Chromosomes - 3.

● asexual reproduction = 1 chromosome, sexul reproduction = pair of chromosomes

● Plasmids: loops of DNA in bacteria not connected to bacterial chromosome (replicated
independently)
○ Not required, but helps the bacteria adapt to unusual circumstances
○ Used in genetic engineering
○ Eukaryotes don’t have plasmid so can’t be GM with plasmids
● During reproduction, DNA and histones form chromatin which forms chromosomes
● Nucleosome: 2 molecules composed of 4 different histones (+ charge) that DNA (- charge) wraps
around
○ Often a fifth type of histone attached to the linking sting of DNA in nucleosome
■ Causes further wapping to create a supercoiled chromosome.
● DNA wraps around histones, and then further wraps, becoming inaccessible to transcription
proteins
○ Allows only certain areas to be involved in protein synthesis

* It is rare for eukaryotes to have one chromosome (male bees, wasps, and ants are exceptions)
** archaeans share the same properties as prokaryotes, but they have histones
● Homologous chromosome: similar chromosomes that carry the same gene
○ 46 human chromosomes group into 23 homologous chromosomes
■ Exceptional cases result in more or less
○ Don’t necessarily carry the same allele
○ One from each parent
● 2 chromatin separate = 2 chromosomes, but 1 chromosome when connected at the centromere
● Diploid: nucleus with chromosomes organized into pairs of homologous chromosomes
○ 23 from mom + 23 from dad = 46
○ Most cells in human body
● Haploids: nucleus with 23 chromosomes (non homologous pairs)
○ Gametes: sex cells
○ Animal cells are rarely haploid except male bees, wasps, and ants
● Caenorhabditis elegans​: worm with sequenced genes (chromosome number: diploid = 6, haploid =
3)
● Some cells don’t have chromosomes (ex: red blood cells), but most do
*single chromatid in chromosomes most of the time, but a two sister chromatids in chromosomes when cell
is getting ready to divide*

Karyograms
● karyogram: representation of chromosomes found in cells (placed according to size)
○ Shape depends on the position of centromere
● Karyograms show someone’s karyotype (specific number and appearance of chromosomes in cells)

1. Cells collected and grown in culture

2. Cells stained and prepared on glass slide (so see cells under
microscope)
3. Photomicrograph images obtained during mitotic metaphase
4. Images cut and separated
5. Images ordered by size and centromere position (except X, Y
chromosomes)

Sex chromosomes
● 23rd chromosmes are sex chromsomes
● Women (X,X) gamete each contain 1 X chromosome, men (X,Y) gamete contain X or Y
● Autosome: chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
○ Autosomal gene = locus on one of the 22 pairs of autosomes
○ Humans: 22 autosomes, 1 pair of sex chromosomes
● Gene that determines if a trait that is more common in females/males is probably sex-linked

Autoradiography
 ● Autoradiography: techniques that captures radiation from a substance on photographic film/camera
sensor
● Autoradiograms are exposed to particles given off by substance itself
● Can be used in genetic work to obtain images of DNA to determine lengths
● Cairn’s technique: injecting radio markers into DNA samples to expose film faster
○ Using in 1962 to demonstrate bacterial chromosomes are single circle replicated by unzipping
■ Photos took the thera structures

○ radio markers: radioactive material

○ Thymidine: radioactive form of a pentose sugar + thymine (given to DNA during replication)
■ 3​H-thymidine: radioactive thymine added in experiment
● 3​H is radioactive H. Leaves trace on photographic film = trackable

3 things scientists look at when reading chromosomes

- Size
- Banding pattern: size and location of Giemsa bands make each chromosome unique
- Centromere: Centromeres are a constriction. They have a role in the separation of chromosomes into
daughter cells during cell division (mitosis and meiosis).

- Centromeres are attachments points for microtubules and enable effective cell reproduction

3 ways to group centromeres

- metacentric (met-uh-CEN-trick) chromosomes​: the centromere lies near the center of the
chromosome.
- Submetacentric (SUB-met-uh-CEN-trick) chromosomes​: have a centromere that is off-center, so
that one chromosome arm is longer than the other. The short arm is designated "p" (for petite), and
the long arm is designated "q" (because it follows the letter "p").
- acrocentric (ACK-ro-CEN-trick) chromosomes​: centromere is near one end.
Down Syndrome Turner’s Syndrome Klinefelter Syndrome

- Having 3 copies of - Random genetic - 2 X and 1 Y

chromosome 21 disorder that only chromosomes
- 1 in every 691 babies affects females - 1 in every 500 males but
has down syndrome - Short stature and many don’t have
infertility symptoms