Fuels ( Syllabous)

• Fuels: Classification of fuels, their merits and demerits;

• Solid Fuels:- Origin of coal and its types, Properties, proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis; Storage and
reserves in India; Coal washing, Preparation and Blending methods; Application of Coal. Coke making by
behive and by-product ovens; Modern practices of coke making; Principles of graphitization and
reactivity; characterization of coal and coke; Selection of reductant / fuels to blast furnace, DRI, Corex,
Cupola and Pit Furnace
• Liquid and Gaseous Fuels:- Types and uses of Liquid and gaseous fuels; Flame characteristics; Burners for
Liquid, gas and pulverised coal; Synthesis and reformation of gas for direct reduction; Producer and water
gas;
• Refractoris:-
• Books:-
1) Wilson & Well: coal,coke & coal chemicals;
2. JD Gilkrist: Fuel,Furnaces and refractories;
3. RC Gupta: Fuel, Furnaces and Refractoris
4.RC Gupta, Theory and Laboratory Experiments in Ferrous Metallurgy.

Definition/Classification of Fuels
• The fuels are substances which by oxidation / combustion with air, give off energy in the form
of heat or light in quantities, utilizable efficiently and economically in industries and domestic
processes.
• The heat may be produced either by combustion or by nuclear fission & fusion.
• The heat generated by the combustion of fuel is utilized either directly , or is converted into
mechanical or electrical energy.
• Those fuels which produced heat by the combustion (compounds of C & H2) are termed as
simply Fuels , whereas, those which release heat by fission or fusion are called Nuclear Fuels.
Classification:
• Depending upon the State of Occurrence, these are classified as solid, liquid or gaseous fuels.
• Fuels in each general division are further classified as Primary and Secondary fuels.
• Primary fuels are those which occur in nature. Viz. Wood, Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas etc.
• Secondary fuels are those which are derived from primary fuel. eg. Fuel oil & Kerosene (derived
from petroleum), Coke oven gas (derived from coal) etc. It is further classified into
manufactured and by-product fuels.
• Manufactured Fuels are those which are made for some specific purpose, eg. Coke (made for
iron making in BF route); gasoline (made for internal combustion engine); Producer gas( made
for industrial heating) etc.
• By-product Fuels are those which are a co-product / side product( unavoidable product) of a
regular manufacturing process, eg. Bagasse, tar, refinery gas etc. By- product fuels help
industries in conserving primary fuels.
• Chemical Fuels are of an exotic nature and normally not used in conventional process. Examples
are Hydrazine( a rocket fuel) ; ammonium nitrate, fluorine etc.
• Nuclear Fuels which release heat by fission (Neutron bombardment) are Uranium, Plutonium
etc., and those generating heat by fusion are deuterium and tritium( both are isotopes of
Hydrogen). In both the situation, the mass is converted into energy.

The fuels used in practice can be broadly classified as Solid, Liquid and Gaseous.
 Table gives the classification of important fuels (excluding Chemical & Nuclear fuels)

State of Occurrence Primary Fuels Secondary Fuels

Manufactured By-Products

Solid
i. Renewable; *Wood *Wood Charcoal *Wood refuse(Saw Dust)
ii. Non- *Coal *Semi Coke *Begasse
Renewable -Anthracite(A) *Coke *Waste materials from Grains ( Rice husk)
(Fossil) -Bituminous(B1 to *Briquette of coal *Coke Breeze
B8) *Pulverized Coal *Char(DRI Kiln)
-Lignite(L)
*Peat

Liquid
i. Renewable; Oil seed & Sugarcane *Vegetable Oil *Paper Pulp Mill waste
ii. Non- Petroleum or *Alcohol *Tar, Pitch, Benzol ( Coal to Coke)
Renewable Crude oil *Petrol, *Diesel
(Fossil) *Kerosene

Gaseous
i. Renewable; H2 in water Hydrogen *Sewage Gas
ii. Non- Natural gas(NG) & Producer Gas, *Blast Furnace Gas
Renewable(F Liquefied petroleum Water gas, *Coke oven Gas
ossil) gases Coal gas, Oil Gas, *Oil refinery Gas
Reformed NG, *LD converter gas
Acetylene, LPG

Use of Fuels by Metallurgical Industries:

