What is Compaction?

In most instances in civil engineering

and/or construction practice, it is
needed to excavate the soils and
refill. In this stage soil remain loose
thus weak.

Thus the loose soils are compacted to

make them strong
 Soil Compaction
Soil compaction is defined as the method
of mechanically increasing the density of
soil by reducing its voids (Particularly Air
voids).
Compaction and Consolidation

The terms compaction and

consolidation may sound as though
they describe the same thing, i.e. is
increasing the density of soil by
reducing the voids of soil, but in
reality they do not.
consolidation:
Static loads are applied to saturated soils,
and over a period of time the increased
stresses are transferred to the soil
skeleton, leading to a reduction in void
ratio.
Depending on the permeability of the soil
and the magnitude of the drainage
distance, this can be a very
time−consuming process.
compaction:
When loose soils are applied to a
construction site, compressive
mechanical energy is applied to the
soil using special equipment
to densify the soil (or reduce the void
ratio).
Typically applies to soils that are being
applied or re−applied to a site.
 Soil Compaction
This is a significant part of any kind of
construction process. If performed
improperly, settlement of the soil could
occur and result in unnecessary
maintenance costs or structure failure.
Rutting on Super Highway near Jamshoro City
 Soil Compaction
Almost all types of construction projects
utilize mechanical compaction techniques.
Motivation for Compaction:
· Compaction increases the skeletal
(or dry) density of soils for a wide
range of construction applications.

As examples:
· highway embankments , Airway fields
· backfilled trenches , Marine struct.
· earthen dams · Asphalt and conc.
sub−foundation soils
 Why Compact?
• There are five principle reasons to
compact soil:
- Increases load-bearing capacity
- Prevents soil settlement and frost
damage
- Provides stability
- Reduces water seepage, swelling and
contraction
- Reduces settling of soil
1) increased shear strength;
This means that larger loads can be applied
to compacted soils since they are typically
stronger.
2) reduced compressibility;
This also means that larger loads can
be applied to compacted soils
since they will produce smaller
settlements.
3) reduced permeability;
This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb
water, and therefore reduces the
tendency to expand/shrink and
potentially liquefy.
Degree of Compaction

• The degree of compaction of a soil is

measured by the dry unit weight of the
soil. The dry unit weight correlates with the
degree of packing of the soil grains.
Recall that
 d  Gs . w /(1  e)
The more compacted a soil is:
the smaller its void ratio (e) will be; and
thus the higher its dry unit weight (γd) will
be.
Role of Water in Compaction
Water plays a critical role in the soil
compaction process:
 It lubricates the soil grains so that they
slide more easily over each other
 Thus achieve a more densely packed
arrangement.
 While a little bit of water facilitates
compaction, too much water inhibits
compaction.
 Proctor’s principle of compaction
• Using a standard energy, if a series of
specimens of a soil are compacted at
increasing water contents, the
resultant dry density of the specimens
will vary. The density will increase to a
peak value, then decrease.
 Compaction Curve
Dry density (d)

Soil grains densely packed

- good strength and stiffness

d, max - low permeability

optimum
water content Water content
 Principle of compaction

• Theory developed by R.R. Proctor in

1930’s in California
• Three Factors determine the density
that results from soil compaction
 Proctor Developed Principle

• Three variables determine the

density of a compacted soil
–The energy used in compaction
–The water content of the soil
–The properties of the soil
 Principle of Compaction
• A plot of the dry density versus the water
content from a compaction test will be
parabolic in shape.
• The peak of the curve at particular
degree of compaction is termed the
maximum dry density, and the water
content at which the peak occurs is the
optimum water content.
 Standard Proctor Energies
• Several standard energies are used
for laboratory compaction tests
–Standard – 12,400 ft-lbs/ft3
–Modified – 56,000 ft-lbs/ft3
–California – 20,300 ft-lbs/ft3
 Standard Proctor Compaction Test
Summary
5.5 #
hammer
• Uses 5.5 pound
hammer
• dropped 12 inches 12”drop
• mold filled in 3 lifts
• 25 blows of hammer
per lift 3 lifts
• Total energy is
12,400 ft-lbs/ft3
 Compactive effort (energy E)

