Vitamin A is essential for normal vision as well as proper bone growth,

healthy skin, and protection of the mucous membranes of the digestive,

respiratory and urinary tracts against infection.
Some of the most common symptoms of a vitamin A deficiency
include:
 Xerophthalmia (dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea)
 Night blindness
 Bitot’s spots (buildup of keratin on the conjunctiva)
 Dry lips
 Thick or scaly skin
 Impaired immunity
 Stunted growth in children
VITAMIN A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that also acts as a powerful
antioxidant in the body. It plays a critical role in maintaining vision,
neurological function, healthy skin and more. Like all antioxidants, it’s also
involved in reducing inflammation through fighting free radical damage.
Vitamin A is found in two primary forms:
1. Retinol (active vitamin A)
 results in retinyl esters
 comes from animal-derived foods and is a type of “pre-
formed” vitamin A that can be used directly by the body.
2. Beta-carotene
 is obtained from colorful fruits and vegetables
 is in the form of provitamin carotenoids
* Beta-carotene and other types of carotenoids found in plant-based
products need to first be converted to retinol, the active form of vitamin A,
in order to be utilized by the body.
HISTORY
Physiologist François Magendie began conducting experiments on dogs in
1816, noting that depriving them of essential nutrients led to higher rates of
mortality and corneal ulcers.
A few decades later in 1880s, scientists began realizing that there were
important, undiscovered nutrients in foods like egg yolks and milk that may be
responsible for many of their health-promoting properties.
The first clear evidence that a lack of particular components of the diet
could be harmful was presented in 1912 by Gowland Hopkins who had previously
isolated and demonstrated the essential nature of the amino acid tryptophan.
By 1913, researchers had found that butter and egg yolks, two foods rich in
vitamin A, were able to sustain life and support survival in animal models to a
greater degree than other types of fat, such as olive oil and lard.
Hopkins did not investigate his “milk factor” further, but a researcher in
the USA, Elmer McCollum found that given a purified diet rats began to loose weight
after 10 weeks, but would recover if given butter fat, but not olive oil.
In 1914 he found that the active component could be separated from the
rest of the butter fat, as it was soluble in ether. He called this nutrient “factor A”. He
termed a nutrient which had been isolated from rice polishings by Casimir Funk in
1911 “factor B”. These fat soluble factors were later to become vitamins A and B, a
term coined by Casimir Funk as a contraction of “vital amine”. It was subsequently
found that not all vitamins are amines.
In 1932, an organic chemist from Switzerland named Paul Karrer was the
first to describe the vitamin A structure, and it was finally isolated just a few years
later in 1937.
Since then, a slew of studies have continued to unearth more about the
complex relationship between vitamin A and the role that it plays in health,
immunity, growth and development.
FUNCTION
Vitamin A helps form and maintain healthy teeth, skeletal and soft
tissue, mucus membranes, and skin. It is also known as retinol because it
produces the pigments in the retina of the eye.
Vitamin A promotes good vision, especially in low light. It may also
be needed for reproduction and breastfeeding.
Beta-carotene is an antioxidant. Antioxidants protect cells from
damage caused by substances called free radicals. Free radicals are believed
to contribute to certain chronic diseases and play a role in the aging
processes. Food sources of carotenoids such as beta-carotene may reduce
the risk for cancer. Beta-carotene supplements do not seem to reduce
cancer risk.
SOURCES
Concentrations of preformed vitamin A are highest in liver and
fish oils. Other sources of preformed vitamin A are milk and eggs, which
also include some provitamin A. Most dietary provitamin A comes from
leafy green vegetables, orange and yellow vegetables, tomato
products, fruits, and some vegetable oils. The top food sources of vitamin
A in the U.S. diet include dairy products, liver, fish, and fortified cereals;
the top sources of provitamin A include carrots, broccoli, cantaloupe, and
squash.
Advantages
• Protects Eye Health
• Supports Immunity
• Relieves Inflammation
• Keeps Skin Glowing
• Contains Cancer-Fighting Properties
• Boosts Bone Health
• Reduces Cholesterol Aids in Reproduction and Development
• Promotes Tissue
• Repair Prevents Urinary Stones
Disadvantages
Excessive, chronic intake of some forms of vitamin A can be toxic.
