UNIT-I

PART-A

1) Define latent heat of fusion. NOV-2014, NOV-2015

Heat energy required to change unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid
state at its melting point without change in its temperature is called its latent heat of
fusion.
2) Write short notes on cooling tower. NOV-2014,NOV-2015, NOV-2016
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to
the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling
towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the
working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry
cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air
temperature.
3) Brief the condensate cycle. MAY-2016

The air contains moisture. The temperature of the air determines how much moisture
it can hold, and warm air contains more moisture than cold air.

When warm, moist air comes into contact with either a surface or air that is colder
than it is, the warm air is unable to retain the same amount of moisture as it did and the
water is released either into the cold air or onto the colder surface, causing condensation
to form, quickly followed by mould.

 Control humidity
 Provide ventilation
 Add insulation
4) Explain the term air handling units. MAY-2016

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used
to regulate and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system.[1] An air handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower,
heating or cooling elements, filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators,
and dampers.[2] Air handlers usually connect to a ductwork ventilation systemthat
distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the AHU.
 Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly to and from the
space served without ductwork.

5) Describe air cycle. NOV-2016

An air cycle machine (ACM) is the refrigeration unit of the environmental control
system (ECS) used in pressurized gas turbine-powered aircraft. Normally an aircraft
has two or three of these ACM. Each ACM and its components are often referred as
an air conditioning pack. The air cycle cooling process uses air instead of a phase
changing material such as Freon in the gas cycle. No condensation or evaporation of a
refrigerant is involved, and the cooled air output from the process is used directly for
cabin ventilation or for cooling electronic equipment.
6) State the role of cooling towers in air conditioning. MAY-2015
Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and
cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed
circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-
bulb air temperature.
7) Define maximum travel distance. MAY-2015
Travel Distance is measured from the most remote, occupied point on a floor plan to
the entrance to an EXIT (ie: exit stair door) along a natural and unobstructed path of
travel. How much this distance is allowed to be depends on the OCCUPANCY type
and whether or not the building is sprinklered. Maximum allowed travel distances

8) What is saturation temperature? MAY-2014

As an air conditioning service technician, one tool that you should be using all of the
time is a Pressure-Temperature or P-T chart/card. This tool is free, but very few service
 technicians take advantage of it, or even understand how to use it. Understanding and
using a P-T helps you properly diagnose refrigerant problems.
A P-T card’ s information is only valid when there is a mixture of refrigeration liquid
and vapor pressure present, otherwise the temperature relationship as shown by a P-T
card cannot be used. Since this is the case, there are only three places in the
properly operating refrigeration or air conditioning system where the P-T
relationship can be assured. The three places are, the evaporator, the condenser, and the
receiver (if the system has one). These three places are where a mixture of refrigerant
liquid and vapor are known to exist. When refrigerant liquid and vapor exist together,
the refrigerant is known as “saturated”.
9) Write short note on thermodynamics. MAY-2014
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their
relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four
laws of thermodynamics, irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the
material or system in question. The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms
of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a
wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical
chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering.
10) Explain the basic refrigeration principle. MAY-2017
This is another basic principle of refrigeration. The evaporator transfers heat into
the refrigerant; therefrigerant transfers this heat to the condenser; the condenser
transfers the heat to a cooling medium (such as water or outside air). Conduction is the
flow of heat through a substance by contact of particles
11) Describe the significance of vapour compression cycle. MAY-2017
Vapor-compression refrigeration. Vapor-compression refrigeration or vapor-
compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase
changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for
air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles.
 PART-B
1) Explain in detail about the firefighting support systems & egress design. NOV-2014,
MAY-2015
Atrium Buildings:
 Need special attention with regard to design, fire protection and smoke control.
Fire protections in such buildings are usually provided by combination of
methods like compartmentation, ventilation, automatic suppression and smoke
control. Products of combustion from a fire get diluted with air in large volume
atria, and with proper ventilation their flow can be safety directed to the
outside.
 Where vision panels and fire windows are provided, it has to be remembered
that they may transmit heat by both conduction and radiation.
Special Structures and High-Rise Buildings:
 Special structures, including open structures, towers, underground and
windowless structures, high-rise buildings, multiplexes etc; pose special
problems with regard to fire and life safety requirements, and hence call for
special considerations in design, lay-out and construction aspects. Best results
are achieved by sound design and engineering judgement and common sense.
 Special attention needs to be given on component elements such as concealed
combustible spaces, remoteness of exits,enclosure, illumination and marking
of exits, controlled interior finishes, automatic suppression systems, smoke
control systems, fire detection and alarm systems, containment of hazardous
areas etc;
 These complex occupancies call for a well thought out fire engineering
approach to achieve a satisfactory standard of fire and life safety.
Fire Prevention/Fire Safety Measures in Health Care Facilities:
 Potential fire and explosion hazards associated with medical gas piping
systems shall be taken into account in the design,installation, testing, operation
and maintenance of these systems;
 All stipulated safety precautions should be observed in the storage and
handling of various types of gas cylinders which are usually found in such
occupancies;
 Similarly, all necessary precautions should be observed in the storage and
handling of bulk cryogenic liquid systems (generally liquid oxygen);
 Specific precautions are to be taken to protect oxygen cylinders, containers
and associated equipment from abnormal mechanical shock and heat;
 Full cylinders shall be stored/kept segregated from empty cylinders
 The floors of operation rooms, anaesthetising locations and such other
rooms/locations and contiguous areas where hazardous gases/vapours are
likely to be present should have conductive floors to equalise/dissipate
possible static charges.
 A resistance not exceeding 50 mega ohms is generally sufficient to prevent
accumulation of dangerous electrical charges. Personnel entering such
hazardous areas shall wear shoes having soles and heels of conductive rubber.
  As a general guidance, the under mentioned anaesthetic agents are considered
flammable during conditions of clinical use: Cyclopropane, Ethylene, Ethyl
Ether,Divinyl Ether, Ethyl Chloride etc;
 The following anaesthetic agents are considered non-flammable during
conditions of clinical use: Chloroform, Nitrous Oxide, Halothane,
Trichloroethylene,Methoxyfluorane, Enfluorane.
 Wherever clinical procedures are performed like operation rooms, delivery
rooms etc.,
 Special mechanical ventilation arrangements are required. It will be desirable
to maintain slight positive pressure in such areas to prevent infiltration of
contaminated air into such sensitive areas.
 While plastic containers are preferred to glass containers to avoid breakage
problems, care has to be exercised in the choice of plastic containers in their
compatibility with the liquid to be contained.
 The relevant pollution control rules regarding the safe disposal of hospital
wastes,which may contain various hazardous materials, have to be
scrupulously complied with(Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling)
Rules, 1998 refers).
2) Write in detail the application & advantages of central HVAC system. NOV-2014
HVAC system that has a stable supply air temperature and varies the airflow
rate with dampers and adjusting fan speeds to meet the temperature requirements:
Working of a Air conditioning system
It consists of dampers, air filter, cooling coil, spray type humidifier, heating coil
and a fan. Atmospheric air flows through the dampers. The quantity of air depends
upon the” load and the dampers control it. Air then passes through the Air filter. The
filter removes dirt, dust and other impurities. The air now passes over a cooling coil.
So when air is cooled below its dew point temperature, the water vapour is removed
from the air in the form of water droplets. The surface temperature of the cooling coil
has to be maintained below the dew-point temperature of the atmospheric air to
accomplish dehumidification. The quantity of water removed from air is collected in
the sump and is drained. The temperature of air leaving the cooling coil is lower than
the ambient temperature for comfort. During the dry weather the spray type humidifier
is used to increase the humidity of the conditioned air. During wet weather condition
 the relative humidity of the air is high, is controlled by the heating coil. For the comfort
condition required is DBT around23 degree c and relative humidity 60%. So the air is
to be cooled and humidified to the comfort condition. Now the conditioned air is
supplied to the conditioned space by a fan and ducts.
 WindowAirconditioningsystem
 SplitAirConditioner
 Evaporative Cooling
 Direct evaporative cooling (open circuit)
 Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit)
Advantages and disadvantages of evaporative cooling systems:
Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the evaporative
cooling systems offer the following advantages:
1. Lower equipment and installation costs
2. Substantially lower operating and power costs. Energy savings can be as high as 75%
3. Ease of fabrication and installation
4. Lower maintenance costs
5. Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved, hence, are
very good especially in 100 % outdoor air applications
6. Better air distribution in the conditioned space due to higher flow rates
7. The fans/blowers create positive pressures in the conditioned space, so that infiltration
of outside air is prevented
8. Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are used.
3) Explain the following with neat sketches: MAY-2016
a. Condensate cycle
b. Air cycle
c. Chilled water cycle
d. Cooling water cycle
Condensate cycle
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into
liquid water. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the
formation of clouds. These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the primary
route for water to return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle. Condensation is
the opposite of evaporation.
Air cycle

An air cycle machine (ACM) is the refrigeration unit of the environmental

control system (ECS) used in pressurized gas turbine-powered aircraft. Normally an
aircraft has two or three of these ACM. Each ACM and its components are often
referred as an air conditioning pack. The air cycle cooling process uses air instead of
a phase changing material such as Freon in the gas cycle.
No condensation or evaporation of a refrigerant is involved, and the cooled air output
from the process is used directly for cabin ventilation or for cooling electronic
equipment.

Chilled water cycle

Chilled water is a commodity often used to cool a building's air and equipment,
especially in situations where many individual rooms must be controlled separately,
such as a hotel. The chilled water can be supplied by a vendors, such as a public
utility or created at the location of the building that will use it, which has been the
norm.

Chilled water cooling is not very different from typical residential air
conditioning where water is pumped from the chiller to the air handler unit to cool the
air. Regardless of who provides it, the chilled water (between 4° and 7°C (39-44 °F))
is pumped through an air handler, which captures the heat from the air, then disperses
the air throughout the area to be cooled.

Cooling water cycle

An HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose
of ("reject") unwanted heat from a chiller. Water-cooled chillers are normally more
energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or
near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher dry-bulb
temperature, and thus have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness. In
areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use
one or more cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally,
industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers.

HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a water-cooled chiller or
water-cooled condenser. A ton of air-conditioning is defined as the removal of
 12,000 BTU/hour (3500 W). The equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually
rejects about 15,000 BTU/hour (4400 W) due to the additional waste heat-equivalent
of the energy needed to drive the chiller's compressor. This equivalent ton is defined
as the heat rejection in cooling 3 US gallons/minute (1,500 pound/hour) of water 10 °F
(6 °C), which amounts to 15,000 BTU/hour, assuming a chiller coefficient of
performance (COP) of 4.0.[10] This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio
(EER) of 14.

Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source heat
pumps that share a common piping water loop. In this type of system, the water
circulating inside the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat pumps
whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling mode, then the externally
mounted cooling tower is used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to
the atmosphere. By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the
condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be heated.
When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling
tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze
damage), and heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate boilers.

4) Briefly discuss about the importance & working of refrigerant control devices with
sketches. MAY-2016, MAY-2017
 Thermostatic Expansion Valve.—before discussing the thermostatic expansion valve,
let’s explain the term SUPERHEAT. A vapor gas is superheated when its temperature is higher
than the boiling point corresponding to its pressure. When the boiling point begins, both the
liquid and the vapor are at the same temperature. But in an evaporator, as the gas vapor move
along the coils toward the suction line, the gas may absorb additional heat and its temperature
rises. The difference in degrees between the saturation temperature and the increased
temperature of the gas is called superheat.
A thermostatic expansion valve (fig. 6-22) keeps a constant superheat in the refrigerant
vapor leaving the coil. The valve controls the liquid refrigerant, so the evaporator coils
maintain the correct amount of refrigerant at all times. The valve has a power element that is
activated by a remote bulb located at the end of the evaporator coils. The bulb senses the
superheat at the suction line and adjusts the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator. As the
superheat increases (suction line), the temperature, and therefore the pressure, in the remote
bulb also increases. This increased pressure, applied to the top of the diaphragm, forces it down
along with the pin, which, in turn, opens the valve, admitting replacement refrigerant from the
receiver to flow into the evaporator. This replacement has three effects. First, it provides
additional liquid refrigerant to absorb heat from the evaporator Second, it applies higher
pressure to the bottom of the diaphragm, forcing it upward, tending to close the valve. And
third, it reduces the degree of superheat by forcing more refrigerant through the suction line.
Low-Side Float Expansion Valve. — The low-side float expansion valve (fig. 6-23)
controls the liquid refrigerant flow where a flooded evaporator is used. It consists of a ball float
in either a chamber or the evaporator on the low-pressure side of the svstem. The float actuates
a needle valve through a lever mechanism. As the float lowers, refrigerant enters through the
open valve; when it rises, the valve closes.
5) Explain in detail about principle of thermodynamics. NOV-2016
System or Surroundings
In order to avoid confusion, scientists discuss thermodynamic values in reference to a
system and its surroundings. Everything that is not a part of the system constitutes its
surroundings. The system and surroundings are separated by a boundary. For example,
if the system is one mole of a gas in a container, then the boundary is simply the inner
wall of the container itself. Everything outside of the boundary is considered the
surroundings, which would include the container itself.
The boundary must be clearly defined, so one can clearly say whether a given part of
the world is in the system or in the surroundings. If matter is not able to pass across the
boundary, then the system is said to be closed; otherwise, it is open. A closed system
may still exchange energy with the surroundings unless the system is an isolated one,
in which case neither matter nor energy can pass across the boundary.

The four basic components of the vapour compression refrigeration system are thus:
1.Compressor:
The function of the compressor is to compress the input refrigerant of low pressure and
low temperature. As a result the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant
increases. Generally reciprocating compressors are used in refrigeration system. An
external motor is used to drive the compressor.
2.Condenser:
The condenser is a coil of tubes, which are made of copper. This issued to condense the
refrigerant which is in the form of vapor and convert into liquid.
3.ExpansionValve:
This is otherwise called throttle valve. This valve is used to control the flow rate of
refrigerant and also to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant.
4.Evaporator:
This is the part in which the cooling takes place. This is kept in the space where cooling
is required. It is a coil of tubes made up of copper.
Compressor:
The purpose of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant in the system under
pressure; this concentrates the heat it contains.

