Mechanics

-study of motion.
- motion is a fundamental idea in all of science.
- divided into 2 areas
a. kinematics- dealing with describing motions
b. dynamics- dealing with the causes of motion.

Kinematics
1. What is One-Dimensional Motion?
-motions along a straight line.

 a car moving on a straight road

 a person walking down a hallway
 a sprinter running on a straight race course
 dropping a pencil
 throwing a ball straight up
 a glider moving on an air track

*Two-dimensional motion - there are at least two reasons for restricting our current
study to one-dimensional motions:

2. Measuring Distance
-unit of distance is the meter
- smaller distances in (centimeters or millimeters)
-larger distances in kilometers

*Indicating an Object's Position

For motion in one dimension, it is usually most convenient to indicate position by
choosing a convenient zero position, marking one direction from zero as positive positions,
and the other direction as negative positions - number-line style.

3. Speed

 Average Speed
-rate at which it covers distance
-Average speed is a rate.
-In kinematics rate is always a quantity divided by the time taken to get that
quantity (the elapsed time). Since average speed is the rate position changes, average
speed = distance traveled/time taken. (AS= d/t)
 Example:

A car travels between 2 towns 60 miles apart in 2 hours. What is its average speed?
Answer:
average speed = distance/time Therefore, the average speed of the car is
60 miles/2 hours = 30 miles/hour.

Example:

If a person can walk with an average speed of 2 meters/second, how far will they walk
in 4 minutes?
Answer:
There are 60 seconds in 1 minute, so there are 4 (60 seconds) = 240 seconds in
4 minutes. Also, if average speed = distance/time, then distance = (average
speed)(time). Therefore, the distance the person moves is (2 m/s)(240 s) = 480 meters.

D= AS x t T= 4x60= 240
= (2)(240)
= 480m

 Speed Units
-Common units of speed are
 meters/second (abbreviated m/s)
 centimeters/second (cm/s)
 kilometers/hour (km/hr)
 miles/hour (mi/hr - try to avoid the common abbreviation mph)

Example:

Which of the following could be a speed measurement?

1. 2.5 meters
2. 2.5 seconds/meter
3. 2.5 meters/second
4. 2.5 meters/second/second

 Which Distance?

Farmer Jones drives 6 miles down a straight road. She turns

around and drives 4 miles back. What was her average speed
for this trip if it took 1 hour?
 Your answer to this problem depends on your interpretation of "distance
traveled". You could say:

 The total distance traveled by Farmer Jones is 10 miles. Therefore, her

average speed is 10 mi/hr.
 The net distance(also called displacement). traveled by Farmer Jones is 2
miles. Therefore, her average speed is 2 mi/hr.

 The Perils of Averaging Averages

Here is an interesting problem:

Susie has planned a trip to a city 60 miles away. She wishes to have an
average speed of 60 miles/hour for the trip. Due to a traffic jam, however, she
only has an average speed of 30 miles/hour for the first 30 miles. How fast
does she need to go for the remaining 30 miles so that her average speed is 60
miles/hour for the whole trip?

Most likely you thought "Oh, 90 miles/hour - since the average of 30 and
90 is 60! Boy, this is easy!"

Unfortunately, however, the answer is not 90 miles/hour. Here's why:

You know that average velocity = distance/time (v = d/t). In order to have an
average speed of 60 miles/hour over a distance of 60 miles, you must complete
the trip in 1 hour:

But Susie has already taken an hour (it takes 1 hour to go 30 miles with
an average speed of 30 miles/hour) - and she is only half way! It
is impossible for her to complete the trip with an average speed of 60
miles/hour! She would have to go infinitely fast!

Notice that it would take 1/3 of an hour to cover the last 30 miles
at 90 miles/hour. The total time for her trip would be 1.33 hours, and her
average speed would be:

Try this calculation for any speed for the second half of the trip - the average speed for the whole
trip cannot ever be 60 miles/hour! The moral of the story: Don't average averages!
 Relative Velocities (AP)

Suppose that Curly challenges Moe and Larry to a race. Their starting positions are shown in the
diagram below.

One second later their positions are:

Notice that Curly didn't actually start, and Moe carries his measuring stick along with him.