Avoid taking supplemental vitamin A as retinol or retinoic acid, and instead
use plant-derived vitamin A precursors such as beta-carotene (in addition
to other mixed carotenoids). Also avoid concentrated animal sources such
as cod liver oil (although some forms of cod liver oil are vitamin A reduced
and are safe – check the label). Warning symptoms of overdose include hair
loss, confusion, liver damage and bone loss.
Boosts Immunity by Helping White Blood Cells Function Better
 One of the main reasons people take vitamin C supplements is
to boost their immunity.
 Vitamin C is involved in many parts of the immune system.
 First, vitamin C helps encourage the production of white blood cells
known as lymphocytes and phagocytes, which help protect the
body against infections
 Second, vitamin C helps these white blood cells function more
effectively while protecting them from damage by potentially
harmful molecules, such as free radicals.
 Third, vitamin C is an essential part of the skin’s defense system. It
is actively transported to the skin where it can act as an antioxidant
and help strengthen the skin’s barriers
DISADVANTAGES
Miscarriage/Abortion
 Various anecdotal reports have linked vitamin C use with
miscarriage as well as self-induced abortion (termination of
pregnancy).
 These reports, however, have not been substantiated by medical
research, and attempts to use vitamin C to intentionally terminate a
pregnancy may be dangerous.
 Disadvantages
Gastrointestinal Distress
 Large doses of vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, taken at one time might
cause gastrointestinal distress, especially if you consume it on an
empty stomach, according to the book, "Nutrition for Health,
Fitness and Sport." Symptoms of gastrointestinal distress include
upset stomach, nausea, indigestion, stomach cramps, headaches,
fatigue, diarrhea and vomiting. These effects are usually mild and
are related to the acidity of vitamin C, which can be minimized
when taken with food or when combined with an alkaline base,
such as calcium ascorbate, to help neutralize the acidity.
 Disadvantages
Hemochromatosis
 Hemochromatosis is a condition that involves excess iron in your
body, which can have toxic effects. According to the National Heart,
Lung and Blood Institute, a high intake of vitamin C can make the
symptoms of hemochromatosis worse because vitamin C helps
your body absorb more iron from foods and supplements.
Hemochromatosis can poison your organs and cause organ failure,
damaging your heart, liver and pancreas.
Hormones
 Vitamin C supplementation can affect the production of certain sex
hormones, such as progesterone, especially during the early stages
of pregnancy in women, according to the book, "New Encyclopedia
of Vitamins, Minerals, Supplements and Herbs." Progesterone is
important in the gestation process during pregnancy, and its
release can be inhibited due to high concentrations of vitamin C
circulating in your bloodstream. Low progesterone levels during
pregnancy can increase the risk of the fetus developing birth
defects.
 Disadvantages
Negative Effect on Performance
 Vitamin C supplementation might have a negative effect on athletic
performance. In a 2008 study published by the "American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition," vitamin C supplementation decreased
endurance capacity in athletes. The researchers say the adverse
effects might be related to vitamin C's capacity to reduce the
exercise-induced expression of key factors that are involved in the
formation of new muscle cells, thereby preventing some of the
natural cellular adaptations to exercise.
 Disadvantages
Kidney Stones
 Excess vitamin C intake increases the risk of kidney stones,
according to a report from Harvard Medical School, and men are
particularly at risk. When some break down vitamin C in the body,
it converts into oxalate, which can promote the formation of kidney
stones. You should avoid high doses of vitamin C, and stay closer to
the recommended intake of 75 milligrams per day for women, and
90 milligrams per day for men.
FUNCTIONS Strong Antioxidant That May Reduce the Risk of Chronic Diseases
Vitamin C plays an important role in the growth and repair of tissue in all  Vitamin C is a strong antioxidant that can strengthen your body’s
parts of your body. natural defenses
The nutrient has been shown to:  Antioxidants are molecules that boost the immune system. They do
 Heal wounds and form scar tissue so by protecting cells from harmful molecules called free radicals.