• The metallurgical Industries mainly deal with making, shaping and treating of metals.
• The fuels are required at every step in the metallurgical process.
• The metal making process uses different routes to extract metal from its ores. The Pyro-metallurgical
route depends mainly on some solid/gaseous fuels which are used as reductants and heat sources.
• The Hydrometallurgical /Electo-metallurgical methods also need liquid/gaseous fuel to melt and refine
the electro deposited metal from the leached liquor.
Thus, fuels are required for metal extraction from their ores.
• The extracted metals are given shape by processes like casting, forging, rolling, extrusion etc. These
processes are conducted at elevated temperature and fuels (Liquid/ gaseous) are required to raise the
temperature of metal to the required level.
• In case of electrical heating, the electricity is generated by thermal power plants, mainly using coal as a
fuel, though liquid and gaseous fuels are used by some plants.
• The suitably-shaped metals are given heat treatment to generate required micro-structural features in the
metal rendering suitable mechanical properties for use.
• This heat treatment process requires some fuel (liquid/ gaseous) to provide suitable temperature and
atmosphere.
• Thus, the fuel is needed at every steps in metallurgical process, and it becomes an essential raw material
for any metal industry.
 Fuels used by some common Metallurgical Units
Metallurgical Plants Solid Fuel Liquid Fuel Gaseous Fuel

Primary Secondary Secondary Primary Secondary

BF-BOF Coking coal, Met. Coke Diesel, --- BF Gas; Coke oven gas;
Non-coking coal Furnace Oil Producer gas

DRI(coal) –EAF Non-coking coal char Diesel, ---- Producer gas

Furnace Oil

DRI(gas)-EAF --- --- Diesel, Natural Gas ---

Furnace Oil

COREX-BOF Non-coking coal Coke Diesel, --- COREX gas; Producer

Furnace Oil gas

Cast iron cupola --- Coke Diesel, --- ----

Furnace Oil

Al industry Non-coking coal --- Diesel, --- Producer gas

for power Furnace Oil

Heat Treatment ----- ----- Diesel, --- Producer gas

Plant Furnace Oil

Rolling Units ---- ----- Diesel, ---- Producer gas

Furnace Oil

Merits and Limitations

The metallurgical industries use all the available form of fuels in view of their merits and limitations. Every type
of fuel has its own merits and limitations:
Solid fuels:
Advantages:- * Easily available in large quantities in nature ; * Comparatively, it is cheaper.
* It could be gasified to get advantage of solid and gaseous
fuels together,
* Ease of storage on ground with safety,
* Ease of transportation by road, rail and ship,
* Ease of use.
Demerits:- * The mineral matter in solid fuel creates problem of contamination and disposal(Environmental
issues);
* Handling is laborious; * Storage needs to much space;
* combustion condition cannot be controlled so easily.
Liquid Fuels:
Advantages:- * Fuel oil weighs approximately 30% less and occupies about 50% less space than coal processing an
equal heat content.
*Fuel oils are easily stored at a distance from the furnace, and tanks of irregular shape can be used. In case of
storage, oil is superior to gaseous fuel.
*Oils are easily handled through pipes and pumps. Ash is practically never present except sulphur.
*Combustion conditions are flexible and susceptible to rapid alterations, but the flames cannot be controlled so
readily as gas flames.
*Composition of oil does not change very much with mines, whereas coal composition changes from mine to mine.
Demerits:-
• The flame cannot be controlled so readily as compared to gas flame.
 • It requires special type of burners for combustion.
• In area where weather temperature is low, oil has to be heated for its proper flow in pipe lines (viscosity).
• Oils reserves are limited in the world, therefore, their supply is very uncertain.
• More expensive fuel,
• Needs extra safety during handling and storage to avoid fire hazard.
Gaseous Fuel:
Advantages:-
*They are easily handled and transmitted through gas pipes line.
* They are free from ash. * Combustion conditions are readily controlled, so that an uniform temp. may be
maintained under changing conditions of demand. The heat can be directed where it is wanted, and a minimum of
excess air is required. These factors aid in securing high furnace efficiency.
*The composition of the furnace atmosphere may be regulated to give oxidizing or reducing condition as desired.
*It is possible to liquefy in certain cases, eg. Natural gas(methane, ethane) such that it can be transported by
surface means over long distances(road,rail).
Demerits:
• Not evenly distributed on glove as natural gas.
• The gas holders and pipe line used are very big in diameter. In case of poor gas such as blast furnace or
producer gas, the gas holder volume is too big.
• It requires tight security measure due to high explosion risk during its storage and hanhling.
• Relatively costly than other fuels.

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Coal –as solid Fuels (Origin, Types, Constituents etc.)

It is a naturally occurring carbonaceous rock. It is a compact & stratified (layered) mass of plant matter, obtained
after:
• decay of which has been arrested at various stages of completeness;
• which has been changed in its chemical and physical properties as an result of geological action( ie. heat &
pressure);
The chemical changes involve:
*complex chemical reactions in compound making up , ie. plant structure to the coal
substance,
*with evaluation of moisture, CO2 & CH4.
The physical changes include:
*darkening in color of the mass,
*increases in hardness & compactness,
*Changes in fracture.