Now, Curly notes that Larry started at position xo = 0 m and one second later he was at position x =
6 m, so Curly measures Larry's velocity as 6 m/s. Let's write that as vLC = 6 m/s - meaning
"velocity of Larry measured by Curly is 6 m/s."

Curly also notes that Moe started at position xo = 0 m and one second later he was at position x = 4
m, so Curly measures Moe's velocity as 4 m/s. Let's write that as vMC = 4 m/s - meaning "velocity
of Moe measured by Curly is 4 m/s."
Moe sees that Larry started at position xo = 0 m and one second later he was at position x = 2 m (on
Moe's measuring scale, of course), so Moe measures Larry's velocity as 2 m/s. Let's write that as
vLM = 2 m/s - meaning "velocity of Larry measured by Moe is 2 m/s."

Curly and Moe measure different velocities for Larry. Sure, velocities are relative. But how do
these velocities fit together? Well,

vLC = vLM + vMC

This is often called Galilean or classical relativity. When you think about it, it makes perfect sense.
The only problem with it is that it doesn't always work.

Relativistic Velocities

The Galilean relativity equation works just fine for "normal" velocities, like running Stooges or
even jet planes, but not so well when velocities approach the speed of light. Suppose that Curly
measures Moe's velocity as eight-tenths of the speed of light (vMC = 0.8c), and Moe measures
Larry's velocity as eight-tenths of the speed of light (vLM = 0.8c). Using the classical relativity
equation above, you get:

vLC = vLM + vMC = 0.8c + 0.8c = 1.6c (!!??)

In other words, this predicts that Curly will measure Larry's velocity as 1.6 times the speed of light,
which is forbidden by Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, which says, among other things, that
the speed of light is the ultimate speed limit in the Universe. In Special Relativity the classical
equation is modified to be:

Using Special Relativity, we get:

In other words, Curly would measure Larry's velocity as 98% of the speed of light. Can this be
correct? Yes, it can. For one thing, it has been very well-confirmed by experiment - not with
Stooges, but with sub-atomic particles!
Velocity
-the kinematics concept that describes an objects speed and its direction.

Average Velocity

The average velocity of an object is its average speed and its direction.

Instantaneous Velocity

The instantaneous velocity of an object is its instantaneous speed and its current direction.

Note that when a physicist says "velocity", she is referring to instantaneous velocity - if you are
talking about average velocity, you have to say "average velocity".

Specifying the Direction of a Velocity

- its speed and direction.

-There are several common methods for specifying 2-dimensional velocities; compass directions
(0o is north, 90o is east, 180o is south, 270o is west), the "degrees from direction" method (30o east
of north, for instance

For one-dimensional motion, the job is simpler. Velocities in the positive direction are positive.
Velocities in the negative direction are negative.

Don't jump to conclusions here. The diagram above does not mean that velocities to the left are
always negative!

Changes in Velocity

It is important that you be able to recognize when the velocity of an object is changing. Since
velocity is speed and direction, the velocity of an object changes if:

1. it speeds up.
2. it slows down.
3. it changes direction.
Note that the velocity of an object can change, even if its speed remains constant. For instance,
when a car is going around a curve (like an entrance ramp on an interstate), it is accelerating - even
if the speed of the car stays the same. Velocity changes when either speed or direction changes.

What Acceleration Is:

Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes. In other words, knowing the acceleration of an
object tells you how fast the velocity of the object is changing.

Since velocity is the rate at which position changes, and acceleration is the rate at which velocity
changes, acceleration is a "rate of a rate".

When Acceleration Happens:

-is defined in terms of a change in velocity - not speed. Since acceleration is the rate velocity
changes,

You are accelerating whenever you:

 speed up - This is not difficult to grasp, since it is the common conception of acceleration.

 slow down - People commonly call this deceleration, as if it were physically different from
the "speeding up" case - but to a physicist, it's all the same - if your velocity is changing, you
are accelerating.

 change direction - This one can be tough to grasp. Since velocity is your speed and
direction, your velocity changes if your direction changes (even if your speed stays the
same). Since you are accelerating if your velocity is changing,you are accelerating when
you are changing direction - even if your speed stays the same. Most people link
acceleration with a change in speed (and increasing speed), so they think "OK, on a test I'm
supposed to say that an object accelerates if it changes direction, but this is really some
"fakey" kind of acceleration as opposed to the "real" speeding-up acceleration" Nope. This
acceleration is just as real as the "speeding up" (and "slowing down") kind of acceleration.