 Assist in the growth of healthy skin, tendons, ligaments, and blood  When free radicals accumulate, they can promote a state known as
vessels oxidative stress, which has been linked to many chronic diseases
 Repair and maintain cartilage, bones, and teeth  Studies show that consuming more vitamin C can increase your
 Vitamin C is also an antioxidant, which means it can help block the blood antioxidant levels by up to 30%. This helps the body's natural
damaging effects of free radicals, which the body makes as it breaks defenses fight inflammation
down food or is exposed to tobacco smoke or radiation. Could Reduce Blood Uric Acid Levels and Help Prevent Gout Attacks
 Free radicals have long been associated with the aging process, and  Gout is a type of arthritis that affects approximately 4% of
they have been shown to play a role in the development of cancer, American adults
heart disease, and arthritis.  It is incredibly painful and involves inflammation of the joints,
SOURCES especially those of the big toes. People with gout experience
Vegetables with the highest sources of Vitamin C include: swelling and sudden, severe attacks of pain
 Broccoli, brussel sprouts, and cauliflower  Gout symptoms appear when there is too much uric acid in the
 Green and red peppers blood. Uric acid is a waste product produced by the body. At high
 Spinach cabbage, turnip greens, and other leafy greens levels, it may crystallize and deposit in the joints.
 Sweet and white potatoes  Interestingly, several studies have shown that vitamin C may help
 Tomato and tomato juice reduce uric acid in the blood and, as a result, protect against gout
 Winter squash attacks.
 Sources Helps Prevent Iron Deficiencies by Improving Iron Absorption
Fruits with the highest sources of vitamin C include:  Iron is an important nutrient that has a variety of functions in the
 Cantaloupe. body. It is essential for making red blood cells and transporting
 Citrus fruits and juices, such as orange and grapefruit. oxygen throughout the body.
 Kiwi fruit.  Interestingly, vitamin C supplements can help improve the
 Mango. absorption of iron from the diet. Vitamin C assists in converting
 Papaya. iron that is poorly absorbed, such as plant-based sources of iron,
 Pineapple. into a form that is easier to absorb
 Strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and cranberries.  This is especially useful for people on a meat-free diet, as meat is a
 Watermelon. major source of iron.
ADVANTAGES  In fact, simply consuming 100 mg of vitamin C may improve iron
Skin Care absorption by 67%
 Vitamin C is sometimes used as a skin-care product.  As a result, vitamin C may help reduce the risk of anemia among
 It may have regenerative effects on skin wrinkles, texture, strength, people prone to iron deficiency.
and evenness of tone, allegedly due to its properties as an
antioxidant.
 Available vitamin C products on the skin care market vary by their
pH (acidity) and formulation, ranging from serums and creams to
powders.
 Some suntan lotions or oils also include vitamin C as an ingredient,
in part due to its benefits for skin health.
VITAMIN C
 Vitamin C, also known as L-ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin
that is naturally present in some foods, added to others, and
available as a dietary supplement. Humans, unlike most animals,
are unable to synthesize vitamin C endogenously, so it is an
essential dietary component.
HISTORY
1550 BC - Ebers Papyrus
 The Ebers Papyrus of about 1550 BC gives an account of a disease
likely to be scurvy. The suggested treatment of this disease is to eat
onions, which we now know contain small amounts of vitamin C.
400 BC - Hippocrates describes symptoms
 Hippocrates of Cos, an ancient Greek physician considered to be the
‘father’ of Western medicine, writes extensively on medical matters
and describes the symptoms associated with scurvy: “They have
foetid breath, lax gums and haemorrhage from the nose.”
1535 - Native Indian scurvy remedy
 In winter, the frozen St Lawrence River in Canada strands French
explorer Jacques Cartier’s ship. With limited food, scurvy breaks
out amongst his men. The native Indians suggest a remedy – a drink
made by soaking the bark of a local tree. The remedy works.
1747 - Scurvy and citrus link
 British naval surgeon James Lind selects 12 men from HMS
Salisbury, all suffering from scurvy. He divides them into 6 pairs,
giving each group different additions to their basic diet. Those fed
citrus fruits experience a remarkable recovery.
1795 - Citrus daily ration
 British navy physician Gilbert Blane influences the Admiralty to
issue regulations for the universal use of citrus juice as a daily
ration on board British naval vessels. The scourge of scurvy is
forever banished from the British navy.
1880 - Limeys
 British influence in the Caribbean leads to the use of limes over
lemons and oranges, since limes are more available. British sailors
are known as ‘limeys’, which refers to the practice of supplying
rations of limejuice to British sailors to prevent scurvy.