At the compressor, the low pressure gas is changed to high pressure gas.
  This pressure build up can only be accomplished by having a restriction in the high
pressure side of the system. This is a small valve located in the expansion valve.The
compressor has reed valves to control the entrance and exit of refrigerant gas during the
pumping operation. These must be firmly seated.
 An improperly seated intake reed valve can result in gas leaking back into the low side
during the compression stroke, raising the low side pressure and impairing the cooling
effect.
 A badly seated discharge reed valve can allow condensing or head pressure to drop as it
leaks past the valve, lowering the efficiency of the compressor. Two service valves are
located near the compressor as an aid in servicing the system.
 One services the high side, it is quickly identified by the smaller discharge hose routed
to the condenser.
 One is used for the low side, the low side comes from the evaporator, and is larger than
the discharge hose The compressor is normally belt-driven from the engine crankshaft.
Most manufacturers use a magnetic-type clutch which provides a means of stopping the
pumping of the compressor when refrigeration is not desired.
Condenser:
 The purpose of the condenser is to receive the high-pressure gas from the compressor
and convert this gas to a liquid.
 It does it by heat transfer, or the principle that heat will always move from a warmer to a
cooler substance.
 Air passing over the condenser coils carries off the heat and the gas condenses.
 The condenser often looks like an engine radiator. Condensers used on R-12 and R-134a
systems are not interchangeable. Refrigerant-134a has a different molecular structure and
requires a large capacity condenser. As the compressor subjects the gas to increased
pressure, the heat intensity of the refrigerant is actually concentrated into a smaller area,
thus raising the temperature of the refrigerant higher than the ambient temperature of the
air passing over the condenser coils. Clogged condenser fins will result in poor
condensing action and decreased efficiency. A factor often overlooked is flooding of the
condenser coils with refrigerant oil. Flooding results from adding too much oil to the
system. Oil flooding is indicated by poor condensing action, causing increased head
pressure and high pressure on the low side. This will always cause poor cooling from the
evaporator.
Expansion valve:
The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid refrigerant to allow expansion
or change of state from a liquid to a vapour in the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid
refrigerant entering the expansion valve is quite warm. This may be verified by feeling the
liquid line at its connection to the expansion valve. The liquid refrigerant leaving the
expansion valve is quite cold. The orifice within the valve does not remove heat, but only
reduces pressure. Heat molecules contained in the liquid refrigerant are thus allowed to
spread as the refrigerant moves out of the orifice. Under a greatly reduced pressure the
liquid refrigerant is at its coldest as it leaves the expansion valve and enters the evaporator.
Pressures at the inlet and outlet of the expansion valve will closely approximate gauge
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the compressor in most systems. The similarity of
pressures is caused by the closeness of the components to each other. The slight variation
in pressure readings of a very few pounds is due to resistance, causing a pressure drop in
the lines and coils of the evaporator and condenser.
Evaporator:
The evaporator works the opposite of the condenser; here refrigerant liquid is converted
to gas, absorbing heat from the air in the compartment. When the liquid refrigerant reaches
the evaporator its pressure has been reduced, dissipating its heat content and making it
much cooler than the fan air flowing around it. This causes the refrigerant to absorb heat
from the warm air and reach its low boiling point rapidly. The refrigerant then vaporizes,
absorbing the maximum amount of heat. This heat is then carried by the refrigerant from
the evaporator as a low-pressure gas through a hose or line to the low side of the
compressor, where the whole refrigeration cycle is repeated. The evaporator removes heat
from the area that is to be cooled. The desired temperature of cooling of the area will
determine if refrigeration or air conditioning is desired. For example, food preservation
generally requires low refrigeration temperatures, ranging from 40°F (4°C) to below 0°F
(-18°C). A higher temperature is required for human comfort. A larger area is cooled,
which requires that large volumes of air be passed through the evaporator coil for heat
exchange. A blower becomes a necessary part of the evaporator in the air conditioning
system. The blower fans must not only draw heat-laden air into the evaporator, but must
also force this air over the evaporator fins and coils where it surrenders its heat to the
refrigerant and then forces the cooled air out of the evaporator into the space being cooled.
6) Briefly discuss about the important & working of cooling towers, Air handling units. NOV-
2016, MAY-2014,MAY-2015, NOV-2015
Chilled water system:
The supply air, which is approximately 20° F cooler than the air in the
conditioned space,leaves the cooling coil through the supply air fan, down to the
ductwork and into the conditioned space. The cool supply air picks up heat in the
conditioned space and the warmer air makes its way into the return air duct back to the
air handling unit. The return air mixes with outside air in a mixing chamber and goes
through the filters and cooling coil. The mixed air gives up its heat into the chilled water
tubes in the cooling coil, which has fins attached to the tubes to facilitate heat transfer.
The cooled supply air leaves the cooling coil and the air cycle repeats.
The chilled water circulating through the cooling coil tubes, after picking up
heat from the mixed air, leaves the cooling coil and goes through the chilled water
return (CHWR) pipe to the chiller's evaporator. Here it gives up the heat into the
refrigeration system. The newly "chilled" water leaves the evaporator and is pumped
through the chilled water supply (CHWS) piping into the cooling coil continuously and
the water cycle repeats.
The evaporator is a heat exchanger that allows heat from the CHWR to flow by
conduction into the refrigerant tubes. The liquid refrigerant in the tubes "boils off" to a
vapor removing heat from the water and conveying the heat to the compressor and then
to the condenser. The heat from the condenser is conveyed to the cooling tower by the
condenser water. Finally, outside air is drawn across the cooling tower, removing the
heat from the water through the process of evaporation.
The main equipment used in the chilled water system is a chillers package that includes
1) A refrigeration compressor (reciprocating, scroll, screw or centrifugal type),
2) Shell and tube heat exchanger (evaporator) for chilled water production
3) Shell and tube heat exchanger (condenser) for heat rejection in water cooled
configuration (alternatively, air cooled condenser can be used, where water is scarce
or its use is prohibited)
4) A cooling tower to reject the heat of condenser water
5) An expansion valve between condenser and the evaporator
The chilled water system is also called central air conditioning system. This is
because the chilled water system can be networked to have multiple cooling coils
 distributed throughout a large or distributed buildings with the refrigeration
equipment (chillers) placed at one base central location.
7) Explain the working of electric motor. NOV-2015
Types of electric motor.

1. DC Motor.
2. Induction Motor.
3. Synchronous Motor.
All of these motors work in more or less same principle. Working of electric
motor mainly depends upon the interaction of magnetic field with current. Now we will
discuss the basic operating principle of electric motorone by one for better
understanding the subject.

Working of DC Motor
Working principle of DC Motor mainly depends upon Fleming Left Hand rule. In a
basic DC motor, an armature is placed in between magnetic poles. If the armature
winding is supplied by an external DC source, currentstarts flowing through the armature
conductors. As the conductors are carrying current inside a magnetic field, they will
experience a force which tends to rotate the armature. Suppose armature conductors
under N poles of the field magnet, are carrying current downwards (crosses) and those
under S poles are carrying current upwards (dots). By applying Fleming’s Left hand Rule,
the direction of force F, experienced by the conductor under N poles and the force
experienced by the conductors under S-poles can be determined. It is found that at any
instant the forces experienced by the conductors are in such a direction that they tend to
rotate the armature.
Again, due this rotation the conductors under N-poles come under S-pole and the
conductors under S-poles come under N-pole. While the conductors go form N-poles to
S-pole and S-poles to N-pole, the direction of current through them, is reversed by means
of commutator. Due to this reversal of current, all the conductors come under N-poles
carry current in downward direction and all the conductors come under S-poles carry
current in upward direction as shown in the figure. Hence, every conductor comes under
N-pole experiences force in same direction and same is true for the conductors come
under S-poles. This phenomenon helps to develop continuous and unidirectional torque.
 Working of Induction Motor
Working of electric motor in the case of induction motor is little bit different from DC
motor. In single phase induction motor, when a single phase supply is given to the stator
winding, a pulsating magnetic field is produced and in a three phase induction motor,
when three phase supply is given to three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field
is produced. The rotor of an induction motor is either wound type or squirrel cadge type.
Whatever may be the type of rotor, the conductors on it are shorted at end to form closed
loop. Due to rotating magnetic field, the flux passes through the air gap between rotor
and stator, sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductor. Hence according
to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there would be a induced current
circulating in the closed rotor conductors. The amount of induced current is proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time. Again this rate of change of
flux linkage is proportional to the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic
field. As per Lenz law the rotor will try to reduce the every cause of producing current in
it. Hence the rotor rotates and tries to achieve the speed of rotating magnetic field to
reduce the relative speed between rotor and rotating magnetic field.

Working of schronous Motoryn

In synchronous motor, when balanced three phase supply is given to the stationary three
phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced which rotates at synchronous
speed. Now if an electromagnet is placed inside this rotating magnetic field, it is
magnetically locked with the rotating magnetic field and the former rotates with the
rotating magnetic field at same speed that is at synchronous speed.

8) Explain about the vapour compression cycle with appropriate diagrams. MAY-2014

Vapor-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system

(VCRS),[1] in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the
many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of
buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators,
large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated
trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil
refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas
processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large
vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
 Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by
removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs
this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat
pump, geothermal heat pump or chiller (heat pump).

The vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and
removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure
1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four
components: a compressor, a condenser, a thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve
or metering device), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the
thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor[2] and is compressed to a higher pressure,
resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the
thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at
which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or
tubes. This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected
heat is carried away by either the water or the air (whichever may be the case).
 The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is
next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure.
That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid
refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the
temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the
temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.

The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan circulates the
warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and
vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the
same time, the circulating air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space
to the desired temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and
removes heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the
water or air used in the condenser.

To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a
saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.

9) Give an detail on principles & process involved in Air conditioning. MAY-2017

As with all air conditioning systems the principle remains the same whereby the heat is
removed from one area and replaced with chilled dry air and the hot air is expelled, normally
to the outside atmosphere. As you can see from this typical example of a air conditioning
system, the ambient air is drawn over the condensor that can best described as a ‘radiator’ as
seen on motor vehicles but instead of water running through the system it contains a refrigerant
gas.

On its journey around the system it has three main stages; the evaporator contains the sub-
cooled refrigerant and air blows through its veins to release the chilled dry air into the room,
the condenser contains the high temperature gas that once again air is blown through the veins
collecting the heat as it passes through and this is then expelled outside.

Basic Operations

An air conditioner is able to cool a building because it removes heat from the indoor air and
transfers it outdoors. A chemical refrigerant in the system absorbs the unwanted heat and
pumps it through a system of piping to the outside coil. The fan, located in the outside unit,
blows outside air over the hot coil, transferring heat from the refrigerant to the outdoor air.

Most air conditioning systems have five mechanical components:

 a compressor
 a condenser
 an evaporator coil
 blower
 a chemical refrigerant

Most central air conditioning units operate by means of a split system. That is, they consist of
a ‘hot’ side, or the condensing unit—including the condensing coil, the compressor and the
fan—wich is situated outside your home, and a ‘cold’ side that is located inside your home.

Air Conditioner Filters

The most important maintenance task that will ensure the efficiency of your air conditioner is
to routinely replace or clean its filters. Clogged, dirty filters block normal airflow and reduce a
system’s efficiency significantly. With normal airflow obstructed, air that bypasses the filter
may carry dirt directly into the evaporator coil and impair the coil’s heat-absorbing capacity.
Filters are located somewhere along the return duct’s length. Common filter locations are in
walls, ceilings, furnaces, or in the air conditioner itself.

Some types of filters are reusable; others must be replaced. They are available in a variety of
types and efficiencies. Clean or replace your air conditioning system’s filter or filters every
month or two during the cooling season. Filters may need more frequent attention if the air
conditioner is in constant use, is subjected to dusty conditions, or you have fur-bearing pets in
the house. If you use a disposable type filter, it’s always wise to keep several spares inside the
house.
 UNIT-II

PART-A

1. Write short notes on air conditioning system for small building. NOV-2014
Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A.C., or A/C) is the process of removing heat
from the interior of an occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Air
conditioning can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. This process
is most commonly used to achieve a more comfortable interior environment, typically
for humans or animals; however, air conditioning is also used to cool/dehumidify rooms
filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power
amplifiers, and even to display and store artwork.
2. What is meant by VAV? NOV-2014
Variable Air Volume (VAV) is a type of heating, ventilating, and/or air-conditioning
(HVAC) system. Unlike constant air volume (CAV) systems, which supply a constant
airflow at a variable temperature, VAV systems vary the airflow at a constant
temperature. The advantages of VAV systems over constant-volume systems include
more precise temperature control, reduced compressor wear, lower energy consumption
by system fans, less fan noise, and additional passive dehumidification
3. What is the concept of air distribution system? MAY-2016
Variable-volume systems provide ventilation and cooling, usually through a single-
duct system. If necessary, air is heated at the terminal unit. A variation on VAV design
is the underfloor air-distribution system. Low-pressure supply air moves from
the air handler (or supply-air shaft) into an underfloor air plenum.
4. Classify the window types in air conditioning system? MAY-2016
The air conditioner also vents to the outdoors to get rid of excess heat and moisture.
Unlike central air, window AC units cool specific spaces or rooms at a time.
Window unit air conditioners are installed in an open window. The interior air is cooled
as a fan blows it over the evaporator.

 Central Air Conditioning Plants

 Direct Expansion or DX Type of Central Air Conditioning Plant
 Chilled Water Type of Central Air Conditioning Plant
5. Classify the types of condenser used in chilled water system. NOV-2016
Direct contact type condensers
Surface condensers
6. Mention the two main criteria for designing an air conditioning system for large
buildings. NOV-2016
Designing air conditioning for different building applications and occupancies requires
a consideration of different design criteria, operating hours, and different system
characteristics. Specific design criteria usually dictate the type of air conditioning
system that should be selected. A good example is the design of an air conditioning
system for a class 10 clean room for fabrication of semiconductor wafer. In this case a
constant-volume central system is always the preferred option. When the clean room is
in operation, adequate clean air must be provided to maintain unidirectional flow to
prevent the contamination of semiconductor wafers by sub-micrometer-size
particulates. It should be noted that a constant-volume system with electric terminal
reheat is always preferable to a VAV system in places requiring high precision constant
temperature to be maintained in the conditioned space.
7. Brief about evaporative cooler. MAY-2014

An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device
that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from
typical air conditioning systems, which use vapor-
compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling works by
exploiting water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be
dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor
(evaporation). This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely
dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air
with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants.

The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet bulb depression,
the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature. In arid
climates, evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total equipment for
conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling. In climates not considered
arid, indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of the evaporative cooling
process without increasing humidity. Passive evaporative cooling strategies offer the
 same benefits of mechanical evaporative cooling systems without the complexity of
equipment and ductwork

8. What is the minimum size of a fan room. MAY-2014,NOV-2015

As the saying goes, one should buy small ceiling fans for small rooms and large ceiling
fans for large rooms. While this may sound like an ancient proverb, choosing the right
size ceiling fan ensures maximum performance, style, and above all – comfort. The
right size ceiling fan will do more than just keep you cool; it can also save you money.
Ceiling fans only cost pennies to run when compared to air conditioners, allowing you
to increase the temperature on your thermostat and save money on your monthly electric
bill. But, before you buy a fan, you need to know how to size a ceiling fan for your
room.
Establishing the proper ceiling fan size for your room secures the fan's performance and
longevity, as well as the comfort and safety of the room occupants. A small ceiling fan
in a large room will have to work twice as hard to cool you off, which will result in the
motor burning out quickly. A large ceiling fan in a small room will create an
uncomfortable amount of airflow. Unless you like replacing your ceiling fan every few
months or feeling as if you’re in a tornado, choose a ceiling fan that is proportionate to
the room size.

