
2
(gram mass) (cm)/(sec ) (gram force) 2. What type of materials will this viscometer handle?
a. Highly volatile? Closed system needed?
For the viscosity of common liquids in a variety of units, b. Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids, or both?
see Table 8.62d, and refer to Table 8.62e for conversion fac- c. Rheological characteristics of the material—plastic,
tors between centipoise (cP) and other units of absolute thixotropic, dilatant, etc.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 1704
TABLE 8.62f
Orientation Table for Industrial Viscometers

Provides Continuous Signal

Analytical Instrumentation
(2) Based on Measurement
(1) Based on Full Scale
Remote Readout Trans.

Minimum sample Size

Temp. Compensation
Features Fluids
Application

(°C = [°F − 32]/1.8)

(1 Bar = 14.2 PSI)
Laboratory Device

Maximum Design

Maximum Design

Inaccuarcy (±%)
Temperature, °F
Pressure, PSIG.
Non-Newtonian
Local Readout
In-line Device

or Flow Rate
Newtonian
Applicable Viscosity Ranges
Centipoises

Gas
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Type of Design 10 10 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Bubble time Manual


ATM. 77 2–10(2) 13 CC
Capillary tube Manual timing


ATM. 300 0.35(2) 20 CC
Auto timing




ATM. 300 0.01(2) 20 CC
Capillary Influx efflux



100 300 2.0(2) 0.7 CC
extrusion




5,000 640 2.0(2) 30 CC
Efflux cup Saybolt


ATM. 250 0.1(2) 60 CC
Ford cup



ATM. 80 2.0(2) 150 CC
Laboratory

Zahn cup


ATM. 80 2.0(2) 44 CC

Auto timing




ATM. 80 5.0(2) —
Falling ball Manual



ATM. 300 0.1–1(2) 30 CC
Automatic




15,000 350 0.1–1(2) 70 CC
Falling needle Manual



ATM. 400 0.5–1(2) 2–10 CC
Automatic





ATM. 400 0.5–1(2) 2–10 CC
Rotational Coaxial-cylinder




ATM— 80–500 1.0(2)–2.0(1) 1–500 CC
20,000
Cone and plate




ATM. 750 0.5(2) 0.1 CC
Piston Travel time







10,000 600 2(2) In-line
Continuous Differential pressure





670 900 1–2(1) 1–4 GPH
capillary Back pressure





500 210 1.0(1) 1 GPH
Falling element Ball or slug






300 350 1.0(1) —
Piston






500 650 1.0(1) —
Float Single float






650 450 4.0(2) 0.75–2 GPM
Two-float




300 450 2–4(2) 0.25–2.5 GPM
Concentric







650 450 2–4(2) 2 GPM
Oscillating Blade





375 150 1.0(1) Up to 6.5 fps
Industrial

(2 m/s)
Piston







10,000 600 2.0(2) —
Torsional







5,000 850 2.0(2) —

Plastometer Cone and plate





100 400 0.5(1) 25 CC Arbitrary Mooney 0–200 Points
Kneader





ATM. 570 1.0(1) 80 CC Units % Scale 0–1,000 Division
Capillary



5,000 570 2.0(1) 0.6 #/HR Are Used MI & CIL 0–200 and 0–100
Rotational Cone disc sphere