Height of Number of
For standard Weight of
hammer
 drop of  blows per  Number of
layer layers
Proctor test hammer
E=
Volume of mold

2.495 kg(9.81m / s 2 )(0.3048 m)(3 layers)( 25 blows / layer )

E
0.944  103 m3
 592.7 kJ / m3 (12,375 ft lb / ft 3 )
 Modified Proctor Compaction Test
Summary
10 #
hammer
• Uses 10 pound
hammer
• dropped 18 inches 18”drop
• mold filled in 5 lifts
• 25 blows of hammer
per lift 5 lifts
• Total energy is
56,000 ft-lbs/ft3
 Compaction curves for different efforts
Dry density (d)

High Effort

Less Effort

Line of optimum
25
Water content
 Comparison-Why?
• In the early days of compaction, because construction
equipment was small and gave relatively low compaction
densities, a laboratory method that used a small amount of
compacting energy was required. As construction equipment
and procedures were developed which gave higher densities,
it became necessary to increase the amount of compacting
energy in the laboratory test.

• The modified test was developed during World War II by the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineering to better represent the
compaction required for airfield to support heavy aircraft. The
point is that increasing the compactive effort tends to increase
the maximum dry density, as expected, but also decrease the
optimum water content. (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Lambe, 1991)
Proctor Compaction Test Summary

• Several Standard molds are used

depending on maximum particle size
in sample
– 4”diameter mold (1/30 ft3) used for soils
with low gravel contents
– Method A for soils with < 20 % gravel
– Method B for soils with > 20 % gravel and
< 20 % larger than 3/8”
Proctor Compaction Test Summary

• Several Standard molds are used

depending on maximum particle size
in sample
– 6”diameter mold (1/13.33 ft3) used for
soils with significant gravel contents
– More than 20 % gravel larger than 3/8”
– Must have less than 30 % larger than
3/4”
 Proctor Compaction Test Summary
• Standardized tests are not available for soils
with more than 30 percent by weight of the
total sample being larger than 3/4”in diameter
gravels
• ASTM Compaction Test Methods are
– D698A D1557A
– D698B D1557B
– D698C D1557C
 Compaction Principles
• Compaction Tests are not suitable for soils
with more than 30 % by weight of the sample
being larger than a ¾” sieve.
• Compaction tests are not usually performed
on soils with 12 % or fewer fines
• Relative Density testing is used for clean sands
and gravels
 Proctor Compaction Test Summary

• Prepare 4 to 5
specimens at
increasing water
contents about 2 %
apart. Example -
prepared samples at
14, 16, 18, and 20
percent. Use range of
moistures based on
feel and experience.
 Proctor Compaction Test Summary
Hammer
• Then, compact
each sample
into a steel
mold with
standard Cured soil
procedures
Compaction mold
• Procedures

• Several samples of the same soil, but at different water

contents, are compacted according to the compaction
test specifications.

The first four The successive

blows blows
 Proctor Compaction Test Summary
• Then, strike
off excess soil
so the mold
has a known
volume of
soil.
 Proctor Compaction Test Summary
• For each sample, measure the weight and the water
content of the soil in the mold
• The mold volume and weight are
pre-measured. Don’t assume nominal volume of
1/30 ft3 or 1/13.33 ft3
• Calculate moist density
• Calculate dry density
• Plot dry density and water content for each point
• Procedures

(1) The total or wet density and the actual water content of
each compacted sample are measured.

Mt 
 , d  Derive d from the known 
Vt 1 w and w

(2) Plot the dry densities d versus water contents w for

each compacted sample. The curve is called as a
compaction curve.
 Zero Air Voids Curve

• After you plot a compaction test,

plotting a zero air voids curve is very
important. This curve is also called the
100 % saturation curve
• This curve shows for a range of dry
density values what the saturated water
content is for any given value
 Compaction Problem

Zero air void equation

Assume 3 values of d and calculate wsat%

 water 1 
wsat (%)     x100
  dry Gs 
Peak point Line of Zero air
Dry density d (Mg/m3)

Dry density d (lb/ft3)

Line of optimum optimums void
d max
Zero air void

Modified
Proctor

Standard
Proctor

wopt
Water content w (%) Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
•Note that the maximum dry density is only a maximum for a
specific compactive effort and method of compaction. This does not
necessarily reflect the maximum dry density that can be obtained in
the field.