9. Define thermodynamics. MAY-2015

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their
relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four
laws of thermodynamics, irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the
material or system in question. The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms
of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a
wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical
chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering.
10. Brief about the relationship pressure & saturation temperature. MAY-2015

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid[1][2] and the liquid changes into a
vapor.

The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental
pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is
 at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when
that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For a given pressure, different liquids boil at
different temperatures. For example, water boils at 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level, but at
93.4 °C (200.1 °F) at 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) altitude.

11. Brief about evaporative cooler. NOV-2015

An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler) is a device
that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs from
typical air conditioning systems, which use vapor-
compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling works by
exploiting water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be
dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor
(evaporation). This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely
dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air
with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants.
12. Write notes on different types of air conditioning systems. MAY-2017
 Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps

 Room Air Conditioners

 Evaporative Coolers

 Ductless Mini-Split Air Conditioners

13. Write about the purpose of air-cooled & water-cooled condensers. MAY-2017
Types of Industrial Chillers:
A chiller is rated between one to 1000 tons of cooling energy. There are three
different types of chillers:(1) air, (2) water, and (3) evaporative condensed
chiller. There are four subcategories in each of the above categories for industrial
chillers: (1) reciprocating, (2) centrifugal, (3) screw driven (4) and absorption
chillers. The first three types are mechanical chillers which are powered by electric
motors, steam, or gas turbines. An absorption chiller is powered by a heat source
such as steam and uses no moving parts.
A reciprocating compressor is a compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft. It
is used for delivering a small amount of refrigerant at a very high
pressure. Reciprocating compressors may carry a dual voltage and range from three to
sixty horsepower. Reciprocating compressors are usually semi – hermetic compressors,
which simply means that they are serviceable.
 PART-B
1. Discuss various systems of chilled water air conditioning for large building in detail.
MAY-2016, MAY-2017

These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume systems with the only
difference that instead of maintaining constant flow rates to each zone, the mixing
boxes reduce the air flow rate as the load on the zone drops.
Outdoor air control in all air systems:
Outdoor air is required for ventilation purposes. In all air systems, a sub-system
controls the amount of outdoor air by controlling the position of exhaust, re-circulated
and outdoor air dampers. From mass balance, since the outdoor airflow rate should
normally be equal to the exhaust airflow rate (unless building pressurization or de-
pressurization is required), both the exhaust and outdoor air dampers open or close in
unison. Again from mass balance, when the outdoor air damper opens the re-circulated
air damper closes, and vice versa. The control system maintains a minimum amount
of outdoor air (about 10 to 20% of supply air flow rate
as required for ventilation) when the outdoor is too cold (≤−30oC) or too warm (≥
24oC). For energy conservation, the amount of outdoor air can be increased gradually
as the outdoor air temperature increases from −30oC to about 13oC. A 100 percent
outdoor air can be used when the outdoor air temperature is between 13oC to about
24oC. By this method it is possible to reduce the annual energy consumption of the
air conditioning system significantly, while maintaining the required conditions in the
conditioned space.
2. Describe the performance of VAV & VRV in air conditioning systems.MAY-2016,
MAY-2014
Variable air volume (VAV) – an HVAC system that has a stable supply air
temperature and varies the airflow rate with dampers and adjusting fan speeds to
meet the temperature requirements.
Working of a Air conditioning system
It consists of dampers, air filter, cooling coil, spray type humidifier, heating coil and
a fan. Atmospheric air flows through the dampers. The quantity of air depends upon
the” load and the dampers control it. Air then passes through the Air filter. The filter
removes dirt, dust and other impurities. The air now passes over a cooling coil. So
when air is cooled below its dew point temperature, the water vapour is removed from
the air in the form of water droplets. The surface temperature of the cooling coil has
to be maintained below the dew-point temperature of the atmospheric air to
accomplish dehumidification. The quantity of water removed from air is collected in
the sump and is drained. The temperature of air leaving the cooling coil is lower than
the ambient temperature for comfort. During the dry weather the spray type humidifier
is used to increase the humidity of the conditioned air. During wet weather condition
the relative humidity of the air is high, is controlled by the heating coil. For the comfort
condition required is DBT around23 degree c and relative humidity 60%. So the air is
to be cooled and humidified to the comfort condition. Now the conditioned air is
supplied to the conditioned space by a fan and ducts.

Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems:

Figure 36.4 shows a single duct, multiple zone, and variable air volume system for
summer air conditioning applications. As shown, in these systems air is cooled and
dehumidified to a required level in the cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC). avariable
volume of this air is supplied to each zone. The amount of air supplied to each zone is
controlled by a zone damper, which in turn is controlled by that zone thermostat as
shown in the figure. Thus the temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant,
whereas its flow rate varies depending upon the load on that particular zone.
3. Discuss various systems of air conditioning for small building in detail. NOV-2014,
MAY-2017

Split Air Conditioner:

A Streamlined and light-weight air handler is mounted on the inside wall. Refrigerant
and condensate lines run through a small hole in the wall to the outside unit. Initial
power is to the outside unit and then relayed to the air handler. Extremely quiet as the
compressor and condenser coil are outside. Full electronic and remote control. The
compressor (6) in the exterior unit compresses the refrigerant into a high-temperature,
high-pressure gas. When this gas flows along the cooling fins of the condenser (7),
heat is exuded and the gas is led to the evaporator (1) in the interior unit. The liquid
expands into a gas at a low temperature and low pressure. This gas absorbs the warmth
of the air in the room, the cooled air is blown back into the room and the heat is led to
the compressor along with the gas.
 Evaporative Cooling:
As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the temperature
of a system by evaporation of water. Human beings perspire and dissipate their
metabolic heat by evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature is more than skin
temperature. Animals such as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat themselves with mud
for evaporative cooling.
Evaporative cooling has been used in India for centuries to obtain cold water in summer
by storing the water in earthen pots. The water permeates through the pores of earthen
vessel to its outer surface where it evaporates to the surrounding, absorbing its latent
heat in part from the vessel, which cools the water. It is said that Patliputra University
situated on the bank of river Ganges used to induce the evaporative-cooled air from the
river. Suitably located chimneys in the rooms augmented the upward flow of warm air,
which was replaced by cool air. Evaporative cooling by placing wet straw mats on the
windows is also very common in India. The straw mat made from “khus” adds its
inherent perfume also to the air. Now-a-days coolers are being used in hot and dry areas
to provide cooling in summer.
4. Describe the function of cooling tower & fan room with sketches. NOV-2014
The supply air, which is approximately 20° F cooler than the air in the conditioned
space,leaves the cooling coil through the supply air fan, down to the ductwork and into the
conditioned space. The cool supply air picks up heat in the conditioned space and the
warmer air makes its way into the return air duct back to the air handling unit. The return
air mixes with outside air in a mixing chamber and goes through the filters and cooling coil.
The mixed air gives up its heat into the chilled water tubes in the cooling coil, which has
fins attached to the tubes to facilitate heat transfer. The cooled supply air leaves the cooling
coil and the air cycle repeats.
The evaporator is a heat exchanger that allows heat from the CHWR to flow by conduction
into the refrigerant tubes. The liquid refrigerant in the tubes "boils off" to a vapor removing
heat from the water and conveying the heat to the compressor and then to the condenser.
The heat from the condenser is conveyed to the cooling tower by the condenser water.
Finally, outside air is drawn across the cooling tower, removing the heat from the water
through the process of evaporation.
 Centrifugal fans. Centrifugal fans are by far the most prevalent type of fan used in the HVAC
industry today. They are usually cheaper than axial fans and simpler in construction, but
they generally do not achieve the same efficiency. Centrifugal fans consist of a rotating
wheel, or impeller, mounted inside a round housing. The impeller is driven by a motor,
which is usually connected via a belt drive.
Axial fans. Axial fans consist of a cylindrical housing with the impeller mounted inside
along the axis of the housing. In an axial fan, the impeller consists of blades mounted around
a central hub similar to an airplane propeller. As with an airplane, the spinning blades force
the air through the fan. Axial fans are typically used for higher-pressure applications (over
5 inches total static pressure) and are more efficient than centrifugal fans.

5. Explain the design criteria for selecting the air conditioning system for large buildings.
NOV-2016
Criteria for Selecting Air Conditioning Systems:
As mentioned earlier, a sound knowledge of the classification, configuration,
system application criteria, advantages and disadvantages of the various systems
and configurations are essential in the selection of a suitable air conditioning system
for a facility. Basically, selecting an air conditioning system will require a careful
consideration of the following:
 Architectural constraints (building application, occupancy, space
constraints, building form, flow, orientation, etc)
 Cost constraints (initial and operating costs)
 Ease of accessibility and maintenance
  Capacity and performance requirements (indoor air quality, zoning and
thermal
 control, energy considerations, noise levels, fire safety and smoke control
etc.)
 Required system reliability and flexibility

It is worth mentioning that the weight of the above factors in the decision making
process varies according to project peculiarities (ownership, construction expertise,
etc). Usually, the engineer considers all the systems, and narrows his focus to about
two or three from which he selects the most appropriate according to the above
criteria. Also to help in the selection, my advice is to consider the air conditioning
system as comprising subsystems, main components and support equipment or
accessories.

6. Explain the horizontal distribution of services for large buildings. NOV-2016, MAY-
2015, NOV-2015
Horizontal distribution of services for large buildings
Under-floor distribution
Air-conditioning system distribution and terminal equipment is generally located
overhead in the ceiling void with the cool supply air entering the room from ceiling
diffusers. However, the supply of conditioned air from under the floor is a design
option. In this case, the air or water distribution and terminal devices are located in
the floor void, and hence the overhead services are reduced to only lighting and
sprinklers.
By making the floor void deep enough, the power, telecommunications and
computer wireways may be incorporated into the one plenum, all being easily
accessible by merely opening up the raised floor. Under-floor cooling is
particularly beneficial for spaces such computer rooms, as air velocities from floor
grilles and resultant noise levels are both much higher for cooling of equipment
than those which would be acceptable for people.
Under-floor systems can be beneficial when the floor slab is exposed, when it is
used as part of the thermal capacity of the building fabric. A good example of this
design approach is shown below in which the curved precast concrete floors are
 supported on deep asymmetric steel beams which project above the concrete slabs
to form the floor plenum.

7. Delineate about (i) role of filters (ii) Need of ducts. MAY-2014

Electronic filters are circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to remove
unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
Electronic filters can be:

 passive or active
 analog or digital
 high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, band-stop (band-rejection; notch), or all-pass.
 discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
 linear or non-linear
 infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)
The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects of
their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.

Passive filters

Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations

of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known as passive
filters, because they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or they do not contain
active components such as transistors.

Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals, while capacitors do
the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor, or in which a capacitor
provides a path to ground, presents less attenuation to low-frequency signals than high-
frequency signals and is therefore a low-pass filter. If the signal passes through a capacitor, or
has a path to ground through an inductor, then the filter presents less attenuation to high-
frequency signals than low-frequency signals and therefore is a high-pass filter. Resistors on
their own have no frequency-selective properties, but are added to inductors and capacitors to
determine the time-constants of the circuit, and therefore the frequencies to which it responds.

The inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. The number of elements
determines the order of the filter. In this context, an LC tuned circuit being used in a band-pass
or band-stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of two components.

At high frequencies (above about 100 megahertz), sometimes the inductors consist of single
loops or strips of sheet metal, and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of metal. These
inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs.
Single element type

The simplest passive filters, RC and RL filters, include only one reactive element,
except hybrid LC filter which is characterized by inductance and capacitance integrated in one
element.[1]

L filter

An L filter consists of two reactive elements, one in series and one in parallel.

Multiple element types

Multiple element filters are usually constructed as a ladder network. These can be seen as a
continuation of the L,T and π designs of filters. More elements are needed when it is desired
to improve some parameter of the filter such as stop-band rejection or slope of transition from
pass-band to stop-band.

Active filters

Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying)
components, and require an outside power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used
in active filter designs. These can have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the
use of inductors. However, their upper frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth of the
amplifiers.