1,000 650 1.0(1) —
Agitator power





125 200 ~5.0(1) —
Double cylinder




145 300 1.0(1) —
Vibrational Reed







3,000 300 1.0(1) —
Normal Range. With Special Modifications

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


d. Corrosiveness of the fluids
e. Does the fluid contain solids? What are the special
characteristics of this slurry or emulsion? Plastic,
thixotropic, dilatant, etc.?
f. What are the operating temperatures and pressures of
the fluids?
g. Do the sample composition and/or viscosity (due to
reaction or time lag) change with time? Is a low lag
time for manual sampling and testing sufficient, or
is on-stream measurement essential?
h. What is the relationship between viscosity and oper-
ating temperature?
3. Area classification—does the viscometer need to be
explosion proof?
4. What are the viscosity ranges to be measured?
5. What levels of accuracy (maximum error allowable),
sensitivity, and repeatability (for continuous process
viscometer) are required?
6. What special features are needed?
a. Remote indication or recording
b. Automatic operation
c. Automatic closed-loop control
d. Temperature compensating system
7. What is the viscometer response time requirement?
8. What are the flow conditions—laminar or turbulent?
Applications
A viscosity measurement can be of value for one of the
following two reasons:
1. It is very difficult to size a pump, pipeline, orifice
meter, or agitator without knowing the viscosity of the
process fluid. In any operation where liquids are used
(spraying, coating, or dipping processes), the viscosity
of the fluid determines the effectiveness of the process
and the quality of the finished product. In short, vis-
cosity is one of the most important process properties.
2. Viscosity readings can vary as a function of other
process variables. These include molecular weight and
its distribution in polymers, lubricating oils, and other
substances, as well as the concentration, specific grav-
ity, color, size, shape, and distribution of solids in a
slurry or in an emulsion. All of these can cause vis-
cosity variations.
Viscometers can be used for several purposes, primarily
(1) to ensure that the finished product meets specifications,
(2) to perform routine laboratory testing, (3) for scientific
research, and (4) for in-line process control. Each is described
briefly below.
Finished Product Specification For such applications, the
appropriate type of viscometer has been specified by industry
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1705
standards for product testing. Test procedures should be care-
fully followed and test results correctly reported.
Routine Laboratory Testing Simple-to-operate, easy-to-clean
and direct-reading viscometers should be considered for this
purpose. The coaxial-cylinder type viscometer is well suited,
because it is inexpensive and meets most of the above require-
ments. The efflux-cup viscometer is recommended for field
laboratory testing work. If the available sample size is small
(less than 1 cc), then modified coaxial-cylinder or cone-and-
plate rotating viscometers should be considered.
Scientific Research Study For scientific research purposes,
accuracy and versatility should be the main selection consid-
erations. Cone-and-plate rotational viscometers are the most
versatile units but are also the most expensive. If extreme
accuracy is desired, consider the automatic capillary-tube
viscometer (See Figure 8.62g). If it is important to record the
results to maintain a permanent record, both of the previously
mentioned viscometers have the appropriate capability. For
the measurement of gas and vapor viscosity, the falling-ball
viscometer is the best option.
In-Line Process Control In selecting an in-process viscom-
eter, cost, repeatability, sensitivity, construction materials,
reliability, response time, and ease of cleaning should all be
considered. Vibrating-reed viscometers are successfully used
in the polymer industry. Rotating-cone and agitator power
viscometers have been successfully employed in the paper
industry. Continuous capillary viscometers are widely
applied in the petroleum industry. The manufacture of syn-
thetic rubbers and certain plastics would be almost impossi-
ble without the plastometers.
Continuous viscometers are reliable. Viscosity measure-
ment need not be an expensive and time-consuming opera-
tion. Continuous in-line viscometers are available to satisfy
most process needs. Even such unique applications as the
measurement of the viscosity of molten steel can be handled.
Viscometer signals can be readily sent over digital networks
and be accepted by process computers, which can calculate
other related fluid properties or perform closed-loop control.
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute (dynamic) viscosity ( µ). Constant of propor-
tionality between applied stress and resulting shear
velocity (Newton’s hypothesis).
Apparent viscosity. Viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid
under given conditions. Same as consistency.
Consistency. Resistance of a substance to deformation.
It is the same as viscosity for a newtonian fluid and
the same as apparent viscosity for a non-Newtonian
fluid.
Fluidity. Reciprocal of absolute viscosity; the unit in
the cgs system is the rhe, which equals 1/poise.
1706 Analytical Instrumentation
FIG. 8.62g
A single process viscosity system can measure absolute (kinematic or dynamic), relative, reduced, and intrinsic viscosities as well as viscosity
index. (Courtesy of Brinkmann Instruments Inc.)
Hagen-Poiseuille law (flow through a capillary),
π R4
Q= ( P − P2 ) 8.62(9)
8µL 1
Kinematic viscosity (υ). Dynamic viscosity/density =
υ = µ/ρ.
Pascal-second (Pas). Internationally accepted unit of
2 velocity across the stream—V/L for linear velocity
absolute (dynamic) viscosity. Pas = newton-sec/m =
10 poise = 1000 centipoise.
Poise (µ). Unit of dynamic or absolute viscosity (dyne-
2
sec/cm ).
Poiseuille (Pi). Suggested name for the new interna-
tional standard unit of viscosity, the pascal-second.
Relative viscosity. Ratio of absolute viscosity of a fluid
at any temperature to that of water at 20°C (68°F).
Because water at this temperature has a µ of 1.002
cP, the relative viscosity of a fluid equals approxi-
mately its absolute viscosity in cP. Because the den-
sity of water is 1, the kinematic viscosity of water
equals 1.002 ctks at 20°C.
Saybolt furol seconds (SFS). Time units referring to the
Saybolt viscometer with a Furol capillary, which is
larger than a universal capillary.
Saybolt universal seconds (SUS). Time units referring
to the Saybolt viscometer.
Saybolt viscometer (universal, furol). Measures time
for given volume of fluid to flow through standard
orifice; units are seconds.
Shear viscometer. Viscometer that measures viscosity
of a non-Newtonian fluid at several different shear
rates. Viscosity is extrapolated to zero shear rate by
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
connecting the measured points and extending curve
to zero shear rate.
Specific viscosity. Ratio of absolute viscosity of a fluid
to that of a standard fluid, usually water, both at
same temperature.
Stoke. Unit of kinematic viscosity υ (cm /sec).
2
Stress. Force/area (F/A).
Velocity gradient (shear). Rate for change of liquid
profile and dV/dL for nonlinear velocity profile.
–1
Units are V–L = ft/sec/ft = sec .
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