• Coal is a combustible mineral substance (rock) generally black or blackish in colour

• Coal is the main source of meeting industrial energy requirement
• It is still far ahead of its cleaner alternatives such as petroleum, natural gas, electrical and atomic energy
• Coal is called a fossil fuel as it is formed by fossilisation of wood and plant matter over millennia .
Origin of Coal.
• Coal is formed from ancient plant or woody matter initially by biological action, followed by physico-
chemical compaction over millions of years
• Most of the coal deposits were formed during, what is called, the Carboniferous Period ranging from
about 360 to 300 million years ago
• This period was highly conducive to growth of plants and trees of gigantic sizes and in large numbers
• The conditions of rainfall, river movement and shifting of earth's crust resulted in periodic destruction of
the rain forests, their submergence or carry over and accumulation of woody matter into large lakes and
their subsequent submergence by plate shifting
 The origin of coal is evident from examination of the different types of coal :-
• Peat :- It is not coal. It represents the initial stage of coal formation from plant material. It is subjected to
pressure and heat by geological action gets transformed to variety of coal.
• Lignite:- It is an intermediate stage in the formation of black to bituminous coal from peat. It is chocolate
brown in color and soft with fragments of plant structures perceptible on visual examination.
• Bituminous:- Bituminous coals under microscopic examination, reveals extensive cellular tissues and
other structure, such as seed bodies, spores and particles of resin. It is usual coal of commerce. It is
banded, made up of alternating bands of different thickness of shiny coal (bright), dull coal(hard) and
charcoal like material.
• Anthracite:- It is black and hard(2.75-3 Moh’s scale) but not coke, and shows the traces of vegital remains
with great difficulty under microscopic examination. It does not soil the fingers & difficult to ignite.
Each variety of coal is resultant of following factors:-
• Nature of the original vegetation from which the deposit was formed.
• The degree of decomposition or decay, and the condition of its deposit as peat.
• Subsequent geological history, involving the application of pressure and heat to the mass of peat(extent
of removal of volatile matter).
Thus, the whole period of coal formation can be easily divided into two steps or periods: ie.,
i) Formation of peat or Biochemical Period, and
ii) Coalification of peat or Dynamo chemical Period.
i) Formation of Peat:-
• Peat is not a coal. It is considered to represent the initial stage of coal formation from plant material
remains. The peat is subjected under pressure and heat by geological action gets transformed to variety of
coal depending upon the conditions:-
• There are two theories for the accumulation of the plant remains; ie. in situ or drift theory.
• According to in-situ theory , the coal seams were formed there itself. The growth of plant and their
subsequent death led to the accumulation of thick layers of debris in long period of time.
• Another drift theory says that material was transferred by water to a lake or statuary (river mouth) before
deposition.
• It is cleared that both methods could be operative at the same time. It has been estimated that from 15-20
meters of vegetable matter is necessary for the production of 3 meters of peat or 1 meter of thick bed of
coal.
ii) Coalification of Peat:- The geological studies reveal that conversion of peat to coal is due to pressures
engendered by overlying strata laid down on the layer of peat and by mountain building and earth disturbances.
• It is believed that heat and mineral matter accumulated in the vegetal deposits have also influenced the
process of coal formation.
• Changes in earth crust are common throughout the globe all the time. If due to such earth crust
movements, the area of peat bog slowly sank at a faster rate than the rate of deposition of peat.
• The wood swamp would be converted into lake and no further vegetation or peat formation process will
continue.
• In time, clay, sand and slit washed in from higher ground around the lake and the deposit of peat was
covered by a layer of earth.
• Accumulation of over burden gradually compacted the peat.
• The combined action of heat and pressure over a long period of time could bring changes in the deposit
of peat:
• The chemical changes involved loss of moisture and evaluation of CO2& methane. The O2 content of peat
were reduced gradually when it got transformed to higher and higher rank coal.
• The physical changes involved in improving hardness and compactness with more & more transformation
from peat to anthracite. This change was associated with darkening of color from brown lignite to black
anthracite.
• It is estimated that coal must have been subjected to temp. from 100 to 600°C & 1500 atm.
pressure. And time taken for chemical & physical changes may have 100 million of years.
Changes in composition of wood, peat & coal during coalification process:-
Genus Moisture in Raw Percent on dry , ash-free basis
state (%)
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Volatile Matter(900C)

Wood (typical 20 50 6 42.5 75

Composition)