8. Elaborate in detail, the fire safety considerations & NBC planning principles to be
followed in the institutional building. MAY-2015
Automatic Sprinkler System:
A system of water pipes fitted with sprinkler heads at suitable intervals and heights and
designed to actuate automatically, control and extinguish a fire by discharge of water.
Automatic Fire Detection and Alarm System:
Partial coverage by this system is not desirable. The detectors have to be properly
installed, maintained and tested to ensure adequate fire protection. Both audible and
visual alarms are used to alert the occupants through a central control panel.
Building: Any structure for whatsoever purpose and of whatsoever materials constructed
and every part thereof whether used as human habitation or not and includes foundations,
plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing and building services, fixed platform,
varandah, balcony, cornice or projection, part of a building or anything affixed thereto or
any wall enclosing or intended to enclose any land or space and signs and outdoor display
structures. Tents, Shamianahs, tarpaulin shelters, etc, erected for temporary and
ceremonial occasions with the permission of the Authority shall not be considered as
building.
Covered Area: Ground area covered by building immediately above the plinth level. The
area covered by the following in the open places is excluded from covered area (see Table
19) (given at the end) (a) Garden, rockery, well and well structures, plant nursery, water-
pool, swimming pool (if un covered), platform round a tree, tank, fountain, bench,
Chabutara with open top and unenclosed on sides by walls and the like; (b) Drainage
culvert, conduit, catch-pit, gully pit, chamber, gutter and the like; (c) Compound wall,
gate, un-storeyed porch and portion, slide, swing, uncovered staircases, ramp areas
covered by Chajja and the like; and trol, suppress and even extinguish a fire, contributes
largely to life safety as well. b) However, sprinkler system fails to serve their intended
purpose, if they are put to non-automatic mode.
FIRE PREVENTION:
To start with, it will be relevant to make a reference to the 4th para under FORWARD
regarding FIRE PREVENTION Coverage in this part.
PROCEDURE FOR CLEARANCE FROM FIRE SERVICE
a) The concerned Authority shall refer the building plans to the Chief Fire Officer for
obtaining clearance in respect of building identified in clause 7.1 of these Bye-Laws.
b) The Authority shall furnish three sets of complete building plans along with prescribed
fee to the Chief Fire Officer, after ensuring that the proposals are in line with Master
Plan/Zonal Plan of the area.
 c) The plans shall be clearly marked and indicate the complete fire protection
arrangements and the means of access/escape for the proposed building with suitable
legend along with standard signs and symbols on the drawings. The same shall be duly
signed/certified by a licensed Fire Consultant/Architect. The information regarding fire
safety measures shall be furnished as per Annexure ‘D’ along with details.
d) The Chief Fire Officer shall examine these plans to ensure that they are in accordance
with the provisions of fire safety and means of escape as per these bye- laws and shall
forward two sets of plans duly signed for implementation to the building sanctioning
Authority.
e) After completion of fire fighting installations as approved and duly tested and certified
by the licensed Fire Consultant / Architect, the Owner/ Builder of the building shall
approach the Chief Fire Officer through the concerned Authority for obtaining clearance
from fire safety and means of escape point of view. The concerned Authority shall ensure
that clearance from Chief Fire Officer has been obtained for the building identified in
clause 7.1 before granting the completion certificate.
f) On receipt of the above request, the Chief Fire Officer shall issue the No Objection
Certificate from fire safety and means of escape point of view after satisfying himself
that the entire fire protection measures are implemented and functional as per approved
plans. g) Any deficiencies observed during the course of inspection shall be
communicated to the Authority for rectification and a copy of the same shall be
forwarded to the concerned building owner /builder.
9. Elaborate in detail, the procedure for calculation of cooling load of building.NOV-2015
Heating versus cooling load calculations: As the name implies, heating load calculations
are carried out to estimate the heat loss from the building in winter so as to arrive at
required heating capacities. Normally during winter months the peak heating load occurs
before sunrise and the outdoor conditions do not vary significantly throughout the winter
season. In addition, internal heat sources such as occupants or appliances are beneficial
as they compensate some of the heat losses. As a result, normally, the heat load
calculations are carried out assuming steady state conditions (no solar radiation and
steady outdoor conditions) and neglecting internal heat sources. This is a simple but
conservative approach that leads to slight overestimation of the heating capacity. For
more accurate estimation of heating loads, one has to take into the thermal capacity of
the walls and internal heat sources, which makes the problem more complicated. For
estimating cooling loads, one has to consider the unsteady state processes, as the peak
cooling load occurs during the day time and the outside conditions also vary significantly
throughout the day due to solar radiation. In addition, all internal sources add on to the
cooling loads and neglecting them would lead to underestimation of the required cooling
capacity and the possibility of not being able to maintain the required indoor conditions.
Thus cooling load calculations are inherently more complicated as it involves solving
unsteady equations with unsteady boundary conditions and internal heat sources. For any
building there exists a balance point at which the solar radiation (Qsolar) and internal
heat generation rate (Qint) exactly balance the heat losses from the building. Thus from
sensible heat balance equation, at balanced condition: solar + int )QQ( sensible = in −
out )TT(UA (35.1) where UA is the product of overall heat transfer coefficient and heat
transfer area of the building, Tin is the required indoor temperature and Tout is the
outdoor temperature. From the above equation, the outside temperature at balanced
condition (Tout,bal) is given by: UA )QQ( TT solar int sensible inbal,out + −= (35.2) If
the outdoor temperature is greater than the balanced outdoor temperature given by the
above equation, i.e., when Tout > Tout,bal, then there is a need for cooling the building.
On the other hand, when the outdoor temperature is less than the balanced outdoor
temperature, i.e., when Tout < Tout,bal, then there is a need for heating the building.
When the outdoor temperature exactly equals the balanced outdoor temperature, i.e.,
when Tout = Tout,bal, then there is no need for either cooling or heating the building.
For residential buildings (with fewer internal heat sources), the balanced outdoor
temperature may vary from 10 to 18o C. As discussed before, this means that if the
balanced outdoor temperature is 18o C, then a cooling system is required when the
outdoor temperature exceeds 18o C. This implies that buildings need cooling not only
during summer but also during spring and fall as well. If the building is well insulated
(small UA) and/or internal loads are high, then from the energy balance equation (35.2),
the balanced outdoor temperature will reduce leading to extended cooling season and
shortened heating season. Thus a smaller balanced outdoor temperature implies higher
cooling requirements and smaller heating requirements, and vice versa. For commercial
buildings with large internal loads and relatively smaller heat transfer areas, the balanced
outdoor temperature can be as low as 2o C, implying a lengthy cooling season and a small
heating season. If there are no internal heat sources and if the solar radiation is negligible,
then from the heat balance equation, Tout,bal = Tin, this implies that if the outside
temperature exceeds the required inside temperature (say, 25o C for comfort) then there
is a need for cooling otherwise there is a need for heating. Thus depending upon the
specific conditions of the building, the need for either cooling system or a heating system
depends. This also implies a need for optimizing the building insulation depending upon
outdoor conditions and building heat generation so that one can use during certain periods
free cooling provided by the environment without using any external cooling system.
Methods of estimating cooling and heating loads:
Generally, heating and cooling load calculations involve a systematic, stepwise
procedure, using which one can arrive at the required system capacity by taking into
account all the building energy flows. In practice, a variety of methods ranging from
simple rules-of-thumb to complex Transfer Function Methods are used in practice to
arrive at the building loads. For example, typical rules-of-thumb methods for cooling
loads specify the required cooling capacity based on the floor area or occupancy.typical
data on required cooling capacities based on the floor area or application. Such rules-of-
thumb are useful in preliminary estimation of the equipment size and cost. The main
conceptual drawback of rulesof-thumb methods is the presumption that the building
design will not make any difference. Thus the rules for a badly designed building are
typically the same as for a good design.
1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term statistical database. The
conditions will not necessarily represent any actual year, but are representative of the
location of the building. Design data for outside conditions for various locations of the
world have been collected and are available in tabular form in various handbooks.
2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is estimated for clear sky conditions.
3. The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design capacity.
4. All building equipment and appliances are considered to be operating at a reasonably
representative capacity.
Heating load calculations:
As mentioned before, conventionally steady state conditions are assumed for estimating
the building heating loads and the internal heat sources are neglected. Then the procedure
for heating load calculations becomes fairly simple. One has to estimate only the sensible
and latent heat losses from the building walls, roof, ground, windows, doors, due to
infiltration and ventilation. Equations similar to those used for cooling load calculations
are used with the difference that the CLTD values are simply replaced by the design
temperature difference between the conditioned space and outdoors. Since a steady state
is assumed, the required heating capacity of the system is equal to the total heat loss from
the building. As already mentioned, by this method, the calculated heating system
capacity will always be more than the actual required cooling capacity. However, the
difference may not be very high as long as the internal heat generation is not very large
(i.e., when the building is not internally loaded). However, when the internal heat
generation rate is large and/or when the building has large thermal capacity with a
possibility of storing solar energy during day time, then using more rigorous unsteady
approach by taking the internal heat sources into account yields significantly small
heating small capacities and hence low initial costs. Hence, once again depending on the
specific case one has to select a suitable and economically justifiable method for
estimating heating loads.
 UNIT-III

PART-A

1. What is an air curtain? MAY-2014

A ton of refrigeration (TR), also called a refrigeration ton (RT), is
a unit of power used in some countries (especially in North America) to describe the
heat-extraction capacity of refrigeration and air conditioning equipment. It is defined
as the rate of heat transfer that results in the melting of 1 short ton (2,000 lb; 907 kg) of
pure ice at 0 °C (32 °F) in 24 hours.

2. Mention the varying types of air conditioning system used for multi storied buildings
or large buildings. MAY-2014, NOV-2016
A system for controlling the humidity, ventilation, and temperature in a building
or vehicle, typically to maintain a cool atmosphere in warm conditions.

3. List the firefighting methods used in tall buildings. NOV-2014

In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used
to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, by cooling it. In so doing,
the latent heat is given up by the substance and transferred to the surrounding
environment. Condensers can be made according to numerous designs, and come in
many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held) to very large (industrial-scale units
used in plant processes). For example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid
of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside air. Condensers are used
in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such as distillation, steam power
plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the
coolant is common in many condensers

4. Explain the thumb rule for AC leads. NOV-2014

The air contains moisture. The temperature of the air determines how much
moisture it can hold, and warm air contains more moisture than cold air.

When warm, moist air comes into contact with either a surface or air that is
colder than it is, the warm air is unable to retain the same amount of moisture as it did
 and the water is released either into the cold air or onto the colder surface, causing
condensation to form, quickly followed by mould.

5. What are sprinklers? MAY-2015

Multi-zone heating and air conditioning units offer design and application
advantages over various smaller single zone machines. As a result, many consulting
engineers have favored them for years. Multi-zone units are the ‘tried and true’
workhorse of the industry. The YORK Solution unit is designed to carry on that
tradition by including a multi-zone (MZ) segment into the design of the unit.

6. List down the sources of ignition in building fires. MAY-2015

Two types of materials commonly found in building fires are considered—
thermoplastics that melt and vaporize upon heating, and cellulosic materials that
decompose and produce char. A general theoretical model is derived and specific
numerical and analytical solutions are discussed in the light of experimental evidence
and data. It is concluded that within the approximation of constant surface temperature
at ignition, the ignition delay data may be correlated by a simple thermal model based
on inert heating of the solid. However, a significantly more complicated description
which includes gas and solid–phase chemistry is required if the surface temperature at
ignition is not constant.

7. Describe briefly the refrigeration cycle. NOV-2015

The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as
in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a
schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration
system.

8. Explain briefly the evaporation cooling. NOV-2015

An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert cooler and wet air cooler)
is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling differs
from typical air conditioning systems, which use vapor-
compression or absorption refrigeration cycles. Evaporative cooling works by
exploiting water's large enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be
dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor
 (evaporation). This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration. In extremely
dry climates, evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air
with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants.

9. Mention the two main criteria for designing an Air conditioning system for small
buildings. MAY-2016
The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet bulb
depression, the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature.
In arid climates, evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total
equipment for conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling. In climates
not considered arid, indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of the
evaporative cooling process without increasing humidity. Passive evaporative cooling
strategies offer the same benefits of mechanical evaporative cooling systems without
the complexity of equipment and ductwork.

10. Give examples for energy conservation measures. MAY-2016, MAY-2017

The best system for each home depends on the cost and efficiency of the
equipment, annual energy use, and the local price and availability of energy sources. In
most homes, either type of system, if designed and installed properly, will economically
deliver personal comfort.

11. Give examples for horizontal distribution of mechanical services. NOV-2016

Air-conditioning system distribution and terminal equipment is generally located
overhead in the ceiling void with the cool supply air entering the room from ceiling
diffusers. However,the supply of conditioned air from under the floor is a design option.
In this case, the air or water distribution and terminal devices are located in the floor
void, and hence the overhead services are reduced to only lighting and sprinklers.

12. Describe about air-conditioning distribution of systems. MAY-2017

Air-distribution systems include air handlers, ductwork, and associated
components for heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning buildings. They provide
fresh air to maintain adequate indoor-air quality while providing conditioned air to
offset heating or cooling loads.
 PART-B
1. Elaborate in detail, the procedure for calculation of cooling load of a building. MAY-
2014
Cooling load is the rate at which sensible and latent heat must be removed from the
space to maintain a constant space dry-bulb air temperature and humidity.[1][2] Sensible
heat into the space causes its air temperature to rise while latent heat is associated with
the rise of the moisture content in the space. The building design, internal equipment,
occupants, and outdoor weather conditions may affect the cooling load in a building
using different heat transfer mechanisms.[1] The SI units are watts.

1. Solar radiation through transparent surfaces

2. Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs
3. Heat conduction through ceilings, floors, and interior partitions
4. Heat generated in the space by occupants, lights, and appliances
5. Energy transfer through direct-with-space ventilation and infiltration of outdoor
air
6. Miscellaneous heats gains

The cooling load of a building should not be confused with its heat gains. Heat gains
refer to the rate at which heat is transferred into or generated inside a building. Just like
cooling loads, heat gains can be separated into sensible and latent heat gains that can
occur through conduction, convection, and radiation. Thermo physical properties of
walls, floors, ceilings, and windows, lighting power density (LPD), plug load density,
occupant density, and equipment efficiency play an important role in determining the
magnitude of heat gains in a building.[1] ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals refers to
the following six modes of entry for heat gains
2. Explain in detail about the horizontal distribution of air conditioning services in a multi-
stored office complex. MAY-2014,NOV-2016,MAY-2017
Internal distribution of services
For many reasons, there is pressure to minimise the space allocated to the building
services.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure an efficient use of space for the service distribution
system in the vertical and horizontal directions and in the plant rooms. The following
sections review the spatial aspects of the vertical and horizontal service distribution.
Under-floor systems can be beneficial when the floor slab is exposed, when it
is used as part of the thermal capacity of the building fabric. A good example of this
design approach is shown below in which the curved precast concrete floors are
supported on deep asymmetric steel beams which project above the concrete slabs to
form the floor plenum.
3. List the choices of cooling systems for large buildings. Explain each choice in detail.
NOV-2014, NOV-2016, MAY-2017

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems control the

temperature, humidity and quality of air in buildings to a set of chosen conditions. To
achieve this, the systems need to transfer heat and moisture into and out of the air as
well as control the level of air pollutants, either by directly removing them or by diluting
them to acceptable levels.
Heating systems increase the temperature in a space to compensate for heat
losses between the internal space and outside. Ventilation systems supply air to the
space and extract polluted air from it. Cooling is needed to bring the temperature down
in spaces where heat gains have arisen from people, equipment or the sun and are
causing discomfort.

 The design, layout and operation of the building – this affects how the external
environment impacts on internal temperatures and humidity;
 The required indoor temperature and air quality – more extreme temperatures, greater
precision and more refined air quality consume more energy;
 The heat generated internally by lighting, equipment and people – all of these have an
impact on how warm the building is;
 The design and efficiency of the HVAC plant – provides heat, cooling and moisture
control exactly where it is needed in the building;
 The operating times of the HVAC equipment and ability of the controls – these limit
operation to exactly when it is needed.

4. Suggest an important design criteria’s recommended for selecting the air conditioning
system for commercial buildings. NOV-2014, NOV-2015, MAY-2016
Most new homes have forced-air heating and cooling systems. These systems
use a central furnace plus an air conditioner, or a heat pump. Figure 7-1 shows all the
components of a forced-air system. In a typical system, several of these components
are combined into one unit. Forced-air systems utilize a series of ducts to distribute the
conditioned heated or cooled air throughout the home. A blower, located in a unit called
an air handler, forces the conditioned air through the ducts. In many residential systems,
the blower is integral with the furnace enclosure.
Most homes in Kentucky have a choice of the following approaches for central,
forced-air systems; fuelfired furnaces with electric air conditioning units, electric heat
pumps or a dual fuel system that combines both a fuel-fired furnace with an electric
heat pump. The best system for each home depends on the cost and efficiency of the
equipment, annual energy use, and the local price and availability of energy sources. In
most homes, either type of system, if designed and installed properly, will economically
deliver personal comfort.
1. The compressor (in the outside unit) pressurizes the refrigerant, which is piped inside.
2. The hot gas enters the inside condensing coil. Room air passes over the coil and is
heated. The refrigerant cools and condenses.
3. The refrigerant, now a pressurized liquid, flows outside to a throttling valve where it
expands to become a cool, low pressure liquid.
4. The outdoor evaporator coil, which serves as the condenser in the cooling process,
uses outside air to boil the cold, liquid refrigerant into a gas. This step completes the
cycle.
 5. If the outdoor air is so cold that the heat pump cannot adequately heat the home,
electric resistance strip heaters usually provide supplemental heating.