•Zero air voids curve

•The curve represents the fully saturated condition (S = 100 %). (It
cannot be reached by compaction)

•Line of optimums
•A line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves
at different compactive efforts for the same soil will be almost
parallel to a 100 % S curve, it is called the line of optimums
 The Equation for the
curves with different
degree of saturation is :

wS  S
d   w
 S
w wS w
s Gs

You can derive the equation

by yourself

s
Hint: d 
1 e
Se  wG s

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Below wopt (dry side of optimum): Lubrication or
As the water content increases, the particles loss of suction??
develop larger and larger water films around
them, which tend to “lubricate” the particles
and make them easier to be moved about and (wopt, d max)
reoriented into a denser configuration.

At wopt: d
The density is at the maximum, and it does
not increase any further.

Above wopt (wet side of optimum): w

Water starts to replace soil particles in the
mold, and since w << s the dry density
starts to decrease.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
• Each data point on the curve represents a single
compaction test, and usually four or five individual
compaction tests are required to completely
determine the compaction curve.
• At least two specimens wet and two specimens dry
of optimum, and water contents varying by about
2%.
• Optimum water content is typically slightly less than
the plastic limit (ASTM suggestion).
• Typical values of maximum dry density are around
1.6 to 2.0 Mg/m3 with the maximum range from
about 1.3 to 2.4 Mg/m3. Typical optimum water
contents are between 10% and 20%, with an outside
maximum range of about 5% to 40%.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
 Effects of Soil Types on Compaction
•The soil type-that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains,
specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals
present.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Das, 1998

 Zero Air Voids Curve

• The 100 % saturation curve is used to

judge the reliability of the compaction
curve and of field measurements of
compacted soil density and water
content
• Compacted soils for NRCS specifications
are usually at a degree of saturation of
about 75 to 95 percent
 135.0
Max Dry Density VS OMC for various
soils
125.0
Dry Density, pcf

115.0

105.0

95.0

85.0
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0
Water Content, %
 135.0

100 % Saturation
125.0 Curve
Dry Density, pcf

115.0 95 % Saturation
Curve

105.0

75 % Saturation
95.0 Curve

85.0
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0
Water Content, %
 Review of Compaction
Evaluating Compaction Tests
• Typical value for fine-grained soils compared
to Navdocks equations

dmax = 130.3 - 0.82 *LL + 0.3*PI

wopt = 6.77 + 0.43 * LL - 0.21 * PI

 Purposes of compaction

• Soils are compacted to improve the

engineering properties over those of
loosely placed soils.
• The engineering properties are affected
both by the density to which the soil is
compacted and the water content at
which it is compacted
 Role of compaction tests
in earth fill projects
• Samples are obtained in site investigation and
sent to laboratory for testing
• Soils are tested to determine reference
density - as well as other index properties
• Engineering properties are measured by
testing at a percentage of the reference test
density. For example, a shear test might be
performed at 95 percent of the Standard
Proctor maximum dry density of the soil.
 Role of compaction tests
in earth fill projects
• The engineering properties are used in analyses
to determine a suitable design
• For example, the shear strength is used in a
slope stability analyses
• If the engineering properties allow a satisfactory
design, then the degree of compaction is used in
a contract specification.
 Role of compaction tests
in earth fill projects
• If an unsatisfactory design results, the soil is re-
tested at a different degree of compaction to
obtain better engineering properties
• The design is re-analyzed and the process
repeated until a final satisfactory degree of
compaction is decided
• Then the degree of compaction is used in a
contract specification.
 Role of compaction tests
in earth fill projects
• Quality control processes are used to ensure
that the earth fill is compacted to the degree of
compaction specified, within a range of specified
water contents
• Field compaction tests are performed to assure
that the proper reference density is being used
 Samples are obtained and submitted
to a laboratory for
compaction tests
index tests