Peat(-do-) 90 60 5.5 32.5 65

Lignite 40- 20 65- 75 About 5 16- 25 40- 50

Bituminous 10 75- 90 4.5- 5.5 5-20 18-40

Anthracite <5 92- 94 3- 4 <3 < 15

Type, Rank, class and grade of coal:-

The above words are commonly used to differentiate its nature which has specific meaning.
• Type of coal:- Type of coal means i.e. It is anthracite, bituminous or Lignite coal. Each has distinct
properties.
• Rank of coal:- The word rank denotes the degree of coalification the peat has undergone to yield coal.
The carbon content and calorific value of coal increase with rank, while the volatile matter is found to
decrease. The different coals with increasing rank can be shown as: lignite=>bituminous=>Anthracite.
• Class of coal:- The term class is retained for its actual use such as coking coal, steam raising coal, gas
making coal etc.
• Grade of coal:- The grade refers to the degree of purity of the coal. The coals with higher ash and
moisture content are referred as lower grade coals, while high grade coal, means coal with low ash and
moisture content.
Coal Constituents:-
The coal contains various constituents to render specific properties which cause its selection for various
applications.
These constituents could be grouped in three categories ,viz,
(a) Petrological Constituents,
(b) Elemental Constituents, and
(c) Constituents important for its use.
a) Petrological Constituents in coal:-
• The coal contains various constituents which can be identified under geological microscope. These
petrological constituents are known as macerals. These macerals differ significantly in their properties
present in various coal. These macerals are grouped as Vitrinite, exinite and inertinite. (Shown in Fig.-
Next)
b) Elemental Constituents in coal:-
• The major elements present in coal are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The minor elements include
nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. In addition, any known element could be present in trace quantity.
• This elemental analysis is done using different instrumental techniques. The results of the analysis is
reported as weight per cent of each element present in coal(either major or minor elements) and trace
elements in ppm ( toxic elements like Hg, As, Cd, Pb, Cr and radio active elements). Such elemental
analysis of coal is reported as ultimate analysis. The ultimate analysis of coal is useful in estimating air
requirements for its combustion.
c) Constituents Important for coal use:-
The coal contains moisture, incombustible inorganic matter and volatile constituents in addition to
carbon. These constituents affect the use of coal. The proximate analysis of coal deals with the
determination of following constituents by weight per cent:
I) Moisture; II) Volatile matter; III) Ash, and IV) Fixed carbon;
The knowledge of these constituents is useful in the selection of coal for a given purpose.

I) Moisture: The moisture (H2O) is present in every type of coal in varying amount (0.5wt.% to 20 wt.%). The
moisture present in the solid fuel is removed during use at the expense of its heating value. The moisture could be
present in, a) free (surface), b) adsorbed(inherent) or c) combined(chemical compound) state.

a) Free or surface moisture:- This kind of moisture is loosely present on the surface or in the pores of coal. This
moisture is derived from rain during storage, transportation and washing of coal. When water saturated coal is left
in air for sometime, the excess free water evaporates and the moisture content in the coal attains equilibrium
with the atmospheric humidity. The per cent weight loss of free water by air drying at room temperature is termed
as free or surface moisture.

Inherent Moisture:- The water molecules adsorbed on the external surface and internal open pore surface is
termed as inherent moisture. Its value would depend on porosity and atmospheric humidity.

• As the lower rank coals posses high porosity, therefore, the inherent moisture content would also be
more in lower rank coals compared to higher rank coals.
• The coal sample when heated to 110±5⁰C temp. for some time, then the absorbed (inherent) moisture
molecules are detached and get removed. This moisture in coal cannot be avoided. However, a lower
value would be appreciated.
Combined Moisture: Coal contains mineral matter which contains water molecules that are chemically attached.
Such chemically bonded water molecules do not evolve when the coal is heated at 110±5⁰C . This kind of moisture
can be removed only when the coal is heated at higher temperature. Such combined moisture forms the part of
volatile matter, and it is not determined separately.

• However, the presence of combined water in coal is not appreciated as it consumes some heat for its own
dissociation, rendering lower net calorific value of coal for use.
II) Volatile matter
• It is the part of coal which is evolved as volatile(gaseous) product when the coal is heated in the absence
of air.
• As the quantity of volatile product is dependent on temperature, time, surface area etc., therefore, a
specific procedure is adopted to make the result reproducible and comparable. The quantity of VM in coal
may range from 2wt% to 40wt%, while it is below 2wt% in coke and wood char.
The VM content plays an important role during its selection for a given application.
VM in coal, wt.% Type of Coal Application of coal