5. Define air conditioning. Elaborate about the different types of air conditioning for
residential bungalow. MAY-2015, NOV-2015
The heating efficiency of a heat pump is measured by its Heating Season Performance
Factor (HSPF), which is the ratio of heat provided in Btu per hour to watts of energy
used. This factor considers the losses when the equipment starts up and stops, as well
as the energy lost during the defrost cycle. New heat pumps manufactured after 2005
are required to have an HSPF of at least 7.7. Typical values for the HSPF are 7.7 for
minimum efficiency, 8.0 for medium efficiency, and 8.2 for high efficiency. Variable
speed heat pumps have HSPF ratings as high as 9.0, and geothermal heat pumps have
HSPFs over 10.0. The HSPF averages the performance of heating equipment for a
typical winter in the United States, so the actual efficiency will vary in different
climates. To modify the HSPF for a specific climate, a modeling study was conducted
and an equation was developed that modifies the HSPF, based on the local design winter
temperature. In colder climates, the HSPF declines and in warmer climates, it increases.
In Climate Zone 4, the predicted HSPF is approximately 15% less than the reported
HSPF.
 In deep well systems, a piping loop extends several hundred feet underground.
 Shallow loops are placed in long trenches, typically about 6 feet deep and several
hundred feet long. Coiling the piping into a "slinky" reduces the length requirements.
 For homes located on large private lakes, loops can be installed at the bottom of the
lake, which usually decreases the installation costs and may improve performance.
Proper installation of the geothermal loops is essential for high performance and
the longevity of the system. Choose only qualified professionals, who have several
years experience installing geothermal heat pumps similar to that designed for your
home. Geothermal heat pumps provide longer service than air-source units do. The
inside equipment should last as long as any other traditional heating or cooling system.
The buried piping usually has a 25-year warranty. Most experts believe that the piping
will last even longer because it is made of a durable plastic with heat-sealed
connections, and the circulating fluid has an anticorrosive additive. Geothermal heat
pumps cost $1,300 to $2,300 more per ton than conventional air-source heat pumps.
 The actual cost varies according to the difficulty of installing the ground loops as well
as the size and features

6. Explain in detail about the all water system of air conditioning on which building
typologies would you propose this type. MAY-2015
The efficiency of a gas furnace is measured by the Annual Fuel Utilization
Efficiency (AFUE), a rating that takes into consideration losses from pilot lights, start-
up, and stopping. The minimum AFUE for most furnaces is now 78%, with efficiencies
ranging up to 97% for furnaces with condensing heat exchangers. The AFUE does not
consider the unit’s electricity use for fans and blowers, which can easily exceed $50
annually. An AFUE rating of 78% means that for every $1.00 worth of fuel used by the
unit, approximately $.78 worth of usable heat is produced. The remaining $.22 worth
of energy is lost as waste heat and exhaust up the flue. Efficiency is highest if the
furnace operates for longer periods. Oversized units run intermittently and have reduced
operating efficiencies. Furnaces with AFUEs of 78% to 87% include components such
as electronic ignitions, efficient heat exchangers, better intake air controls, and induced
draft blowers to exhaust combustion products. Models with efficiencies over 90%,
commonly called condensing furnaces, include special secondary heat exchangers that
actually cool flue gases until they partially condense, so that heat losses up the exhaust
pipe are virtually eliminated.
A drain line must be connected to the flue to catch condensate. One advantage
of the cooler exhaust gas is that the flue can be made of plastic pipe rather than metal
and can be vented horizontally through a side wall. There are a variety of condensing
furnaces available. Some rely primarily on the secondary heat exchanger to increase
efficiency, while others, such as the pulse furnace, have revamped the entire
combustion process. A pulse furnace achieves efficiencies over 90% using a spark plug
to explode gases, sending a shock wave out an exhaust tailpipe. The wave creates
suction to draw in more gas through one-way flapper valves, and the process repeats.
Once such a furnace warms up, the spark plug is not needed because the heat of
combustion will ignite the next batch of gas. The biggest problem is noise, so make
sure the furnace is supplied with a good muffler, and do not install the exhaust pipe
where any noise will be annoying. Because of the wide variety of condensing furnaces
on the market, compare prices, warranties, and service. Also, compare the economics
carefully with those of moderate efficiency units. Condensing units may have longer
 paybacks than expected for energy efficient homes due to reduced heating loads. Table
7-1 compares the break-even investment for high efficiency gas furnaces in Code and
in ENERGY STAR® homes.
Unvented heaters that burn natural gas, propane, kerosene, or other fuels are not
recommended. While these devices usually operate without problems, the
consequences of a malfunction are life threatening— they can exhaust carbon monoxide
directly into household air. Unvented heaters also can cause serious moisture problems
inside the home. Most devices come equipped with alarms designed to detect air quality
problems. However, many experts question putting a family at any risk of carbon
monoxide poisoning; they see no rationale for bringing these units into a home (Figure
7-6).
In summer, air conditioners and heat pumps work the same way to provide
cooling and dehumidification. They extract heat from inside the home and transfer it
outside. Both systems typically use a vapor compression cycle. This cycle circulates a
refrigerant, a material that increases in temperature significantly when compressed and
cools rapidly when expanded. The exterior portion of a typical air conditioner is called
the condensing unit and houses the compressor, the noisy part that uses most of the
energy, and the condensing coil. An air-cooled condensing unit should be kept free
from plants and debris that might block the flow of air through the coil or damage the
thin fins of the coil. Ideally, the condensing unit should be located in the shade.
However, do not block air flow to this unit with dense vegetation, fencing or overhead
decking. The inside mechanical equipment, called the air-handling unit, houses the
evaporator coil, the indoor blower, and the expansion, or throttling valve. The controls
and ductwork for circulating cooled air to the house complete the system.

7. List the choices of cooling systems for small buildings. Explain each choice in detail.
MAY-2016
The current minimum standard for air conditioners is SEER 13. Higher
efficiency air conditioners may be quite economical. Table 7-2 examines the economics
of different options for a sample home. In order to increase the overall operating
efficiency of an air conditioner or heat pump, multispeed and variable speed
compressors have been developed. These compressor units can operate at low or
medium speeds when the outdoor temperatures are not extreme. They can achieve a
SEER of 15 to 17. The cost of variable speed units is generally about 30% higher than
 standard units. Variable speed units offer several advantages over standard, single-
speed blowers.
 Improper charging of the system—the refrigerant of the cooling system is the
workhorse—it flows back and forth between the inside coil and the outside coil,
changing states, and undergoing compression and expansion. A system can have too
little or too much refrigerant. The HVAC contractor should use the manufacturer’s
installation procedures to charge the system properly. The correct charge cannot be
ensured by pressure gauge measurements alone. In new construction, the refrigerant
should be weighed in. Then, use either the supercharge temperature method or, for
certain types of expansion valves, the subcooling method, to confirm that the charge is
correct.
 Reduced air flow—if the system has poorly designed ductwork, constrictions in the air
distribution system, clogged or more restrictive filters, or other impediments, the
blower may not be able to transport adequate air over the indoor coils of the cooling
system. Reduced air flow of 20% can drop the operating efficiency of the unit by about
1.7 SEER points; thus, a unit with a SEER 13.0 would only operate at SEER 11.3.
 Inadequate air flow to the outdoor unit—if the outdoor unit is located under a deck or
within an enclosure, adequate air circulation between the unit and outdoor air may not
occur. In such cases, the temperature of the air around the unit rises, thereby making it
more difficult for the unit to cool the refrigerant that it is circulating. The efficiency of
a unit surrounded by outdoor air that is 10 degrees warmer than the ambient outside
temperature can be reduced by over 10%.
For proper operation, a HVAC system must be properly designed, sized and
installed. A proper HVAC system will provide an improved indoor environment and
minimize the cost of operation. In the planning process for an energy efficient home,
everything should be done to reduce the heating and cooling load on the home before
the HVAC system is designed.
When considering a HVAC system for a residence, remember that energy
efficient and passive solar homes have less demand for heating and cooling. Substantial
savings may be obtained by installing smaller units that are properly sized to meet the
load. Because energy bills in more efficient homes are lower, higher efficiency systems
will not provide as much annual savings on energy bills and may not be as cost effective
as in less efficient homes.
 The heating and cooling load calculations rely on the outside winter and summer
design temperatures (see the appendix for a definition) and the size and type of
construction for each component of the building envelope, as well as the heat given off
by the lights, people, and equipment inside the house. If a zoned heating and cooling
system is used, the loads in each zone should be calculated. Table 7-3 compares the size
of heating and cooling systems for the homes in Table 2-2. The more efficient home
reduces the heating load 35% and the cooling load 26%. Thus, the $600 to $1,000
savings from reducing the size of the HVAC equipment offset the additional cost of the
energy features in the more efficient home.
The most basic type of control system is a heating and cooling thermostat.
Programmable thermostats, also called setback thermostats, can be big energy savers
for homes. These programmable thermostats automatically adjust the temperature
setting when people are sleeping or are not at home. Be certain that the programmable
thermostat selected is designed for the particular heating and cooling equipment it will
be controlling. This is especially important for heat pumps, as an improper
programmable thermostat can actually increase energy bills. A thermostat should be
located centrally within the house or zone. It should not receive direct sunlight or be
near a heat-producing appliance. A good location is often 4 to 5 feet above the floor in
an interior hallway near a return grille. The interior wall, on which it is installed, should
be well sealed at the top and bottom to prevent circulation of cool air in winter or hot
air in summer. Some homeowners have experienced discomfort and increased energy
bills for years because air from the attic leaked into the wall cavity behind the
thermostat and caused the cooling or heating system to run much longer than needed.
 UNIT-IV

PART-A

1. List the guidelines regarding the accessibility for disabled. MAY-2014

I. Urban design considerations
ii. Architectural design considerations
iii. Building types
iv. Implementation checklists
v. Appendices

2. Write a short note of sprinklers. MAY-2014, MAY-2016

An Irrigation sprinkler is a device used to irrigate agricultural crops, lawns,
landscapes, golf courses, and other areas. They are also used for cooling and for the
control of airborne dust. Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water
which is similar to natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes
usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks
up into small water drops which fall to the ground. The pump, valves, distribution pipes,
and sprinklers are generally designed to apply water as uniformly as possible.

3. Name some of the firefighting support systems. NOV-2014,MAY-2017

 Fire Extinguishers
 Fire Hose Reels
 Fire Hydrant Systems
 Automatic Sprinkler Systems.

4. Write short note on fire exit staircase. NOV-2014

A fire escape is a special kind of emergency exit, usually mounted to the outside
of a building or occasionally inside but separate from the main areas of the building. It
provides a method of escape in the event of a fire or other emergency that makes
the stairwells inside a building inaccessible. Fire escapes are most often found on
multiple-story residential buildings, such as apartment buildings. At one time, they
were a very important aspect of fire safety for all new construction in urban areas; more
recently, however, they have fallen out of common use. This is due to the improved
building codes incorporating fire detectors, technologically advanced fire fighting
 equipment, which includes better communications and the reach of fire fighting ladder
trucks, and more importantly fire sprinklers. The international building codes and other
authoritative agencies have incorporated fire sprinklers into multi-story buildings
below 15 stories and not just skyscrapers.

5. Write about fire alarm systems. MAY-2015, MAY-2016

A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and
warn people through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or
other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically
from smoke detectors, and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm
activation devices such as manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can be either
motorized bells or wall mountable sounders or horns. They can also be speaker strobes
which sound an alarm, followed by a voice evacuation message which warns people
inside the building not to use the elevators. Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain
frequencies and different tones including low, medium and high, depending on the
country and manufacturer of the device. Most fire alarm systems in Europe sound like
a siren with alternating frequencies. Fire alarm electronic devices are known as horns
in the United States and Canada can be either continuous or set to different codes such
as Code 3. Fire alarm warning devices can also be set to different volume levels. Fire
Alarm systems in the United Kingdom are tested at a weekly basis in compliance with
the BS-fire 2013 regulation.

6. Write short notes on smoke proof enclosures. MAY-2015,NOV-2016

In building safety and construction, a smokeproof enclosure is a type of exit
stairwell that has been designed to keep out smoke (and other combustion products) in
the event of a fire, so that building occupants may more safely exit the building.Rather
than entering the stairwell directly from the building interior, one enters a smokeproof
enclosure by means of an open-air balcony or alternatively, a so-called open vestibule,
and proceeds thence, to the stairwell itself The way that the balcony or vestibule is
ventilated divides smokeproof enclosures into two basic types: mechanically
ventilated which is not actually a smokeproof enclosures, where the vestibule and
stairwell are ventilated by mechanical equipment, and naturally ventilated open
air smokeproof enclosures where the open balcony or vestibule [or the stairwell] has
 openings directly to the outside of the building. This is the only type of the original
concept of a smokeproof tower.

7. Name any five sources of ignition expected in building fires. NOV-2015

Building fire risk analysis is a process of understanding and characterizing the
fire hazards, the unwanted outcomes that may result from the fire, and the probabilities
of fire and unwanted outcomes occurring. The purpose is to evaluate and make a
decision about the level of fire risk to determine whether to take appropriate risk
management measures or not. Therefore, building fire risk analysis serves as a basis for
fire risk management. In the paper, scenario clusters are constructed in the process of
building fire risk analysis, and the number of deaths and directive property loss are
selected as building fire risk indexes. Finally, the average fire risk of residential
buildings is quantified in detail. With the types of detailed fire risk models developed
here, fire risk management measures could be taken to improve the building fire safety
grading and reduce fire risk levels and subsequent damage.

8. How are the buildings classified based on occupancy? NOV-2015

Building occupancy classifications refer to categorizing structures based on
their usage and are primarily used for building and fire code enforcement. They are
usually defined by model building codes, and vary, somewhat, among them. Often,
many of them are subdivided.

9. State the function of wet risers & dry risers. NOV-2016, MAY-2015(16)

A dry riser is a normally empty pipe that can be externally connected to a

pressurized water source by firefighters. It is a vertical pipe intended to distribute water
to multiple levels of a building or structure as a component of the fire suppression
systems.

Most buildings have a "wet riser" or "wet standpipe" system where the pipes are
kept full of water for manual or automatic fire fighting operations. Dry risers are used
when the water pressure of a building wouldn't be enough for fire suppression, and in
unheated buildings where the pipes could freeze. Dry risers have to allow access to
a fire engine within 18 m of the dry riser inlet box. Dry risers in occupied buildings
have to be within a fire-resistant shaft, usually one of a building's fire escape staircase
enclosures.

Depending on regional nomenclature, the term "dry riser" may refer to

a standpipe, intended to provide water to fire hose connections, or a vertical main pipe
in an automatic dry pipe fire sprinkler system. A dry standpipe comprises a fire
department connection, e.g. Storz, which is an external access point at ground level
through which water can be pumped from the fire department's fire engine pump to
firefighters' fire hose attachments on each floor, whereas a dry pipe fire sprinkler system
is a network of pipes connected to fixed sprinklers inside a building, which are full of
air until one of the sprinklers is triggered.The fire sprinkler is where the water comes
into the building. All sprinkler system have a check valve that keeps the sprinkler water
from getting into the domestic water. The riser is also where the gauges, valves and
alarm devices are located.