1907 - Guinea pigs and cabbage
 Norwegian biochemists Axel Holst and Alfred Fröhlich demonstrate
that a scurvy-like condition could be produced in guinea pigs by
restricting certain foods. When fed cabbage, the symptoms
disappear. An intensive search begins to find the
specific nutrient responsible.
1928 - Hexuronic acid
 Hungarian biochemist Albert Szent-Györgyi isolates
an organic reducing agent from plant juices and animal tissues and
chooses the name ‘hexuronic acid’. Four years later, he helps prove
this compound is the antiscorbutic factor discovered in 1907 by
Holst and Fröhlich.
1932 - Ascorbic acid
 British chemist Walter Haworth determines the molecular
structure of hexuronic acid and renames it ascorbic acid. This
substance is also known today as vitamin C. The following year,
Haworth leads a team of scientists that are able to make ascorbic
acid synthetically.
1937 - Nobel Prizes
 Albert Szent-Györgyi is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine for his discovery of vitamin C, and Walter Haworth is
awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with
carbohydrates and vitamin C.
1970 - The common cold
 Chemist Linus Pauling’s book Vitamin C and the common cold is
published. It proves to be a bestseller and leads many people to
believe in the value of the vitamin for cold prevention and
treatment.
2007 - Finding the missing step
 Scientists at Plant & Food Research report the missing step in how
plants produce vitamin C. Working with various kiwifruit varieties
and the world’s largest kiwifruit DNA database, the team isolate the
last undiscovered enzyme in the vitamin C production pathway.
FUNCTIONS
Vitamin C plays an important role in the growth and repair of tissue
in all parts of your body.
The nutrient has been shown to:
 Heal wounds and form scar tissue
 Assist in the growth of healthy skin, tendons, ligaments, and blood
vessels
 Repair and maintain cartilage, bones, and teeth
 Vitamin C is also an antioxidant, which means it can help block the
damaging effects of free radicals, which the body makes as it breaks
down food or is exposed to tobacco smoke or radiation.
 Free radicals have long been associated with the aging process, and
they have been shown to play a role in the development of cancer,
heart disease, and arthritis.
 Disadvantages
 High blood sugar levels
 Gout
 Skin problems
 Liver and heart complications
 Problems with sight
 Vomiting and nausea (can be overcoming by taking the supplement
just before you eat your meal)
 Diarrhea
 Deterioration of stomach ulcers
 Contradiction with drugs used for chemotherapy
 Urine discoloration (turning to bright yellow or dark yellow)
 Stomach pain and bloating
 Flatulence of excessive gas
 Heightened levels of anxiety, especially if you are suffering from
heart problems or hyperthyroidism
BEST FOOD SOURCES OF VITAMIN B  Irregular heartbeat, which could lead to a stroke or a heart attack
Get all eight B vitamins from a variety of foods:  High blood pressure.
 Whole grains (brown rice, barley, millet) SIGNS OF VITAMIN B DEFICIENCY
 Meat (red meat, poultry, fish) (most common signs of vitamin B deficiency, specific to individual B vitamins, are given: )
 Eggs and dairy products (milk, cheese) Vitamin B6 deficiency
 Legumes (beans, lentils)  Anemia
 Seeds and nuts (sunflower seeds, almonds)  Skin disorders such as seborrheic dermatitis
 Dark, leafy vegetables (broccoli, spinach, kai lan)  Inflammation of the mouth (oral ulcers)
 Fruits (citrus fruits, avocados, bananas)  Soreness and cracks at the corners of the mouth, chapped lips
Advantages  Tingling or numbness in hands and feet
 Vitamin B complex aids with digestion as vitamins B1, B2, B3 and  Irritability, confusion and depression
B6 all play a vital role in digestion. Vitamin B9 deficiency (folate or folic acid)
 Vitamin B complex helps you maintain healthy nervous and neural  Anemia
systems. Vitamins required for this are B1, B6 and B12.  Increased risk of birth defect (in pregnancy)
 Vitamin B9 is excellent for pregnant women as it facilitates in the  Mood changes (irritability, forgetfulness)
development of a healthy fetus and baby. This vitamin also guards  Sore mouth and diarrhea
you against stress and depression. Vitamin B12 deficiency
 For those who are looking to improve the condition of their nails,  Anemia
hair, and skin, vitamin B complex helps prevent conditions like  Tingling or numbness in hands and feet
splitting nails, falling hair and dermatitis.  Memory lapses
 Vitamin B3 is known to help lower levels of bad cholesterol and  Mood changes (mental confusion, agitation)
enhance levels of good cholesterol.  Unsteadiness and poor muscle coordination
 Vitamin B complex is also good for a stiff neck as it helps alleviate
pain in stiff and painful joints.
VITAMIN B
• The B vitamin family is made up of eight B vitamins. Although they
are commonly recognized as a group and often work together in the
body, each of the B vitamins performs unique and important
functions.
• The vitamin B complex is water soluble, meaning that it can’t be
stored by the body, so it’s super important to include vitamin B-rich
foods in your diet every day in order to reap all of the skin care
benefits.
• Each class of Vitamin B boasts different skin benefits, but the entire
Vitamin B complex helps to combat free radical damage.
• These vitamins help the process your body uses to get or make
energy from the food you eat. They also help form red blood cells.
Classes
1. Thiamin (vitamin B1) is needed to help produce cellular energy
from the foods you eat, and also supports normal nervous system
function.
2. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) supports cellular energy production.
3. Niacin (vitamin B3) supports cellular energy production.
4. Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is widely available in plant and
animal food sources and helps support cellular energy production
in the body.
5. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) is involved in several cellular reactions
throughout the body and is instrumental in keeping various bodily
functions operating at their best. Vitamin B6 is needed to
metabolize amino acids and glycogen (the body’s storage form of
glucose), and is also necessary for normal nervous system function
and red blood cell formation.
6. Biotin (vitamin B7) supports carbohydrate, protein and fat
metabolism and may help support healthy hair, skin and nails in
those that are biotin deficient.
7. Folic acid (vitamin B9) is most commonly known for its role in
fetal health and development as it plays a critical role in the proper
development of the baby’s nervous system. This important
developmental process occurs during the initial weeks of
pregnancy, therefore adequate folic acid intake is especially
important for all women of childbearing age. Adequate folic acid in
healthful diets may reduce a woman’s risk of having a child with a
neural tube defect.
8. Cobalamin (vitamin B12) plays an important role in the pathways
of the body that produce cellular energy. It is also needed for DNA
synthesis, proper red blood cell formation and for normal nervous
system function.
History
• The Englishman Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins is given credit
for approaching the discovery of the vitamin concept, when in
1906, he determined that food contains essential ingredients
beyond carbohydrates, minerals fats, proteins and water.
• The term vitamin was first used for water soluble substance which
was necessary for the nutrition of infants and which was separated
from wheat germ, yeasts and milk.
• In fact this term was used after the first discovery of anti-beriberi
factor by Casimir Funk in 1912. The first vitamin B discovered was
vitamin B1 by Funk that was extracted from police rice husk.
• It was then isolated in pure and crystalline form by B.C.P Jansen in
1925.
• Casimir coined the term ‘vital amine’ to describe the class of
chemicals that he and other researchers were studying, and the
word was simplified to ‘vitamin’ by 1920.
• Three years after this discovery, Elmer Vernon McCollum and
Marguerite Davis labeled it ‘water soluble B’ which British
biochemist Jack Cecil changed to vitamin B in 1920.
• Casimir Funk (1884-1967), a Polish born American biochemist,
collected all published literature in the issue of deficiency diseases.
He was the first to isolate niacin, latter called vitamin B3.
Function
B vitamins are important for cell metabolism, energy production
and formation of red blood cells. They work together to maintain healthy
skin, hair and eyes, as well as healthy nerves, heart and muscles.
  Another classification refers to the specific food animals
specialize in eating, such as: OMNIVORE: THE EATING OF BOTH PLANTS, ANIMALS, FUNGI,
BACTERIA ETC.
CARNIVORE: THE EATING OF ANIMALS
Araneophagy: eating spiders Fungivore: the eating of fungus
Avivore: eating birds Bacterivore: the eating of bacteria
Durophagy: eating hard-shelled or exoskeleton bearing organisms
Hematophagy: eating blood The eating of non-living or decaying matter:
Insectivore: eating insects
Myrmecophagy: eating ants and/or termites Coprophagy: eating faeces
Invertivore: eating invertebrates Detritivore: eating decomposing material
Keratophagy or Ceratophagy: eating horny material, such as wool Geophagy: eating inorganic earth
by cloths moths, or snakes eating their own skin after ecdysis. Osteophagy: eating bones
Lepidophagy: eating fish scales Saprophagy: eating decaying organic matter
Molluscivore: eating mollusks Scavenger: eating carrion
Mucophagy: eating mucus
Ophiophagy: eating snakes There are also several unusual feeding behaviors, either
Oophagy: eating eggs also Ovivore normal, opportunistic, or pathological, such as:
Piscivore: eating fish
Anurophagy: eating frogs Cannibalism: feeding on members of the same species
Spongivore: eating sponges Anthropophagy: the practice of eating human flesh
Teuthophagore: eating mainly squid and other cephalopods
Vermivore: eating worms Intrauterine cannibalism
Zooplanktonivore: eating zooplankton
Oophagy or Ovophagy: the embryo/fetus eats sibling eggs
carnivores by amount of meat in diet Embryophagy: the fetus eats sibling embryos

Hypercarnivore: more than 70% meat Filial cannibalism

Mesocarnivore: 30–70% meat
Hypocarnivore: less than 30% meat Self-cannibalism: feeding on parts of one's own body (autophagy)
Sexual cannibalism: cannibalism after mating
HERBIVORE: THE EATING OF PLANTS
Exudativore: eating plant and/or insect exudates (gum, sap, etc.) Kleptoparasitism: stealing food from another animal
Gumivore: eating tree gum Lignophagia: eating wood, typically a pathological condition in
Folivore: eating leaves some domestic animals
Florivore: eating flower tissue prior to seed coat formation Paedophagy: eating young animals
Frugivore: eating fruits Pica: appetite for largely non-nutritive substances, e.g. clay or hair,
Graminivore: eating grasses sometimes in pregnancy or in pathological states, typically a
Granivore: eating seeds medical or veterinary concern.
Nectarivore: eating nectar Placentophagy: eating placenta
Palynivore: eating pollen Trophallaxis: eating food regurgitated by another animal
Phytoplanktonivore: eating phytoplankton Zoopharmacognosy: self-medication by eating plants, soils,
Xylophagy: eating wood and insects to treat and prevent disease.
Coverings of the Heart: Anatomy Ventricles of the Heart
Pericardium  Ventricles are the discharging chambers of the heart
 a double-walled sac around the heart composed of:  Papillary muscles and trabeculae carneae muscles mark
1. A superficial fibrous pericardium ventricular walls
2. A deep two-layer serous pericardium  Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk
a. The parietal layer lines the internal surface of the  Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta
fibrous pericardium Pathway of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs
b. The visceral layer or epicardium lines the surface of Right atrium  tricuspid valve  right ventricle
the heart Right ventricle  pulmonary semilunar valve  pulmonary
c. They are separated by the fluid-filled pericardial cavity arteries  lungs
The Function of the Pericardium Lungs  pulmonary veins  left atrium
 Protects and anchors the heart Left atrium  bicuspid valve  left ventricle
 Prevents overfilling of the heart with blood Left ventricle  aortic semilunar valve  aorta
 Allows for the heart to work in a relatively friction-free Aorta  systemic circulation
environment Coronary Circulation
Pericardial Layers of the Heart  Coronary circulation is the functional blood supply to the heart
 Heart Wall muscle itself
 Epicardium – visceral layer of the serous pericardium  Collateral routes ensure blood delivery to heart even if major
 Myocardium – cardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of the heart vessels are occluded
 Endocardium – endothelial layer of the inner myocardial surface Coronary circulation: Arterial Supply
External Heart: Major Vessels of the Heart (Anterior View)
 Vessels returning blood to the heart include:
 Superior and inferior venae cavae
 Right and left pulmonary veins
 Vessels conveying blood away from the heart include:
 Pulmonary trunk, which splits into right and left pulmonary
arteries
 Ascending aorta (three branches):
a. Brachiocephalic
b. Left common carotid
c. Subclavian arteries
External Heart: Vessels that Supply/Drain the Heart (Anterior View)
 Arteries – right and left coronary (in atrioventricular groove), Coronary circulation: Venous Supply
marginal, circumflex, and anterior interventricular arteries
 Veins – small cardiac, anterior cardiac, and great cardiac veins
Atria of the Heart
 Atria are the receiving chambers of the heart
 Each atrium has a protruding auricle
 Pectinate muscles mark atrial walls
 Blood enters right atria from superior and inferior venae cavae and
coronary sinus
 Blood enters left atria from pulmonary veins
Regeneration CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 The process of regrowth in organisms that allows for partial or Physical Characteristics
complete regrowth of tissue after a damaging event.  Located in the mediastinum between the lungs and behind the
Fragmentation sternum
 In this form, the organism fragments into smaller pieces and each  About the size of a clenched fist
piece forms a new organism identical to its parent.  Shaped like an inverted cone
 Occurs when an offspring grows from a piece of its parent  Apex vs. Base
 Producing new organisms: Sea Stars Coverings and Layers
 Sea urchins, sea cucumber, sponges, and planarians Covering Around the Heart
 Producing new body parts: Gecko  Pericardium
 Newts, tadpoles, crabs, hydra, and zebra fish o Fibrous pericardium
Sporulation o Serous pericardium
 In this form, the parent organism produces tiny spores that it  Parietal layer
releases. They will then create an exact copy of the original  Visceral layer (epicardium)
organism without fertilization.  Serous fluid
Parthenogenesis Walls of the Heart
 Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which females  Epicardium
produce eggs that develop without fertilization. Parthenogenesis is  Myocardium
seen to occur naturally in some invertebrates, along with several  Endocardium
fish, amphibians, and reptiles as well as in many plants. Chambers
 There are no known cases of parthenogenesis in mammals.  Atria
Vegetative Propagation o Right atrium
 uniform offspring grow from a part of a parent plant o Left atrium
 Parent plants sends out runners o Interatrial septum
 Where the runner touches the ground, roots can grow o Fossa ovalis
 A new plant is produced even if the runner is broken apart  Ventricles
 Each new plant is uniform and identical to the parent. o Right ventricle
 Examples: strawberries, potatoes, ivy, crabgrass o Left ventricle
Advantages: Asexual Reproduction o Interventricular septum
 Enables organisms to reproduce without a mate Valves
 No wasted time and energy  Atrioventricular valves
 Enables some organisms to rapidly reproduce a large number of o Tricuspid
uniform offspring. o Bicuspid (mitral)
Disadvantages: Asexual Reproduction  Semilunar valves
 Because their offspring are identical, there is no genetic variation o Pulmonary semilunar
that can give an organism a better chance for survival o Aortic semilunar
 Dangerous mutations in DNA – if the parent has the mutation in  Associated Structures
their DNA, the offspring will have it too. o Chordae tendineae
o Papillary muscles
Asexual Reproduction
 One parent: organism produces offspring without fertilization
 Uniform offspring:
Because offspring inherit all of their DNA from one parent, they are
genetically identical to each other and to their parent
 This does not allow for evolution of the species. Each organism is
the exact same as its parent.
 This process takes a relatively short period of time. And can
produce 1-100s of offspring.
 It is an effective means of reproduction in a stable or predictable
environment rather than in an unstable or unpredictable one.
Methods of asexual reproduction:
 Binary fission
 Budding
 Fragmentation/Regeneration
 Sporulation
 Parthenogenesis
 Vegetative Propagation
Fission
 Cell division in prokaryotes that forms two genetically identical
cells
 DNA is copied
 The cell begins to grow longer, pulling the two copies apart
 The cell membrane pinches inward in the middle of the cell
 Cell splits to form two new uniform, identical offspring
 Examples: bacteria, Ecoli, pond critters
Binary fission
 Single-celled organisms (Amoeba, paramecium, euglena) which
use asexual reproduction can do so simply by dividing into two
equal halves.
 When conditions are good, such as plenty of water, food, right
temperatures, etc., binary fission is a very effective way of
producing many, many offspring.
 For example, the cell of a Paramecium can divide, grow, and
divide again in the space of 8 hours.
Budding
 a new organism grows by mitosis and cell division on the body of
its parent
 an offspring grows out of the body of the parent.
 The bud, or offspring is identical to the parent
 The bud, when large enough, can break off of the parent and live on
its own
 Offspring may remain attached and form a colony
 Examples: Yeast, Hydra, cactus
Asexual Reproduction
 One parent: organism produces offspring without fertilization
 Uniform offspring:
Because offspring inherit all of their DNA from one parent, they are
genetically identical to each other and to their parent
 This does not allow for evolution of the species. Each organism is
the exact same as its parent.
 This process takes a relatively short period of time. And can
produce 1-100s of offspring.
 It is an effective means of reproduction in a stable or predictable
environment rather than in an unstable or unpredictable one.
Methods of asexual reproduction:
 Binary fission
 Budding
 Fragmentation/Regeneration
 Sporulation
 Parthenogenesis
 Vegetative Propagation
Fission
 Cell division in prokaryotes that forms two genetically identical
cells
 DNA is copied
 The cell begins to grow longer, pulling the two copies apart
 The cell membrane pinches inward in the middle of the cell
 Cell splits to form two new uniform, identical offspring
 Examples: bacteria, Ecoli, pond critters
Binary fission
 Single-celled organisms (Amoeba, paramecium, euglena) which
use asexual reproduction can do so simply by dividing into two
equal halves.
 When conditions are good, such as plenty of water, food, right
temperatures, etc., binary fission is a very effective way of
producing many, many offspring.
 For example, the cell of a Paramecium can divide, grow, and
divide again in the space of 8 hours.
Budding
 a new organism grows by mitosis and cell division on the body of
its parent
 an offspring grows out of the body of the parent.
 The bud, or offspring is identical to the parent
 The bud, when large enough, can break off of the parent and live on
its own
 Offspring may remain attached and form a colony
 Examples: Yeast, Hydra, cactus
ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY
is the study of structure, morphology, function, development,
behavior, and physiology of organisms.
Reproduction
the act or process of reproducing; specifically: the process by which
plants and animals give rise to offspring and which fundamentally
consists of the segregation of a portion of the parental body by a
sexual or an asexual process and its subsequent growth and
differentiation into a new individual
Methods of Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
 A type of reproduction in which the genetic materials from two
different cells combine, producing an offspring with novel
combinations of genes.
 The combination of (usually haploid) reproductive cells from two
individuals to form a third (usually diploid) unique offspring.
 The cells that combine are called sex cells
Female – egg
Male – sperm
 Fertilization: an egg cell and a sperm cell join together
 A new cell is formed and is called a zygote
 Species that reproduce sexually must maintain two different types
of individuals, males and females, which can limit the ability to
colonize new habitats as both sexes must be present.
Advantages: Sexual Reproduction
 Diverse offspring: genetic variation among offspring
 Half of the DNA comes from mom
Half of the DNA comes from dad
 Due to genetic variation, individuals within a population have slight
differences
 Plants – resist diseases
 Traits can develop to resist harsh environments that allows an
organism survive
 Selective Breeding
 Used to develop many types of plants and animals that have
desirable traits
 Agriculture/Farming: better plants, larger animals
 Desirable pets
Disadvantages: Sexual Reproduction
 Time and Energy
 Organisms have to grow and develop until they are old enough to
produce sex cells
 Search and find a mate
 Not only do you need two gametes for fertilization, one has to be
male, the other Female
 Genetic “errors” happen more frequently because meiosis is more
complex than mitosis and diploid organisms have more
chromosomes to double.
 Searching can expose individuals to predators, diseases, or harsh
environmental conditions
 Fertilization cannot take place during pregnancy, which can last as
long as 2 years for some mammals.
Methods of Sexual Reproduction
Pollination
Pollen is produced in the male organs of the flowers - anthers. Pollination
occurs when pollen is transferred from the anthers to the female organs by
wind or by animals. If the female stigma is receptive to a pollen grain, the
pollen produces a pollen tube, which grows through the female tissue to the
egg, where fertilization takes place by the sperm nucleus.
External Fertilization
External fertilization usually requires a medium such as water, which the
sperms can use to swim towards the egg cell. External fertilization usually
occur in fish and amphibians.
The females lay the eggs in the water and the male squirts the sperm in the
same area.
Internal Fertilization
Fertilization occurs within the female.
Internal fertilization occurs in mammals, insects, birds, reptiles.
Mammals (gorillas, lions, elephants, rats, zebras, and dolphins have live
births)
Insects, birds, reptiles lay eggs
Hermaphroditism
Occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female
reproductive parts.
Invertebrates such as earthworms, slugs, tapeworms and snails are often
hermaphroditic.
Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate with another of their
species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring.
Self-fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are not
motile, such as barnacles and clams.