< 10 Anthracite Intense heat in coal bed for hand forging of steel

15-18 Non-caking bituminous Combustion

22-30 Caking Bituminous Coke making

27-40 Non-caking bituminous Steam Boiler/Gasification

45-55 Lignite Gasification/Distillation/ Lignite Briquette

III) Mineral matter and ash
• Coal contains various minerals which are uncombustible part of coal, called ash. It is common to state
that coal contains ash, but technically coal contains mineral matter and yield ash on combustion.
Chemically , mineral matter is different from ash.
• The coal may have following minerals in varying quantities in addition to oxides of sodium and potassium.
-Shale or silt(Hydrated silicates of aluminium); -Pyrite(FeS2); -Gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) ; -Lime Stone(CaCO3);
- Siderite(FeCO3) ; -Magnesite(MgCO3) ; -Apatite(Ca5(PO4)3(F ,Cl, OH);
Some of these minerals orginate from the vegetal mass from which the coal was formed. These minerals are
require by the tree for its growth. Such mineral matter is known as intrinsic mineral matter and is present in very
fine form in the matrix of coal which cannot be liberated or separated by coal cleaning methods.
• The bulk of the mineral matter present in coal is incorporated during peat formation stage and termed as
extrinsic mineral matter. These could be present in courser form which could be removed by coal
cleaning methods.
• When the coal is heated or burned, the minerals undergo changes depending upon temperature to yield
ash as given in table.
Constituents Present before and after combustion Composition range of ash

Mineral Matter Constituents (C) in ash Volatile C removed Ash Constituents Wt %

Constituents after combustion during combustion
Present in coal

Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O Al2O3. xSiO2 yH2O Silica(SiO2) 20-60

CaCO3 CaO CO2 Alumina(Al2O3) 10-35

MgCO3 MgO CO2 Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 5-35

FeCO3 Fe2O3 CO2 Calcium Oxide(CaO) 1-20

FeS2 Fe2O3 SO2 Magnesium Oxide(MgO) 0-5

Alkalies(Na2O+K2O) 0-4

Sulphur Trioxide(SO3) 0.1-10

IV) Fixed Carbon

• Fixed carbon content in the coal is considered to be useful for a given application, eg. Combustion,
reduction etc. There is no direct method for its determination.
• It is estimated as: Fixed carbon=100-[M+VM+A];
where, M, VM, and A are moisture, volatile matter and ash content in coal determined experimentally. This
fixed carbon value is not the total carbon in coal. A higher fixed carbon content in coal increases its commercial
value.
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Properties of Coal and its Testing

• The various properties of coal are tested to asses its nature which could be helpful in selecting it for a
given application.
• The following properties and test methods are described herewith.
a) Ultimate analysis of coal ; b) Proximate analysis of coal; c) Caking Property of coal and test method
d) Fusion Behavior of coal(Coal rheology or plasticity); e) Coal ash fusion behavior; f) Coal calorific value.
a) Ultimate analysis of coal
• In ultimate analysis of coal, the percent value of all elements are reported including major, minor and
trace constituents, depending upon its use.
• The major elements present in coal are Carbon, hydrogen, and Oxygen, while the minor elements include
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. In addition, any known element could be present in trace quantity.
i) The carbon and hydrogen are determined by burning the coal with oxygen under controlled condition and
measuring the product product CO2 and H2O by suitable absorption tube.
ii) Nitrogen in coal could be determined by Kjeldahl method. A small sample of coal is completely oxidised by
boiling with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium sulphate and a little mercury. After precipitating
mercury, sodium hydroxide is added in excess and the ammonia formed during the oxidation is distilled off and
determined by standard analytical method. The nitrogen in coal varies from 1-2 (wt.%).
iii) Sulphur in coal is determined by oxidising it to sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide. These are absorbed by an
alkali to form corresponding sulphite or sulphate, which is finally converted to barium sulphate. The weight of
clean and dried barium sulphate could be used to calculate sulphur in coal sample.
iv) Phosphorus is present as phosphate and organic phosphorus compound. The burning of coal yield all
phosphorus in ash and can be analyzed easily.
v) Oxygen in coal is obtained by adding all the contents including ash and then subtracting the total from 100.
ie., Oxygen(wt.%) = 100 – (Ash + C+ H+ N+ S+ P);
The value of ultimate analysis is useful in estimating the calorific value of coal using Dulong’s
formula:
Calorific Value (KJ/kg) = 337 C+ 1442 [H- (O/8)]+93 S;
Where , C, H, O, and S are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, Sulphur etc.

b) Proximate Analysis of Coal

The proximate analysis of coal concerns with the determination of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed
carbon contents.