 Wet fire main water supply pipe installed in a building for fire-fighting purposes
and permanently charged with water from a pressurized supply, and fitted with
landing valves at specified points.

 Where fire mains are installed and there are no floors higher than 50 m above fire
service access level, wet or dry fire mains may be installed.

 Where there are floors higher than 50 m above fire service access level, wet fire
mains should be installed owing to the pressures required to provide adequate fire-
fighting water supplies at the landing valves at upper floors and also to ensure that
water is immediately available at all floor levels.

 Wet risers are used to supply water within buildings for fire-fighting purposes.
The provision of a built-in water distribution system means that fire fighters do not
need to create their own distribution system in order to fight a fire and avoids the
breaching of fire compartments by running hose lines between them.
 Wet risers are permanently charged with water. This is as opposed to dry
risers which do not contain water when they are not being used, but are charged
with water by fire service pumping appliances when necessary.
 Part B of the building regulations (Fire Safety) requires that fire mains are provided
in all buildings that are more than 18m tall. In buildings less than 50m tall, either
a wet riser or dry riser fire main can be provided. However, where a building
 extends to more than 50m above the rescue service vehicle access level, wet
risers are necessary as the pumping pressure required to charge the riser is higher
than can be provided by a fire service appliance, and to ensure an immediate supply
of water is available at high level.
 Wet risers are charged with water from a pressurised supply, often pumped from
a storage tank, with landing valves at specified locations on each floor.
 It should be possible for fire service pumping appliances to supplement the supply
to wet risers in the event of an emergency, such as storage tanks running low
during long events. Pumping appliances should be able to access ‘…within 18m
and within sight of, a suitable entrance giving access to the main and in sight of the
inlet.’
 Generally, a wet riser supply system should be capable of maintaining a minimum
running pressure at top outlet at roof level of 4 bar at a flow rate of 22.7l/s. the
maximum running pressure permitted with only one outlet in operation is 5bar.
 Wet risers should be within fire-fighting shafts, and where necessary in
protected escape stairs. Wet-riser outlets, or 'landing valves' may be within in
protected lobbies, stairs or enclosures where these are available.
 Wet risers should be inspected and tested regularly to ensure equipment is
functioning correctly and ready for use. Problems can be very serious in the event
of a fire, and are typically caused by vandalism or theft, blockages
or pipework failure or by connection failure or outlets being open.

10. Write briefly about fire safety design principles. MAY-2017

 Water.
 Foam (chemical, mechanical, special detergent)
 Vaporizing Liquids (halogenated hydrocarbons, BCF)
 Dry powders.
 Inert gases (carbon dioxide, nitrogen, steam)
 Sand.
 PART-B
11. Explain about (i) Principles of fire behaviour (ii) Smoke proof enclosures. MAY-
2014,MAY-2017
In building safety and construction, a smokeproof enclosure is a type of exit
stairwell that has been designed to keep out smoke (and other combustion products) in
the event of a fire, so that building occupants may more safely exit the building.Rather
than entering the stairwell directly from the building interior, one enters a smokeproof
enclosure by means of an open-air balcony or alternatively, a so-called open vestibule,
and proceeds thence, to the stairwell itself The way that the balcony or vestibule is
ventilated divides smokeproof enclosures into two basic types: mechanically
ventilated which is not actually a smokeproof enclosures, where the vestibule and
stairwell are ventilated by mechanical equipment, and naturally ventilated open
air smokeproof enclosures where the open balcony or vestibule [or the stairwell] has
openings directly to the outside of the building. This is the only type of the original
concept of a smokeproof tower.

The Architect of the project will be responsible for making provisions for fire protection
and fire fighting measure as provided in this Chapter and for that she / he may consult
an expert in this field, as in case of other professionals for structural, sanitary and others.
 The extinction of fire by starvation is applied in three ways:
 By removing combustible material from the neighbourhood of the fire. Examples of
these are, the drainage of fuel from burning oil tanks; the working out of cargo at a ship
fire, the cutting of trenches in peat, heath, and forest fires; the demolition of buildings
to create a fire stop; counter-burning in forest fires;
 By removing the fire from the neighbourhood of combustible material as, for instance,

pulling apart a burning haystack or a thatched roof;

 By sub-dividing the burning material, when the smaller fires produced may be left to
burn out or to be extinguished more easily by other means. A typical example is the
emulsification of the surface of burning oil, whilst the beating out of a heath fire owes
much of its effectiveness to this.
12. Discuss in detail about the fire safety considerations & NBC planning principles to be
followed in a shopping mall. MAY-2014, NOV-2015, MAY-2016, NOV-2016,MAY-
2017
The site visit is the first gear in the design process. A detailed site analysis has to be
done so as to understand the features of the site, which will be very important during the
design. The purpose of the site analysis is to record and evaluate information on the site
and its surroundings, and to use this evaluation in the design response. Location This is
the first aspect that one needs to look at. Where is the site located? How is the site
approached? What is the name of the street, the road etc on which the site is located?
How far away is the major junction.
Orientation :
The orientation of the site plays a very important role in sitting of the building. This,
when combined with the wind direction and sun path, would give a good idea as to how
the design should be oriented so as to optimize the design. The orientation along with the
sun path will also determine the placement of rooms inside buildings.
Wind Direction:
Most of the locations will have a general major direction from which the wind comes.
However, this will not always hold true and will vary from location to location. If we are
to design a climatologically responsive building, it will be important to consider the
direction of the wind so that it can be channelized through the interiors.
Topography:
Topography refers to the slope and level of the land – whether the land is flat and plain,
or whether it is sloping? From a design point of view, a sloping site will be more
challenging. If a site is sloping, the exact slope can be interpreted from a detailed Contour
map. The contour locations and spacing of contours will play a big role in the siting of
the building. It is always better to design buildings along with the contours, integrating
it into the design to reduce unnecessary cutting and filling of soil.
Vegetation & Natural Features:
The natural vegetation present on the site is very important. Any good design will
integrate it into the design, highlight & accentuate it to create a harmonious whole. The
vegetation will consist of all the trees, flora and fauna present on the site. These should
be marked onto the site plan so that it will assist during the design stage. Along with the
location, the type of trees, the size of the trees, diameter or spread of the branches, heights
etc are to be identified.
13. Sketch & write in detail about the egress design for theatres. NOV-2014, MAY-2016
The amount of rainfall that the site receives and also the time period during which the
rainfall occurs are to be found out. The Relative Humidity of the place also has to be
found out to determine the moisture content in the atmosphere. A higher relative humidity
suggests a humid climate, for which cross circulation of wind at the body level is a must
for comfort. A lower relative humidity will suggest a dry climate.
One also needs to pay attention to the surrounding landuses and building around the
site. If the landuses are incompatible, it may lead to creation of issues in the design. Also,
the height and setbacks of adjacent buildings are important in affecting the flow of air
and also sunlight.
This becomes a very important element in the design process. The views to the site as
well as the views from the site are to be carefully considered while designing.
One also needs to find out what materials are available in and around the site, which
can be used in the design. This is especially relevant today when the design has to be as
sustainable as possible, by reducing the transportation energy & costs.
Site planning and design require the professional to consider a broad range of concerns
in the synthesis of a design concept. There are the physical aspects of the site itself, the
vision or program of the client, the designer’s own creative inclination, the concerns of
the community, and the interests of the end user. The zoning requirements are intended
to regulate the density and geometry of development, specifying roadway widths and
parking and drainage requirements, and define natural resource protection areas.
Building height can reinforce an area's character. Appropriate building height is derived
from local context, street conditions and character objectives for an area, specific design
objectives. For example, the protection of view lines, the natural features of an area, or
solar access to the public realm may be important objectives.

14. Elaborate the need & important of fire resistance, fire detection, fire production & fire
fighting in buildings with examples. NOV-2014
Street Setbacks:
The setback of buildings from a street edge affects how uses relate to the public space
of the street. Front setbacks, are also an important aspect, Setbacks add to the apparent
breadth of the adjoining street and provide space for plantings.
 Relationships to Adjoining Buildings:
The proximity of buildings to each other affects the amenity of spaces inside the
building, the quality of space between buildings, visual and acoustic privacy and solar
access to private and shared open spaces. The challenge is to provide appropriate
separation between buildings to maximize light, air and outlook while meeting strategic
planning goals and respecting neighborhood character.
Reducing outside air infiltration into the building by improving building envelope
tightness is usually quite feasible, during re-roofing; extra insulation can typically be
added with little difficulty. Windows and insulation can be upgraded during more
significant building improvements and renovations. Installing a system in a new building
or upgrading the equipment in an existing structure, its optimal performance (and reduced
energy demand) depends on a high- performance building envelop. A tight, insulated
shell including thermally efficient windows and doors, creates an environment that
enables ultimate control of conditioned air and ventilation demand and costs. A radiant
floor system, for instance geothermal or passive solar energy are hard to implement short
of gutting the place you call.
Visible Transmittance is a metric that measures how much light – not heat – comes
through a product, other worlds, this metric determines how clear the glass is.
Fenestration assemblies that reduce the visible transmittance the National Rating Council
(NFRC), the visible transmittance is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The higher
the number, the more light is transmitted.

15. Discuss in detail about the behaviour of various building materials on fire. MAY-2015

Residential fires kill more than 2,500 people per year in the United States alone
[source: CDC]. And most fatal fires occur when people are asleep in their homes, as
smoke can lull a person into a deep slumber [source: FEMA]. Ever wonder how your
walls would protect you? While no practical building material is truly fireproof, well-
constructed houses and buildings can help prevent such tragedies by using materials
that are relatively fire-resistant.

Consequently, it's not a question of whether a fire can damage a structure, but a
question of when. It simply takes longer for fire to affect fire-resistant materials. The
key is to construct a building in which a fire would take effect slowly, allowing the
occupants plenty of time to escape. This is also why materials themselves are rated in
respect to how long it would take fire to affect its structural abilities. Even heavy timber
can be considered fire-resistant. It's combustible, however, while metals like aluminum
or steel aren't combustible -- instead, they tend to buckle under intense heat.

We'll explore some of the best building materials for preventing and impeding
a raging fire.

Windows, important for visibility and light, can nonetheless be a fire hazard.
Even before a window is in direct contact with flames, the intense heat of a nearby fire
can cause the glass to break. And a broken window allows flames to enter a building
easily. In addition, the heat from a fire outside might be enough to simply ignite
flammable items inside a home without direct contact.

To protect your house, consider installing fire-resistant windows. One example

is dual-paned glass windows, which, in addition to providing energy efficiency, also
double the time it would take for fire to break the windows. The outer layer will break
first before the inner layer. Tempered glass, which is heat-treated to make it about four
times stronger than regular glass, is also effective.

Though they don't provide visibility, glass blocks are extremely fire-resistant
while still providing light. Perhaps the best is wired glass, which is tempered glass with
metal wire reinforcement. Doors that require fire resistance but also visibility often
incorporate wired glass windows.

It's also wise to note the importance of window framing. Steel framing offers
the best fire protection, followed by wood and aluminum. Vinyl is the least effective.

On the next page, find out which noncombustible material makes it harder for
fire to spread.

Concrete, one of the most common building materials, is also an excellent fire-
resistant material. It is noncombustible and has low thermal conductivity, meaning that
it takes a long time for fire to affect its structural, load-bearing ability, and it protects
from the spread of fire. It's actually significantly more fire-resistant than steel, and often
used to reinforce and protect steel from fire.
 However, it's important to note that not all concrete is created equal. It consists
of cement and aggregate, and the particular kinds of aggregate materials used can vary,
as well as the amount used. Aggregate can make up 60 to 80 percent of the concrete's
volume. The exact fire-resistance properties change depending on the type and amount
of aggregate used. Natural aggregates tend not to perform as well. Moisture in the
aggregate can expand when heated, causing concrete to sinter after long exposure.

Concrete is often listed as among the best fire-resistant roofing materials, too.
And you shouldn't overlook the roof as essential in fire-protection, since it's extremely
vulnerable to sparks blown from wildland fire.

Stucco is a plaster that has been used for centuries for both artistic and structural
purposes. Modern stucco is made of Portland cement, sand and lime, and it serves as
an excellent and durable fire-resistant finish material for buildings. It can cover any
structural material, such as brick or wood. It usually consists of two or three coats over
metal reinforcing mesh. A one-inch (2.54-centimeter) layer of stucco can easily lend a
1-hour fire rating to a wall [source: Nazarro].

Roof eaves (overhangs) are a fire hazard, but they can be protected with an
encasement of fire-resistant material. Stucco is often recommended as one of the best
materials for boxing in hazardous eaves.

Many structural materials will require underlying gypsum sheathing in order to

achieve a good fire-resistant rating, and gypsum board is the most commonly used fire-
resistant interior finish. Gypsum board, also known as drywall, consists of a layer of
gypsum sandwiched between two sheets of paper. Type X gypsum board is specially
treated with additives to further improve its fire-resistive qualities.

The paper on the exterior of the type X gypsum board burns slowly and doesn't
contribute to fire spread. In addition, gypsum board has a noncombustible core that
contains chemically combined water (in calcium sulfate). When affected by fire, the
first thing that happens is that this water comes out as steam. This effectively impedes
the transfer of heat through the gypsum board. And even after the water is gone, the
gypsum core continues to resist fire penetration for a time. Builders often use multiple
layers of gypsum board to increase the fire-resistance rating.
16. Write short notes on fire alarm systems & highlight the important fire fighting in multi-
storied buildings. NOV-2015, NOV-2016

If we learned anything from the popular children's tale of the "Three Little Pigs," it's
that you should make your house out of brick. This isn't such bad advice. Brick is not only
resistant to a big bad wolf's huffing and puffing -- it's also resistant to fires.

As bricks are made in a fire kiln, they're already highly resistant to fire. However, it's
true that individual bricks are much more fire-resistant than a brick wall. A brick wall is held
together with mortar, which is less effective. Nevertheless, brick is commonly cited as among
the best building materials for fire protection. Depending on the construction and thickness of
the wall, a brick wall can achieve a 1-hour to 4-hour fire-resistance rating.

So, although some materials are more fire-resistant than others, several factors might
influence a builder's decision, including cost effectiveness, ease of installation and climate.

The working fluid in vapor absorption refrigeration system is normally ammonia. The
ammonia vapor and water is mixed to form a strong solution of aqua-ammonia in the absorber.
This aqua-ammonia solution is then pumped into the generator. In the generator, this solution
is heated. Because of heating, ammonia gets evaporated at high pressure and leaves behind the
weak ammonia solution, which mostly contains water.The high pressure ammonia vapor
produced by the generator is condensed in the condenser and it becomes ammonia liquid, which
is at high pressure. This high pressure liquid ammonia is allowed to pass through the expansion
valve or throttling valve where it expands and becomes a low pressure and low temperature
ammonia which mostly contains liquid ammonia and a little vapor ammonia.
 It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air at a given
temperature to the mass of water vapor present in the same volume and temperature of the air
when it is fully saturated.
 PART-A

1. What is the maximum travel distance between exits? MAY-2014

When two exits are required (see NUMBER OF EXITS REQUIRED), the exit
doors or exit access doors must be located a minimum distance apart that is no less than
1/2 the maximum overall diagonal distance of the building or area being served. This
distance is to be measured in a straight line between the doors. Stairs sharing any
common wall, floors, ceilings, scissor stair assemblies, or other enclosures shall be
counted as one exit stairway.