A Preliminary degree of
Compaction compaction is assumed
e.g., 95 % STandard Proctor
Tests as
Used in Engineering Property
Tests are performed at
Design of an the preliminary design density
e.g., shear tests
Earth Fill
Engineering Properties are used
in an analyses - e.g.,
slope stability analysis
 If the Design is Satisfactory, If the Design is not Satisfactory,
Contract specs are written a different degree of compaction
requiring the degree of compaction is assumed, and more engineering
needed for the properties property tests are performed

Quality Control Tests When a satisfactory design is achieved

are performed during for the tested degree of
construction to ensure that compaction, specifications are written
the required density and water content are met

Quality Control Tests

are performed during
construction to ensure that
the required density and water content are met
 Engineering Properties-Summary
Dry side Wet side
Structure More random More oriented
(parallel)
Permeability More permeable

Compressibility More compressible in More compressible in

high pressure range low pressure range

Swell more,
Swelling *Shrink more
higher water
deficiency

Strength Higher
 Example of Process
• Sample obtained to determine suitability as
clay liner
• Sample Sent to Laboratory
• Laboratory performs Standard Proctor Test
• A Permeability Test is performed at 95 % of
maximum Standard Proctor Dry Density
 Example of Process
• The sample is remolded at 2 percent wet of
optimum
• The permeability test generally measures low
permeability
• A recommendation is given to the field office
that compaction to this combination of
density and water content results in
acceptably low permeability
 Example of Process
• During construction, measurements of dry
density and water content are made during
construction.
• If the degree of compaction and percent
saturation are equal to or better than
specified, the liner is judged to have a low
permeability and is considered acceptable.
 Effect of Moisture
• The response of soil to moisture is very
important, as the soil must carry the load
year-round.
• Rain, for example, may transform soil into a
plastic state or even into a liquid.
In this state, soil has very little or no load-
bearing ability
 Moisture vs. Soil Density
• Moisture content of the soil is vital to proper
compaction.
• Moisture acts as a lubricant within soil, sliding the
particles together.
• Too little moisture means inadequate compaction
- the particles cannot move past each other to
achieve density.
• Too much moisture leaves water-filled voids and
subsequently weakens the load-bearing ability.
Contd…
Contd…

• The highest density for most soils is at a

certain water content for a given compaction
effort.
• The drier the soil, the more resistant it is to
compaction.
• In a water-saturated state the voids between
particles are partially filled with water,
creating an apparent cohesion that binds
them together.
This cohesion increases as the particle size
decreases (as in clay-type soils). l
 What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique, where
the soil is densified through external
compactive effort.

Compactive
effort

+ water =
 Compaction curves for different efforts
Dry density (d)

High Effort

Less Effort

Line of optimum
64
Water content
• The Hand Test
A quick method of determining moisture
is known as the "Hand Test".
• Pick up a handful of soil.
• Squeeze it in your hand.
• Open your hand. If the soil is powdery
and will not retain the shape made
by your hand, it is too dry. If it shatters
when dropped, it is too dry.
Contd…
 Contd…

• If the soil is moldable and breaks into only a

couple of pieces when dropped, it has the
right amount of moisture for proper
compaction.
• If the soil is plastic in your hand, leaves traces
of moisture on your fingers and stays in one
piece when dropped, it has too much
moisture for compaction
 Laboratory Compaction Test
- to obtain the compaction curve and define the
optimum water content and maximum dry density for a
specific compactive effort.

Standard Proctor: hammer Modified Proctor:

• 3 layers • 5 layers

• 25 blows per layer • 25 blows per layer

• 2.7 kg hammer • 4.9 kg hammer

• 300 mm drop • 450 mm drop

1000 ml compaction mould

67
 Compaction Control Test
d Compaction
specifications
Compare!
d,field = ?
w
wfield = ?

compacted ground

68
 Types of Compaction
• There are four types of compaction effort on soil or
asphalt:
• Vibration
• Impact
• Kneading
• Pressure
• These different types of effort are found in the two
principle types of compaction force:
 static and
 vibratory.
 Soil Types and Conditions

• Every soil type behaves differently with

respect to maximum density and
optimum moisture.
• Therefore, each soil type has its own
unique requirements and controls both
in the field and for testing purposes.
• Static force is simply the deadweight of
the machine, applying downward force
on the soil surface, compressing the soil
particles.