• These values are needed for selecting coal for given applications.
• It gives the specific values determined under standard test procedures. The various test specifications are
given in following sections:
Sample Preparation:- Coal and Coke are bulk materials. The analysis of a given batch of shipment or production
has to be monitored on regular basis. The size of batch could range from a few tons to hundreds of tons.
• Collecting a representative sample for proximate analysis becomes very important to increase the validity
of the test. There are standard sampling procedures which are strictly followed during sample preparation
amounting 1 kg(-72 mesh, i.e. -200um).This sample is stored in a glass bottle with proper labelling.
• Specification for the Test:-
The proximate analysis would need only a few grams of coal. Basically, sample amounting 100g is taken and
stored in a glass bottle after air drying for 24 hrs. This sample is utilized for the following tests:
Moisture test: A glass dish(50mm dia. and 10mm deep) with lid is used to determine moisture content. One gram
air dried coal sample is taken in the glass dish with lid and weighed in a chemical balance. After weighing, the coal
is made to spread by gentle tap in the dish to nearly 0.3g/cm2 for uniform evaluation of moisture. The sample is
exposed to 110± 5 ⁰C temperature for one hour in a oven without lid on the dish. The sample is cooled after
heating by keeping it in desiccators with lid in position to avoid atmospheric moisture adsorption. After cooling, the
sample is weighed, keeping the lid in position. The loss in weight is accounted for inherent moisture content.
Volatile matter test:- The specially designed silica crucible with lid is used to determine volatile matter content
in coal/coke. The deep crucible with lid allows heating the sample in the absence of air. The volatile matter can exit
through loose lid but air is unable to infiltrate in.
 • One gram of sample is taken in the VM crucible and weighed with lid accurately in a chemical balance.
This VM crucible is then placed over a nichrome (80%Ni-20&Cr alloy) wire tripod to keep its bottom 5mm
above the floor inside the furnace.
• The crucible kept on tripod is heated in furnace at 925 ± 5 ⁰C for seven minutes. After that the crucible is
taken out, cooled in air with lid in position and then weighed to notice the loss in weight due to the
removal of volatile matter and inherent moisture.
• As the inherent moisture content can be known, the VM content can be estimated.
Ash determination:-
• Silica dish (50mmdia. and 10mmdeep) without lid is used for this purpose. One gram sample is taken and
weighed accurately in a chemical balance. The coal is spread over uniformly in the dish.
• This is then heated at 450 ⁰C for 30min in furnace to oxidize all the sulphur and part of carbon in coal.
Then crucible is transferred to another furnace at 800 ± 5 ⁰C to oxidize the sample for 60min. Samples
having low reactivity (e.g. graphite, petroleum coke, coke) may take time to complete the combustion.
• This two stage heating is done to remove all the sulphur and carbon without formation of CaSO4.
• If the coal is heated directly to high temperature, the sulphur may get fixed in ash as CaSO4 rendering
higher ash value.
• After ensuring the complete oxidation of carbon, the dish is cooled to weigh the residue ash.
Basis for reporting the results:-
The results of the test are reported based on the level of moisture in the sample like:
i) As received basis; ii)Air- dried basis; iii)Dry basis; iv)Dry ash free(DAF) basis, and
v)Dry mineral matter free basis or unit coal basis.
These different ways of reporting the test result are explained as follows:
i) As received basis:- The coal sample may have free moisture in as-received condition. This sample is weighed
and left in room spread in a tray for 48 hrs, to be weighed again. The weight percent lost is taken as free moisture
in as-received sample.
ii) Air-dried basis:- The air-dried sample is tested for moisture (M), volatile matter(VM),ash(A) and Fixed
Carbon(FC) and the results are reported as M%,VM%,A% and FC% without any subscript letter. The M% is
indicative of inherent moisture.
iii) Dry basis:- Utilizing the results reported under air dried basis, the VM, Ash and FC is calculated by excluding the
moisture content and reported by adding “dry” in subscript as:-
VM dry % = VM% / (100-M%) X100;
A dry % = A% / (100-M%) X100;
FC dry % = FC%/ (100-M%) X100;
iv) Dry ash free(daf) basis:- Sometimes coal analysis free from ash and moisture is needed. This is indicated by
adding “daf” in the subscript and calculate as:-
VMdaf % = VM% / [100-(M%+A%)] X 100;
FC daf % = FC% / [100-(M%+A%)] X 100;
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Storage and Applications of Coal
Storage of Coal:-
The storage of coal is common in plants producing steel, sponge iron, aluminium, power etc.
Aim of coal storage:- The coal storage is a necessity due to following reasons:-
i) To maintain a minimum inventory for uninterrupted production,
ii) To have surplus stock of coal to meet the unforeseen factors like closure of mining process, breakdown in the
means of transportation, weather problem etc.
iii)To blend coal from different source for meeting required specifications,
iv) Difficulties associated with import process from other nations with short notice.
Problems with coal storage:- coals cannot be stored in large quantities due to the following problems
associated with it:-
i) Storage of coal requires capital,
ii) It requires extra handling and land which add to cost,
iii) Prolonged coal storage causes it to deteriorate in quality due to slow oxidation ,
iv) In some cases, the open stored coal may catch fire by itself.
During storage coal is exposed to air, it is slowly oxidised. The temperature of the coal rises and oxidation is
accelerated. This results in a further temp rise and if the process is allowed to continue, ignition may occur in the
storage pile.
The increase in temp and the reaction with oxygen gradually impairs certain properties of coal.
(a) The heating value decreases;
(b) The coal tends to disintegrate; and
(c) Its coking quality is gradually reduced.
The spontaneous heating (oxidation) of coal depends on several factors:-
(a)Type of coal and its constituents:- All coals are not oxidised at the same rate. The rate of oxidation is usually
higher for coal with high content of natural or bed moisture, oxygen , VM or finally divided pyrites. The
characteristics rate of oxidation is generally low for high rank coals.
(b)Surface area available for oxidation:-Finer coals expose more surface to the air than lump coals and ,therefore,
might be expected to oxidise more rapidly.
The finer sizes, however, when stored alone, tends to form a fairly tight pile which packs well so that the air may
be largely excluded from the centre of the pile.
• A pile of lump coal contains a multitude of passage ways through which the air can penetrate readily. But
the surface exposed to the air is relatively small, and the heat is rapidly carried away by the air.
• The greatest danger of fire attends the storage of mixed fine and lump coal, such as run of mines. In such
a pile, there are passageways for circulating of air and the same time a large area of coal surface. Air tends
to enter a pile at the bottom and flow upward with chimney effect, particularly if heating occurs.
(c) The initial temp. of coal bed:- The rate of oxidation rises rapidly with increase in temp. Tests that at temp
between 30° and 100°C, the rate of oxidation of coal increases by a factor of about 2.2 for each 10°C rise in temp.
If coal is stored on a hot day, the entire mass will be at the increased temp, and the rate of oxidation will be
accelerated. When coal is already in storage, high atmospheric temp. are less important. Because, coal is black,
most of the heat rays from the Sun which impinge on the surface are absorbed but, because of low conductivity
of coal, the region of increased temp is confined largely to the outer layer. If coal is stored over steam lines, even
when they are covered or buried, small quantities of heat lost by conduction accumulate in the coal and speed up
oxidation.

(d) Moisture in the coal bed:- There is some evidence that alternate wetting and drying has increased the
tendency towards the oxidation of coals, but the effect of drying has not been definitely determined.

(e) External heat sources:-like steam pipe line, hot air duct or furnace.

Precautions required during storage:-

In view of the oxidizing nature of the coal, certain precautions are taken during storage. These are as follows:-
i) Separate coal bed for each source:- the coal obtained from different sources must be stored separately
with all details including piling date with its number.
ii) Utilize coal piled earlier:- The coal obtained earlier must be given priority in use. The date of pile is an
important date to be maintained.
iii) Coal bed size:- The coal bed height is kept low(<6 meters) to minimize air circulation in the bed. The bed
pile must be banked by running a roller on its top.
iv) Coal particle size in bed:- The mixed size coal must be avoided in the pile. The different size
coal must be piled separately.
v) Coal handling:- More handling causes coal breakage and generation of fines. Minimum
handling is better.
vi) Temp. during coal storage:- Coal piling may be preferably done in cool hours.
vii) Storage ground with drainage:- Coal storage ground should have water drainage to avoid
water logging. High ground with floored surface is ideal.
viii) Avoid water sprinkling:- The periodical water spraying must be avoided.
Ix) External source of heat:-The coal storage area must be kept away from external heat
sources like steam pipe line, furnaces etc.
x) Monitoring coal bed temperature:- the coal bed temperature must be monitored manually at
given interval. This is done by piercing a pointed steel rod deep in the pile and withdrawing it
after holding for sometime. The rod temp. could be felt by touching it. The feel by hand would
give the idea of temp. of the pile. The pile getting hot must be utilized on priority.

COAL UTILISATION / APPLICATION

CARBONISATION ==== COMBUSTION
*Metallurgical Coke ( steel plants ); * Power ( Domestic & Industries);
* Semi Coke ( Domestic cooking); * Process Heat ( Process & Instrumentation)
*Coal Tar ( Domestic & Industries); * Process Steam ( -do- )
*Flue gas (Domestic & Industries)
GASIFICATION  ==== HYDROGENATION
*Fuel gas (Domestic & Industries) *Chemicals ( Chemical Ind.)
*Methanol & Petrol (Transportn. & Chem.) *Synthetic oil(Petroleum Substitute)
*Synthetic oil (Petroleum Substitute) *Solvent refined coal(Met. Coke products)
*Fertiliser (Agriculture)
*Power (Domestic & Industries)
*Chemicals (Chemical & Ind.)
SPECIAL TREATMENT
*Active Carbon ( absorption gas); *Water treatment agent ( water purification);
*Pitch Enamel ( Pipe line coating); * Electrode Carbon (Met. Industries- EAF, Lining)
 Application of coal in metallurgical Plants
The various applications need coal of required quality. Property requires in coal by different industries.
1. Coke Making:- In view of very stringent chemical and physical properties needed by
blast furnace coke, the coal selected for the purpose must have following properties:
a) Good caking properties:
CNS : >6 ; MMR(%) : 1.3-1.4 ;
Reflectance Ro Av : 1.23 to 1.35% ;
Vitrinite(%) :>60 ; Fluidity : 300to 1000 ddpm.
b) Good grade:
Low ash : 8-10 wt% ; Low VM : 21-26 wt%;
Low S : <0.5 wt% ; Low alkalies : <0.2 wt% ;
2. Sponge Iron Making In Rotary Kiln:
The coal used in rotary kiln sponge iron units is assessed based on the following properties:-
a) Proximate analysis:
i) Ash :- Minimum as possible; Common-20-24%; Maximum 35% with many problem;
ii) VM:- 20-24 wt%; High% - the excess may be unutilized; Low % - it may not meet energy
demand.
b) Reactivity:
Use of less reactive reductant (coke breeze, anthracite coal) helps to operate kiln at higher(~1100⁰C) temp, but the
highly reactive carbon(lignite, char and high volatile coal) provides high productivity due to more working days as
ring formation is minimized.
c) Ash Softening Temperature:
Minimum-1050⁰ C(Ash softening temp more than 80-100⁰C than operating temp would avoid ring formation).
d) Sulphur Content:
Non-caking coal with swelling nature needed :- Caking Index: <5, & CSN: <3.
e) Grain Size:
For co-current feeding: -15+6mm; For counter current feeding: -10+6mm;

3. Smelting Reduction(SR) Process(COREX)

• COREX technology for hot iron production (liquid) requires non-coking and oxygen to generate heat and
reducing gas.
• In case the high ash and high volatile coal is used, then coal consumption is increased by 3.5% for every
1% VM content and 10-15 kg extra coal for 1% added ash content. The desired and tolerable coal analysis
for use in COREX process is given in following Table.
Proximate Analysis Desirable Tolerable
(wt% Dry Basis)

Moisture 5-10 10-15

VM 20-30 15-36

Ash 5-12 10-25

Sulphur 0.4-0.6 0.5-1.5

Size (mm) 5-40 50 % +10mm

Use of Coke for Various Applications

The blast furnaces are the major user of best quality coke. The coke used by other units can be of lower grade. The
properties of coke needed by different users are described herewith:
1. Blast Furnace:- Coke is a very important feed material for the blast furnace. It serves as fuel, refractory and
reducing agent. The larger mean size 50-40 mm fraction is fed to the blast furnace. During feeding, it is subjected
to number of drops causing impact. It is subjected to compressive force during storage in bin and within the
furnace. This compressive force increases as the coke descends down in the blast furnace stack with increase in
working temperature. The coke has to sustain stress at high temp. retaining its shape and size till it reaches the
tuyere line where it reacts with air to generate heat and reducing gas.
Such strength in coke is derived from the cellular structure of coke. The more cell wall thickness and higher
degree of graphitization would render better coke strength.
• The coke strength at room temp is assessed by testing shatter and tumbler strength.
• The behavior of coke at high temp is assessed by testing coke reactivity index (CRI) and coke strength
after reaction(CSR) with CO2. It is found that coke with low CRI(~20%) possesses high CSR(~80%) value. A
value of 28% CRI is considered good for blast furnace use offering ~60% CSR. The coke with high CRI
percent is not desirable because the coke may loose strength due to its rapid reaction with CO2 and
thinning of cell wall to an extent that it may fail much before reaching to tuyere zone where it is needed.
The typical blast furnace coke properties are:
2. Cupola:
The coke used in cupola for melting pig iron is also required to possess good strength and low reactivity. However,
due to less furnace height, the strength after reaction(CSR) is not so important. The properties of a typical cupola
coke are as follow:
Proximate analysis (wt %) Physical Properties

VM 1.2 True Sp. gravity 1.8

FC 79 Porosity 45%

Ash 19 Shatter Index 83%

Sulphur 0.5 Tumbler Index 62%

Ash Softening Temp. 1410⁰C

3. Water Gas:
High temperature coke is needed for preparing water gas(CO+H2) by passing steam through a hot bed of coke.
The important property desired by coke is its high reactivity. The low coke strength(CSR %) for high CRI(%)(more
than 30) is not harmful as the coke bed remains static and bed height is also less. The high ash in coke is also not
harmful as it is discarded at the end. The VM in coke must be less than 7% as it will need gas cleaning to use the
product gas.

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