2. Brief about snorkel ladder. MAY-2014, NOV-2014

The exact layout of what is carried on an engine is decided by the needs of the
department. For example, fire departmentswhich cover metropolitan areas are more
likely to assist with non-fire-related cases such as hazardous material removal/cleanup
and technical rescues of people from traffic collisions or structural collapses, while rural
departments may need to do things like access remote areas or extinguish forest fires.

3. How does smoke detector help in firefighting? NOV-2014

Some fire engines have a fixed deluge gun, also known as a master stream,
which directs a heavy stream of water to wherever the operator points it. An additional
feature of engines are their preconnected hose lines, commonly referred to
as preconnects.[2] The preconnects are attached to the engine's onboard water supply
and allow firefighters to quickly mount an aggressive attack on the fire as soon as they
arrive on scene.[2] When the onboard water supply runs out, the engine is connected to
more permanent sources such as fire hydrants or water tenders and can also use natural
sources such as rivers or reservoirs by drafting water.

4. Write short on halon system of fire protection. MAY-2015

One of the main features of the tiller-truck is its enhanced maneuverability. The
independent steering of the front and back wheels allow the tiller to make much sharper
turns, which is particularly helpful on narrow streets and in apartment complexes with
maze-like roads.An additional feature of the tiller-truck is that its overall length, over
50 feet (15 m) for most models, allows for additional storage of tools and
equipment.The extreme length gives compartment capacities that range between 500
 and 650 cubic feet (14 and 18 m3) in the trailer with an additional 40 and 60 cubic feet
(1.1 and 1.7 m3) in the cab.

5. What do you mean by active fire prevention? NOV-2015

Some aerials have a platform, also known as a basket or bucket, mounted at the
top of the ladder. These are commonly known as platform trucks. These platforms can
provide a secure place from which a firefighter can operate. Many platforms also allow
for rescues to be performed and are outfitted with tie down clips and rappelling arms.

There are also platform trucks that do not have a ladder attached to the platform.
These specialized elevated work platforms are capable of articulating which allows the
arm to bend in one or more places. This is an advantage over the traditional platform
ladder, which can only extend in a straight line and gives the articulating platform the
ability to go "up and over" an obstacle.

6. List down a few non combustible materials. NOV-2015

Most tankers have an on-board pumping system. This pump is often not of
sufficient power to fight fires (as it is designed to be attached to a fire engine), but is
more often used to draw water into the tender from hydrants or other water sources. In
some areas, the tenders are used to pump water during floods, and may be fitted with a
heavier duty pump for this purpose. Many tankers are equipped with fast-drain valves
on the sides and back of the truck. This allows firefighters to empty thousands of gallons
of water into a portable water tank in just a few seconds.

7. What is meant by reverberation? MAY-2016, NOV-2016,MAY-2017

Reverberation, in psychoacoustics and acoustics, is the persistence
of sound after a sound is produced.[1] A reverberation, or reverb, is created when a
sound or signal is reflected causing a large number of reflections to build up and then
decay as the sound is absorbed by the surfaces of objects in the space – which could
include furniture, people, and air.[2] This is most noticeable when the sound source stops
but the reflections continue, decreasing in amplitude, until they reach zero amplitude.
8. List few insulating fittings & gadgets. MAY-2016

The working of the window air conditioner shown in Figure is described asunder: The
refrigerant vapour leaving the compressor is at high pressure and temperature. It then passes
through the condenser. Outside air is drawn in by the fan and it cools the refrigerant in the
condenser, the refrigerant then becomes liquid. The high pressure, low temperature liquid
refrigerant enters the expansion valve. The pressure and temperature of the refrigerant falls
when it leaves the valve. The cold refrigerant from the valve passes through the evaporator
(the evaporator side of the air conditioner faces the room to be cooled). The warm air from
the room is drawn in by blower. The evaporator cools this air and the liquid inside the
evaporator tube gets vaporized by absorbing the heat from the warm air. The cool air is
again sent to the room through the opening at the top of the air conditioning unit. The liquid
and vapour refrigerant from the evaporator passes to the compressor and is compressed to
high-pressure, high temperature liquid. The operation hereafter is carried out in cycle as the
same manner as explained.

9. List few sound proofing materials. NOV-2016

 Dampening & deadening materials

 Door seals & sweeps

 Flooring underlayments

 Soundproofing installation products

 Quiet™ Batt Soundproofing Insulation

 Sound isolation systems

 Soundproofing barriers

 Vibration mounts and feet

10. Write notes on sound waves & measure of sound? MAY-2017
Sound energy travels in waves and is measured in frequency and amplitude. The
energy in a sound wave can be measured using Decibels. The DecibelMeter shows
examples of things that make noise and measurements in decibels.
Amplitude measures how forceful the wave.

PART-B
11. Write about (i) fire alarm systems (ii) anyone fire protection system. MAY-2014
 Fire alarm systems must incorporate a means of alerting deaf and blind persons to the
alarm, where such people might be expected to be present and without the support of
able-bodied persons who can alert them to the alarm. This will apply in buildings
accessible to the general public, where the
 buildings it may be sufficient for the system as built to be capable of a future
upgrade, either across the system or in discrete areas such a single offices, if there is no
immediate need for such a system at the time of construction/refurbishment.
 Capacity can be controlled by the use of variable inlet whirl vanes that are frequently
employed with a constant speed drive. The capacity is varied by changing the angle at
which the gas enters the impeller. The gas then enters with pre-rotation and this result
in a decrease in flow.

 Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of
potentially destructive fires.[1] It involves the study of the
behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its related
emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing and
application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even
ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance
with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local building code and fire
code, which are enforced by the Authority Having Jurisdiction.

 Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of the building code that
is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Building inspectors check
on compliance of a building under construction with the building code.
Once construction is complete, a building must be maintained in accordance with the
current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire
 department. In the event of fire emergencies, Firefighters, fire investigators, and other
fire prevention personnel are called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the damage
of a fire. Lessons learned from fires are applied to the authoring of both building codes
and fire codes

12. Explain (i) water requirement for firefighting, (ii) Sprinkler system, (iii) Space
requirements for firefighting equipment. MAY-2014,NOV-2015

o Bushfires are common in many areas of Australia, particularly in the dry, hot summer
season when tinder dry vegetation and extremely hot weather conditions are conducive
to runaway fires. If flare-ups are not quickly contained they can quickly get out of
control, with devastating consequences.
o In bushfire prone areas of Australia it is mandatory for homeowners to have a supply
of water dedicated for fire-fighting purposes. Having a supply of water readily available
on your property can mean the difference between saving or losing your home, should
it be threatened by an encroaching bushfire.
How Much Water Allocated to Fire-Fighting?

o The amount of water that needs to be specifically allocated for fighting fires varies from
one location to the next and normally set by state or councils. It is usually determined
by the size of your property and your fire risk.
o Water storage requirements range from a minimum of 2,500 litres for a small property
(less than 500 square metres) to a minimum of 20,000 litres for rural properties
exceeding 1 hectare in size. In high fire risk areas, a minimum of 22,000 litres allocated
for fire-fighting is recommended.
o While swimming pools can be recognised as a reasonable reservoir of water for fighting
fires, in many areas water retention tanks are required.
Fire-Fighting Water Retention Tanks

 Water allocated for fire-fighting can be stored separately in a water tank specifically
reserved for fighting fires, or it can be stored together with water allocated for normal
household use in one storage tank as long as certain criteria are met.
 Your water supply needs to be stored in a non-combustible tank if above ground, and
fitted with an appropriate outlet compatible with your local fire service’s hoses on the
lower portion of the tank about 400mm above ground level.
 It is important to note that when poly tanks are filled with water, they will not combust
to those water levels. Tests revealed that above ground poly tanks can warp and melt
above water levels under extreme bushfire conditions. Many are misled into thinking
steel tanks will withstand similar fire conditions, however they also lost their structural
integrity with water leaking at the seams.
 For these reasons, when purchasing a rainwater tank, underground poly tanks are a great
option, relatively inexpensive and can also harvest stormwater runoff. Being
underground they normally comply with all requirements necessary for a bushfire
fighting water retention tank.
Tank Plumbing and Fittings

 If you need a rainwater tank in a bushfire prone area, then you will also need to consider
its pipes and fittings. All above ground plumbing should consist of metal rather than
plastic to ensure they can withstand high fire temperatures.
 The draw-off outlet for the fire-fighting water allocation needs to be fitted with an
appropriate hose connection so fire fighters to can easily attach hoses to your tank. The
type of fitting varies from state to state — in NSW a 65mm STORZ outlet is required,
while in Victoria the outlet needs to be fitted with a County Fire Authority (CFA)
approved round male coupling (specs: 64mm 3 thread, 25 x 50mm nominal bore British
Standard Pipe) with piping and valves running from the outlet to the water tank
consisting of a minimum of 50mm nominal bore to maintain sufficient water pressure.
 If you have a single water tank allocated to fire-fighting, it will need to be fitted with
two separate outlets — one for domestic water use, the other for fire-fighting purposes.
The outlet that is used to draw off water to supply the household’s domestic water
requirements needs to be installed further up the tank, reserving any water below this
draw-off point for fire-fighting.
Water Pumps in Bushfire Prone Areas

 If you live in a bushfire prone area, then since electricity often cuts out during bushfires
your pump should be able to operate separately from the electricity grid. As such, petrol
and diesel run pumps are normally recommended for fire-fighting water retention tanks.
Pumps must be capable of pressurising water to a minimum power rating of around 3.7
kW (5hp).
 Finally, the water supply allocated for fire-fighting needs to located in a position that is
easy for fire-fighters to get to in a hurry. If it is located on the fire prone side of the
 home, additional practical measures should be taken to shield both the fire-fighting
crew and any water pumps needed to deliver water from the tank. If fire-fighters can’t
access your water supply due to safety concerns, then it could obviously lead to the loss
of your home.
 If you are looking for a water tank, then check out Clark Tanks diverse range of poly
tanks. For fire-fighting purposes, you might want to invest in one or more underground
water tanks for the best fire protection of your water storage.

13. How will you enclosure the sound proofing of a lecture halls. NOV-2014,MAY-2015,
MAY-2016

The problem with noisy lecture halls

Lecture halls and auditoriums tend to be large impersonal rooms with elongated walls
that are made from highly reflective surfaces such as cinder block, gypsum board and
tile – all of which are perfect incubators for long trailing echoes. The spoken lesson
from the professor or sound from the audio visual system bounces off the hard surfaces
creating powerful first order reflections and is followed by secondary echoes that
together create a dense reverberant field. This forces the student’s brain to work extra
hard to discern between the important message he or she wants to hear and the
unwanted ambiance that gets in the way. Intelligibility is impeded and the student is
disadvantaged. The problem is all the more acute in larger rooms as the echo arrives
well after the desired message further disrupting communication. To address the
problem, a PA system is introduced which only makes matters worse. The room
becomes over-excited with acoustic energy, reverberation levels elevate, the student
loses interest, and the presentation is lost. There is nowhere for the energy to escape.

How can Primacoustic help you?

Eliminate the primary and secondary reflections by covering between 15% and 25%
of the wall surface area with 2” (5cm) thick Broadway™ acoustic panels. Made from
high-density glass wool, Broadway panels are expressly designed to evenly absorb
acoustic energy in the voice and music range and are available in choice of polyester
fabric wrapped or in a Paintable™ finish to color match room aesthetics. Panels are
mounted using Impalers™ and dispersed evenly along the left and right wall surfaces
and across the back wall. This eliminates powerful primary reflections from the sides
and long echo reflecting off the back wall. Once in place, you will immediately notice
the room ambiance will quiet and greater sense of tranquility will transpire. For the
student, the reduced reverberant field will result in improved intelligibility which in
turn will result in greater comprehension and a more enjoyable learning experience.

The stakes are higher than ever in the classroom, and student performance is
scrutinized to a degree formerly reserved for PhD programs. With millions of dollars
and thousands of jobs at stake, schools have every incentive to provide the most
productive learning environment possible.

Teachers and administrators have a thousand things on their minds as they go through
the school day, so it’s perfectly understandable that some details would not get as
much attention as the big stuff. A quality curriculum and classroom management skills
are the most easily identifiable factors in student achievement, but those smaller
details can contribute to student success.

Of course, when we discuss the learning environment, we’re being quite literal. The
classroom itself plays a big role in a student’s educational experience — so how much
thought has gone into the construction and design of the walls, floor, ceiling and
windows of the classroom?

With the proliferation of distractions in the world today, the sanctity of the classroom
must be preserved. Distractions impede the learning process and negatively impact
our students’ academic performance. Considering the myriad of technological
distractions that bombard our children on a daily basis, it’s important to create a
learning environment that helps to improvetheir ability to focus on reading, writing
and listening tasks, rather than contributing to the growing number of distractions our
students must deal with.
We’ll explore how background noise can impact a student’s ability to perform in the
classroom, and what options you have for improving classroom acoustics to reduce
potential distractions, including some specific soundproofing solutions for schools.
 Background Noise and Student Performance

Much has been made of the technological distractions students face, and the many
different strategies and policies schools have developed to combat these distractions.
Curricula have been developed to get right to the heart of the matter and help students
focus on the most important aspects of any topic. Instructional methods have been
developed, tweaked and scrutinized to challenge and engage students. We ask more
from our students than we ever have in the past, so it’s only fair that we give them a
learning environment in which they can be most successful.

With that said, we aren’t always aware of every factor involved in a learning
environment. Decorations can be planned to stimulate or inspire students and plainly
display classroom expectations. Surfaces and window treatments can create
satisfactory lighting conditions.

Unfortunately, the same attention to detail isn’t often paid to the auditory environment
in the classroom. If a classroom contains high or persistent levels of background noise,
the learning environment is severely compromised.

Numerous studies have shown that a child’s ability to recognize speech sounds is
negatively affected by even the smallest levels of background noise. Since most
classroom learning still involves the verbal transmission of information, this impact
on speech recognition is no trivial matter.