• The only way to change the effective

compaction force is by adding or
subtracting the weight of the machine.
FIG: TWO WHEEL STATIC
ROLLER
• Static force

• Static compaction is confined to upper

soil layers and is limited to any
appreciable depth.

• Kneading and pressure are two

examples of static compaction.
• Vibratory force uses a mechanism, usually
engine-driven, to create a downward force in
addition to the machine's static weight.

• The vibrating mechanism is usually a rotating

eccentric weight or piston/spring
combination (in rammers).

• The compactors deliver a rapid sequence of

blows (impacts) to the surface, thereby
affecting the top layers as well as deeper
layers.
FIG: VIBRATORY STEEL-WHEELED ROLLER
• Vibratory force

• Vibration moves through the material,

setting particles in motion and moving them
closer together for the highest density
possible.

• Based on the materials being compacted, a

certain amount of force must be used to
overcome the cohesive nature of particular
particles.
 Field Compaction
Different types of rollers (clockwise
from right):
 Smooth-wheel roller
 Vibratory roller
Pneumatic rubber tired roller
 Sheepsfoot roller
 Field Compaction
Smooth Wheeled Roller

Compacts effectively only to 200-300 mm; therefore,

place the soil in shallow layers (lifts)
78
 5.1 Equipment
• 100% coverage under the
Smooth-wheel roller wheel
(drum) • Contact pressure up to 380
kPa
• Can be used on all soil
types except for rocky soils.
• Compactive effort: static
weight
• The most common use of
large smooth wheel rollers
is for proof-rolling
subgradesHoltzand compacting
and Kovacs, 1981
asphalt pavement.
 5.1 Equipment (Cont.)
Pneumatic (or rubber- • 80% coverage under the
tired) roller wheel
• Contact pressure up to 700
kPa
• Can be used for both
granular and fine-grained
soils.
• Compactive effort: static
weight and kneading.
• Can be Holtz
used for highway
and Kovacs, 1981
fills or earth dam
construction.
 Field Compaction
Sheepsfoot Roller

 Provides kneading action; “walks out” after compaction

 Very effective on clays

81
 5.1 Equipment (Cont.)
Sheep foot rollers • Has many round or
rectangular shaped
protrusions or “feet”
attached to a steel drum
• 8% ~ 12 % coverage
• Contact pressure is from
1400 to 7000 kPa
• It is best suited for clayed
soils.
• Compactive effort: static
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
weight and kneading.
 5.1 Equipment (Cont.)
Tamping foot roller • About 40% coverage
• Contact pressure is from
1400 to 8400 kPa
• It is best for compacting
fine-grained soils (silt and
clay).
• Compactive effort: static
weight and kneading.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

 5.1 Equipment (Cont.)
Mesh (or grid pattern) roller
• 50% coverage
• Contact pressure is from
1400 to 6200 kPa
• It is ideally suited for
compacting rocky soils,
gravels, and sands. With
high towing speed, the
material is vibrated,
crushed, and impacted.
• Compactive effort: static
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981
weight and vibration.
 5.1 Equipment (Cont.)
• Vertical vibrator attached to
Vibrating drum on smooth- smooth wheel rollers.
wheel roller • The best explanation of why
roller vibration causes
densification of granular
soils is that particle
rearrangement occurs due to
cyclic deformation of the soil
produced by the oscillations
of the roller.
• Compactive effort: static
weight and vibration.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

• Suitable for granular soils

 Field Compaction
Vibrating Plates

 for compacting very small areas

 effective for granular soils

86
 Field Compaction
Impact Roller

 Provides deeper (2-3m) compaction. e.g., air field

87
 Compaction Control
-a systematic exercise where you check
at regular intervals whether the
compaction was done to specifications.

e.g., 1 test per

• Minimum dry density
1000 m3 of
• Range of water content
compacted soil

Field measurements (of d) obtained using

• sand cone
• nuclear density meter
88
 Earthmoving Equipment

Large Excavator (see minivan on left for scale)

89
Earthmoving Equipment

Grader for spreading soil

90
Earthmoving Equipment

Bulldozer for spreading soil evenly

91
Earthmoving Equipment

Loader

92
Earthmoving Equipment

Backhoe
93
Earthmoving Equipment

Crawler mounted Hydraulic Excavator 94

Earthmoving Equipment

Rock Breaker

95
 Field Compaction
Vibrating Plates

 for compacting very small areas

 effective for granular soils

96
5.1 Equipment-Summary

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

 Materials
Vibrating Static Vibrating Scraper
Sheeps foot Sheeps foot Plate Rubber-
Rammer Grid Roller Compactor tired Roller
Scraper Vibrating Loader
Roller Grid Roller
Vibrating
Sheeps foot
Pressure Kneading
Lift Thickness Impact Vibration
(with kneading) (with pressure)

Gravel 12+ Poor No Good Very Good

Sand 10+/- Poor No Excellent Good

Silt 6+/- Good Good Poor Excellent

Clay 6+/- Excellent Very Good No Good

 Compaction Equipment
Applications
The desired level of compaction is best
achieved by matching the soil type with its
proper compaction method.
Other factors must be considered as well, such
as compaction specs and job site conditions.
• Cohesive soils - clay is cohesive, its particles
stick together.*
• Therefore, a machine with a high impact force
is required to ram the soil and force the air
out, arranging the particles. A rammer is the
best choice, or a pad-foot vibratory roller if
higher production is needed.

Contd…
 Contd…

• Granular soils –
• since granular soils are not cohesive and the
particles require a shaking or vibratory action
to move them, vibratory plates (forward
travel) are the best choice
• Reversible plates and smooth drum vibratory
rollers are appropriate for production work.
• Granular soil particles respond to different
frequencies (vibrations) depending on particle
size.
• The smaller the particle, the higher the
frequencies and higher compaction forces.

Contd…
Contd…

• Normally, soils are mixtures of clay and

granular materials, making the selection of
compaction equipment more difficult.
• It is a good idea to choose the machine
appropriate for the larger percentage of the
mixture
Contd…

Equipment testing may be required to match

the best machine to the job.
Asphalt is considered granular due to its base
of mixed aggregate sizes (crushed stone,
gravel, sand and fines) mixed with bitumen
binder (asphalt cement).
Consequently, asphalt must be compacted
with pressure (static) or vibration.
 Compaction Machine Characteristics
• Two factors are important in determining the
type of force a compaction machine produces:
frequency and amplitude.
• Frequency is the speed at which an eccentric
shaft rotates or the machine jumps.
• Each compaction frequency machine is
designed to operate at an optimum frequency
to supply the maximum force.

Contd…
 Contd…

• Frequency is usually given in terms of

vibration per minute (vpm).
• Amplitude (or normal amplitude) is the
maximum movement of a vibrating body from
its axis in one direction.
• Double amplitude is the maximum movement
of a vibrating body from its axis in one
direction.
 Contd…

• Double amplitude is the maximum distance a

vibrating body moves in both directions from
its axis.
• The apparent amplitude varies for each
machine under different job site conditions.
• The apparent amplitude increases as the
material becomes more dense and
compacted.
 Lift height and Machine Performance
• Lift height (depth of the soil layer is an
important factor that effects machine
performance and compaction cost.
• Vibratory and rammer-type equipment
compact soil in the same direction: from top
to bottom and bottom to top.
• As the machine hits the soil, the impact travels
to the hard surface below and then returns
upward.

Contd…
Contd…

• This sets all particles in motion and

compaction takes place.
• As the soil becomes compacted, the impact
has a shorter distance to travel.
• More force returns to the machine, making it
lift off the ground higher in its stroke cycle.
• If the lift is too deep, the machine will take
longer to compact the soil and a layer within
the lift will not be compacted.
• Soil can also be over-compacted if the compactor
makes too many passes (a pass is the machine
going across a lift in one direction).
• Over-compaction is like constantly hitting
concrete with a sledgehammer.
• Cracks will eventually appear, reducing density.
This is a waste of man-hours and adds
unnecessary wear to the machine.
Equipment Types
• The rammer is inclined at a forward angle to
allow forward travel as the machine jumps.
• Rammers cover three types of compaction:
impact, vibration and kneading.
Vibratory Plates
• The engine and handle are vibration-isolated
from the vibrating plate.
• The heavier the plate, the more compaction
force it generates.
• Frequency range is usually 2500 vpm to 6000
vpm.
• Plates used for asphalt have a water tank and
sprinkler system to prevent asphalt from sticking
to the bottom of the base plate.
• Vibration is the one principal compaction effect.
Contd…
Reversible Vibratory Plates
• In addition to some of the standard vibratory
plate features, reversible plates have two
eccentric weights that allow smooth transition
for forward or reverse travel, plus increased
compaction force as the result of dual
weights.
• Due to their weight and force, reversible
plates are ideal for semi-cohesive soils.
 Contd…

• A reversible is possible the best compaction

buy dollar for dollar.
• Unlike standard plates, the reversible forward
travel may be stopped and the machine will
maintain its force for "spot" compaction
 Soil Density Tests
• To determine if proper soil compaction is
achieved for any specific construction
application, several methods were developed.

• The most prominent by far is soil density.

• Why Test?
Soil testing accomplishes the following:
• Measures density of soil for comparing the
degree of compaction vs. specs
• Measures the effect of moisture on soil
density vs. specs
• Provides a moisture density curve identifying
optimum moisture
• Types of Tests
Tests to determine optimum moisture content are
done in the laboratory.
• The most common is the Proctor Test, or Modified
Proctor Test.
• A particular soil needs to have an ideal (or optimum)
amount of moisture to achieve maximum density.
This is important not only for durability, but will save
money because less compaction effort is needed to
achieve the desired results.
 Rollers

• Rollers are available in several categories:

walk-behind and ride-on, which are available
as smooth drum, padded drum, and rubber-
tired models; and are further divided into
static and vibratory sub-categories.
 Walk-behind
Smooth A popular design for many
years, smooth-drum machines are
ideal for both soil and asphalt.
Dual steel drums are mounted on a
rigid frame and powered by
gasoline or diesel engines.
Steering is done by manually the
machine handle.
Frequency is around 4000 vpm and
amplitudes range from .018 to
.020.
Vibration is provided by eccentric
shafts placed in the drums or
mounted on the frame.
• Padded rollers are also known as trench rollers
due to their effective use in trenches and
excavations.
• These machines feature hydraulic or hydrostatic
steering and operation.
• Powered by diesel engines, trench rollers are built
to withstand the rigors of confined compaction.
• Trench rollers are either skid-steer or equipped
with articulated steering.
• Operation can be by manual or remote
control. Large eccentric units provide high
impact force and high amplitude (for rollers)
that are appropriate for cohesive soils. The
drum pads provide a kneading action on
soil. Use these machines for high
productivity.
 Ride-on
• Configured as static-wheel rollers, ride-ons are
used primarily for asphalt surface sealing and
finishing work in the larger (8 to 15 ton)
range. Small ride-on units are used for patch
jobs with thin lifts. The trend is toward
vibratory rollers. Tandem vibratory rollers are
usually found with drum widths of 30" up to
110", with the most common being 48".
• Suitable for soil, sub-base and asphalt
compaction, tandem rollers use the dynamic
force of eccentric vibrator assemblies for high
production work.
• single-drum machines feature a single vibrating
drum with pneumatic drive wheels.
• The drum is available as smooth for sub-base or
rock fill, or padded for soil compaction.
• Additionally, a ride-on version of the pad foot
trench roller is available for very high productivity
in confined areas, with either manual or remote
control operation.
• Rubber-tire
• These rollers are equipped with 7 to 11
pneumatic tires with the front and rear tires
overlapping.
• A static roller by nature, compaction force is
altered by the addition or removal of weight
added as ballast in the form of water or sand.
• Weight ranges vary from 10 to 35 tons.
• The compaction effort is pressure and
kneading, primarily with asphalt finish rolling.
• Tire pressures on some machines can be
decreased while rolling to adjust ground
contact pressure for different job conditions.