What Acceleration Isn't:

Since acceleration is linked to changes in velocity - when your velocity is changing, you are
accelerating, students often get the misconception that "acceleration is a change in
velocity". NO!! Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity changes - there's an important
difference!

To say that "acceleration is a change in velocity" is like saying "velocity is a change in position"
(This does sound silly, doesn't it?). Velocity tells you how fast position is changing. Acceleration
tells you how fast velocity is changing.

Acceleration is not a change in velocity!

Calculating Accelerations:

Suppose a sprinter's velocity changes from 0 m/s to 10 m/s in 2 seconds at the start of a race. What
is her acceleration?

Notice the odd units of acceleration - a distance (length) divided by 2 times. One time unit comes
from the velocity in the numerator of the fraction, and the other comes from the denominator.
Quantities like 4 mi/hr/sec are accelerations (4 mi/hr/sec means that the velocity changes by 4 mi/hr
each second.).

Working With Accelerations:

Example:

A car starts from rest and accelerates at 2 m/s/s for 5 seconds. How fast will it be going?

Solution:

The statement "car starts from rest" means that the car's starting velocity is 0 m/s. An acceleration
of 2 m/s/s means that the car's velocity changes by 2 m/s each second. If the car's velocity starts at 0
m/s and changes by 2 m/s in the first second, it will be going 2 m/s after 1 second has elapsed.
During the second second (?!), its velocity increases by 2 m/s - from 2 m/s to 4 m/s. Its velocity
will be 6 m/s after 3 seconds, 8 m/s after 4 seconds, and 10 m/s after 5 seconds.

Alternatively, there is a more-algebraic approach if you prefer. If then ,

so . If the velocity starts at 0 m/s and changes by 10 m/s, it ends at 10 m/s.

Specifying the Direction of an Acceleration:

Like velocity, accelerations in one-dimensional motions are positive if they act in the positive
direction, and negative if they act in the negative direction. Determining the direction is a little
more abstract for accelerations than velocities, however - at least until you get used to it.
There are 3 things to remember:

 The acceleration of an object is its change in velocity divided by the time.

 If an object is moving in the positive direction, its velocity is positive. If it is moving in the
negative direction, its velocity is negative.
 Change in velocity is the ending velocity minus the starting velocity.

Example:

A car's velocity changes from +2 m/s to +10 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its acceleration?

Solution:

The car's change in velocity = ending velocity - starting velocity = 10 m/s - 2 m/s = 8 m/s. Its
acceleration = its change in velocity divided by the time taken = (8 m/s)/(4 s) = 2 m/s/s.

Example:

A car's velocity changes from +10 m/s to +2 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its acceleration?

Solution:

The car's change in velocity = ending velocity - starting velocity = 2 m/s - 10 m/s = -8 m/s. Its
acceleration = its change in velocity divided by the time taken = (-8 m/s)/(4 s) = -2 m/s/s.

Example:

A car's velocity changes from -2 m/s to -10 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its acceleration?

Solution:

The car's change in velocity = ending velocity - starting velocity = -10 m/s - (-2 m/s) = -10 m/s + 2
m/s = -8 m/s. Its acceleration = its change in velocity divided by the time taken = (-8 m/s)/(4 s) = -2
m/s/s.

Example:

A car's velocity changes from -10 m/s to -2 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its acceleration?
Solution:

The car's change in velocity = ending velocity - starting velocity = -2 m/s - (-10 m/s) = -2 m/s + 10
m/s = 8 m/s. Its acceleration = its change in velocity divided by the time taken = (8 m/s)/(4 s) = 2
m/s/s.

From these examples, notice that you just follow the (simple) rules - particularly remembering that
the change in velocity is the ending velocity minus the starting velocity - NOT the big number
minus the little number!

Calculating Accelerations When Only the Direction Changes:

In the examples above, you saw that it is pretty straightforward to calculate the acceleration of an
object when its speed changes using algebra. An object also accelerates when its direction changes,
but "normal" algebra is insufficient to calculate the acceleration in this case - you need to use vector
algebra, and we will not bother with calculating these accelerations in this course.