14. Draw & explain the step by stem procedure for the acoustical design for an open air
theatres. NOV-2014,MAY-2016,MAY-2017
 Open Air Theatres
 A common basis for the participants of a performance is the requirement for smooth
theatrical communication, easy visual contact, as well as intelligibility and clarity of
the theatrical message. Long-term acoustic studies conducted in outdoor spaces have
shown that the basic principles of design include: -minimisation of external noise (noise
protection), -harmonic development of the functional elements of the theatrical space
within the limits of the human vocal and acoustic scale (theatre form, capacity), -
sufficient emergence of directly propagated sound and its reinforcement through early
 positive sound reflections (from the amphitheater gradient and natural loudspeaker
response of the space), -control of late sound reflections (limitation of the reverberation
time, elimination of echoes).
 The design of new open-air theaters goes back to the positive models of similar
monuments that have been preserved in the contemporary urban plan. In order to
optimise the positive advantages of acoustic design, the usual cases involving adverse
sound environments require the combined exploitation of the advantages of an open
space plan and the limitation of the boundaries of the theatre space based on the model
of the Greco-Roman theatre. The basic guidelines for achieving a similar theatre layout
include: -limitation of capacity (700 to 1000 seats) and axial span, -forwarding of the
proscenium space into the orchestra area (covering half or a third of the radius), -
creation of a closed space plan (from the seating area and stage building, with limitation
of the lateral openings at the side entrances –parodoi), -harmonic development of the
background scenery (position, height, length) and proper formation of its lateral ends
(backstage –paraskenia, in order to neutralise any harmful, lateral sound reflections) [4,
5]. In outdoor noise protection, we intend to make good use of the phenomenon of
acoustic diffraction by inserting natural or manmade sound barriers between the noise
sources and the protected area. The extent and the critical frequency of the acoustic
shadow, according to the Huygens-Fresnel theory, depend on the position and effective
height of the sound barrier.
 The achieved reduction in noise levels can be calculated analytically (under limited
conditions according to Fresnel or Sommerfeld, for spherical or plane waves) by means
of the Bruckmayer formula, or graphically by means of the Harris chart [6, 7].
According to the Greek Building Code, the permissible limits of acoustic comfort are
provided in average, hourly sound levels, without making mention of special criteria
for open-air theatres. For the sound protection of the theatre performance, the relevant
international standards (Noise Criteria) adopt noise criteria curves NC-25 to 30,
whereas international practices concerning cultural venues of high significance
recommend the correction of the statistically equivalent figures by using the maximum
expected noise value [8]. The function of an open-air theatre must fulfil the dual goal
of maximising the advantages of acoustic design and minimising the effects of noise
pollution on the environment, an objective that can be described with the signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N). On the basis of a practical method for applying this acoustic
 evaluation criterion, we should evaluate the spatial distribution of the relevant
derivative values of ‘Emergence’ and ‘Spectral Density’ i.e. we are searching for a
distinguishable difference in the sound level between the positive message and
background noise (in spherical and frequency values), in accordance with the following
graduated limits: -excellent (>25 dB), good (20-25 dB), -fair (15-20 dB), unsatisfactory
(<15dB).
 The evaluation of the space’s acoustic function 3. The Garden Theatre before its
reconstruction The Municipal Garden Theatre is the only open-air cultural space that
remains in downtown Thessaloniki (near the White Tower waterfront). Following
successive relocations and modifications, the theatre space was built on an area
covering approximately 3,000 sq. m. in the sole urban park in the centre of the city,
which is only a short distance (approximately 80m) away from a busy interchange
where five arterial roads meet. In its last period of operation, the Garden Theatre had a
seating capacity of 630 seats and presented serious disadvantages in terms of limited
visibility from the seats, difficult access between the stage and backstage areas, as well
as lack of safety and auxiliary spaces. However, the most important problem of the
theatre was its poor acoustics resulting from the venue’s nonexistent noise protection:
-the background noise was at 66 dB(A) (frequency extreme 81dB at 50Hz) and
presented significant excess [69 to 75 dB(A)] due to the heavy traffic (buses) down the
neighbouring street (N. Germanou), the operation of refreshment bars near the park and
the trespassing of motorcycles (through the park’s alleys late at night), -the background
scenery (with the spectators looking at the concave side) drew part of the noise from
the environment and reflected it on the proscenium stage and the seats, -the broad axial
span did not favour the emergency of the direct sound, and the low gradiation of the
seats –platea caused the creation of poor auditory angles (< 50 ) over a large part of the
seating area, -the form of the theatre space and the arrangement of its functional
elements (platea, raised proscenium stage and background scenery) did not provide the
space with natural loudspeaker enhancement.
15. Discuss about the various types of fire extinguishers discussing. MAY-2015, NOV-
2016

Types of Fire Extinguishers for Different Fire Classes

Every commercial or industrial setting has a specific set of challenges when it comes to
fire safety. The first half of the battle lies in identifying the different fire hazards present
in your premises, the second half is all about prevention and protection.

In this article, we’re looking at the various types of fire extinguishers you can find in
the UK, and what kinds of fires they are designed to fight.
Water extinguishers
Water-based extinguishers are used to fight Class A fires only. This means fires that are
fuelled by solid combustibles – such as paper, plastic wood and textiles. Water
extinguishers work by eliminating the heat element from the fire, and cannot be used
on Class B or electrical fires.
If a water-based extinguisher were to be used on a Class B fire (flammable liquids), the
water is likely to spread the fire rather than extinguish it. Water extinguishers can create
a major shock hazard if used to tackle electrical fires, and you should be careful about
using water-based extinguishers in areas with exposed wires, cables or electrical
equipment.
Water-based extinguishers are solid red in colour.
Wet chemical extinguishers
For Class F fires – fires involving cooking oil, fats and vegetable oils – a wet chemical
extinguisher is used. These extinguishers should be present in any commercial kitchen
environment so you are able to tackle kitchen fires effectively.
Wet chemical extinguishers also remove the heat element from a fire, but they also
smother the fire by cutting off the oxygen from the fuel. This prevents the fire from
reigniting, allowing you to manage and control the fire before it spreads. Wet chemical
fire extinguishers can also be effective against Class A fires, and are identified with
a yellow label.
Dry powder extinguishers
Dry powder fire extinguishers are one of the most versatile types of extinguishers
available. They are suited to tackle Class A, B and C fires. They can can also be used on
live electrical fires, however the residue created by dry powder extinguishers can
potentially damage sensitive electronics such as computers. A carbon dioxide
extinguisher is always preferable for electrical fires.
Identified by a blue label, dry powder extinguishers smother the fire, again separating
oxygen from fuel. The leftover powder should be cleaned away fully after being used.
There are different kinds of dry powder extinguishers, with some models only suited to
B and C class fires, not Class A. It’s important to only use the relevant extinguisher to
tackle a fire, so discuss the different types of dry powder extinguishers with your supplier.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers
CO₂ fire extinguishers are the chosen method to tackle electrical fires and Class B fires.
Most businesses, including offices and retail spaces, contain sensitive electrical
equipment, so a carbon dioxide extinguisher is a necessary fire safety tool for many
commercial premises.
It’s easy to identify CO₂ fire extinguishers due to their black labeland large, black horn.
The horn reduces the pressure of the CO₂, allowing it to expand into a freezing gas which
is fired from the extinguisher at rapid speed.
The gas takes away the heat from the fire and removes the oxygen so combustion can no
longer take place.
 Foam extinguishers
Foam fire extinguishers are effective against both Class A and Class B fires. They are
identified by their cream coloured label, and should not be used to fight live electrical
fires.
Due to their versatility, foam extinguishers may be preferred to water-based extinguishers
in offices, for example. A foam extinguisher smothers the fire in a layer of foam which
removes combustion and prevents re-ignition.
To ensure your commercial premises is equipped with the most suitable fire-fighting
equipment, call in the professionals to identify the fire hazards unique to your
business. Target Fire Protectionoperate
throughout Manchester, Rochdale, Bury, Oldham and the rest of the UK, offering a
full range of fire extinguishers to ensure your business is fully prepared should a fire
break–out. We are happy to offer all the advice and assistance you need to find the right
fire extinguishers for your property, so don’t hesitate to get in touch with us today.

16. Explain (i) Fire tower (ii) fire lifts (iii) fire escape stairs (iv) automatic detection alarm.
NOV-2015

A fire lookout tower, fire tower or lookout tower, provides housing and protection
for a person known as a "fire lookout" whose duty it is to search for wildfires in
the wilderness. The fire lookout tower is a small building, usually located on the summit
of a mountain or other high vantage point, in order to maximize the viewing distance
and range, known as view shed. From this vantage point the fire lookout can see smoke
that may develop, determine the location by using a device known as an Osborne Fire
Finder, and call fire suppression personnel to the fire. Lookouts also report weather
changes and plot the location of lightning strikes during storms. The location of the
strike is monitored for a period of days after in case of ignition.

The typical fire lookout tower consists of a small room, known as a cab located atop a
large steel, or wooden tower. Historically, the tops of tall trees have also been used to
mount permanent platforms. Sometimes natural rock may be used to create a lower
platform. In some cases, the terrain makes it possible so there is no need for an
additional tower and these are known as ground cabs. Ground cabs are called towers,
even if they don't sit on a tower.
Towers gained popularity in the early 1900s, and fires were reported using
telephones, carrier pigeons, and heliographs.[1]

Although many fire lookout towers have fallen into disrepair as a result of neglect,
abandonment, and declining budgets, some fire service personnel have made an effort
to preserve older fire towers, arguing that a good set of human eyes watching the forest
for wildfire can be an effective and cheap fire safety measure.

Super high-rise residential buildings refer to buildings having more than 40

storeys/levels. If a fire breaks out in such a building, extinguish the fire if you could
otherwise alert others to the fire and dial 995 to inform SCDF of the fire. Then activate
the nearest fire alarm. Instead of heading down to the first floor, you could proceed to
the nearest refuge floor. Do so by using the exit stairs; do not use the lifts.

What is a refuge floor?

Refuge floors are special floors that serve as a safe holding area so that residents do not
have to travel many floors down to get out of the building in case of a fire. The
prevailing Fire Code stipulates that Refuge floors need to be provided at every 20
storeys in a super high-rise residential building. At least 50 per cent of the gross floor
area of a refuge floor must be designated as holding area for temporary assembly of
occupants during fire emergency. One can identify a refuge floor by a sign "Fire
Emergency Holding Area" that is displayed on the wall inside the staircase and
immediately outside the staircase at the refuge floor.

As the refuge floors are linked to all blocks of a super high-rise residential building,
they are easily accessible to all residents and serve as escape routes for those evacuating
from an affected block to the unaffected blocks. SCDF fire-fighters may also mount
search, rescue and fire-fighting operations from these refuge floors, which are partially
open to the sky for efficient smoke dispersal.

Am I safe at the refuge floor?

Refuge floor is generally a safe place to wait in the course of evacuation. They are
naturally ventilated and are made of fire-resistant materials. No commercial activities
 or residential units are allowed on the refuge floor but it can be used as an exercise area,
provided the equipment is non-combustible.

What is a fire lift?

All high-rise buildings above 8 storeys or 24m in habitable height are required to be
provided with a fire lift. Super high-rise residential units should have at least two fire
lifts. The requirement for super high-rise residential buildings to have 2 fire lifts were
incorporated in the Fire Code in 2013.

A fire lift is housed in a protected fire rated enclosure and equipped with an emergency
power supply. During a fire emergency, a fire lift is programmed to ‘home’ to the
ground floor when a fire alarm is activated. By ‘home’ it means that the fire lift will
automatically be grounded and remains stationary at the ground floor. However, unlike
normal lifts, the fire lift can be manually operated by the SCDF fire fighters via the
fireman switch. The SCDF fire fighters use the fire lift to support fire fighting operation
and also to evacuate occupants, especially those with disabilities.

17. Illustrate the procedure for calculating RT for contemporary. MAY-2017

Wallace Clement Sabine, born in 1868, is considered the father of architectural

acoustics. He attended Ohio State University where he studied physics. He later went
to Harvard to pursue his graduate studies. After graduating, he joined Harvard as a
faculty member teaching physics. When it came to the study of sound, Sabine never
had any formal training. He became fascinated with how sound differed from one
lecture hall to another. Along with his assistants, he began moving materials to different
lecture halls to see what materials made the lecture halls sound better. Sabine and his
assistants spent many nights moving materials and measuring sound waves; he and his
team used an organ and a stop watch to measure the deterioration of sound as it passed
through the lecture hall.

In one instance, Sabine discovered that one person sitting in a seat did as much to absorb
sound as did six seat cushions. One night he even moved all the seat cushions from one
lecture hall into another. He experimented with oriental rugs. After working late each
night, Sabine and his assistants would restore the lecture halls back to their original
form before classes began the next day. Sabine’s greatest achievement was to conclude
that a relationship existed between the surface quantity of absorption materials placed
on walls, seats, ceilings, and floors and the volume of the lecture hall. The more sound
absorbing materials he used, the quieter the lecture became.

Sabine came up with a formula for determining the quality of sound in a lecture hall,
auditorium, concert hall, or any other venue where people spoke or played music. In
designing a venue, as just described, engineers and architects need to determine the
sound reverberation time. Reverberation time is the time it takes an original sound to
drop sixty decibels. Sabine chose sixty because the highest concert crescendo is about
one hundred decibels. Dropping it to forty decibels would put it at normal room
background noise.

Sabine came up with a formula that architects and engineers could use when designing
a concert hall so they could achieve the best reverberation time for their particular
venue.

Sabine found that 2 to 2.25 seconds was an optimal reverberation time for a concert
hall, and around 1 second was optimal for a lecture hall. If a lecture hall had a
reverberation time of more than one second, students would have to contend with
multiple words at once.

Sabine’s Formula

Sabine’s formula is given by the following:

RT60 is the reverberation time (to drop 60 dB)

V is the volume of the room
c20 is the speed of sound at 20°C (room temperature)
Sa is the total absorption in sabins
The sabin unit has the same dimension as area (e.g. m2). A one square meter surface
with an absorption coefficient of 0.75 would be considered 0.75 sabins. The absorption
coefficient has a range of 0 to 1, where a coefficient of 0 indicates none of the sound is
absorbed, and a coefficient of 1 indicates that 100% of it is absorbed.
Since we know the speed of sound at 20°C is 343 m/s, we can do a little math and
reduce the formula to:

(Note that the factor 0.161 has the units seconds per meter; dimensional analysis on the
equation will yield a time in seconds as the volume is measured in cubic meters and
sabins in square meters).
Let us use this formula to calculate the reverberation time of a fictitious lecture hall.
Let us say the hall has a 5-meter tall ceiling, is 20 meters wide and 10 meters deep. Let
us also say that the absorption coefficient for the walls, ceiling, and floors is 0.3.

To use Sabine’s Formula, we’ll first need the volume:

The
total absorption, in sabins, is the total area times the absorption coefficient. The total
area in includes 4 walls, a ceiling, and a floor, which when multiplied by the absorption
coefficient gives us the total absorption in sabins:

Let us use the dimensions of the room above, but specify different absorption
coefficients for the different surfaces. Let us say the tile floor has a coefficient of 0.01,
the ceiling a coefficient of 0.5, and the 4 walls a coefficient of 0.2.
The total absorption in sabins becomes:

This is very close to one second, which is ideal for a lecture hall.

In the examples above, we used the metric system, but if we wanted to measure the
room in feet, we would need to use the speed of sound in feet per second (1125 ft/s).
Doing so would result in a different coefficient for Sabine’s formula: