Marketing Management II

Pilar Díaz-Usechi

CHAPTER 10: Pricing

Understanding and Capturing Customer Value

Price: The amount of money charged for a product or service, or the sum of the values that customers
exchange for the benefits of having or using the product or service. It is the only element in the
marketing mix that produces revenue and is one of the most flexible (can be changed quickly).

Major Pricing Strategies (Customer value, cost & competition)

Customer value perceptions set the price ceiling, and costs set the floor for the price the company can
charge.

1. Customer Value-Based Pricing: Setting price based on buyers’ perceptions of value rather than on the
seller’s cost. The company assesses customer needs and value perceptions, then sets its target price.
The targeted value and price drive decisions about what costs can be incurred and the resulting
product design. (Price is set to match perceived value) -> Important for innovators and luxury
products.

-Good-Value Pricing: Offering just the right combination of quality and good service at a fair
price.

After the 2008-2009 crisis, in many cases it involved introducing less-expensive versions of
established brand name products or new lower-price lines. Good value ≠ Low price (Ex.
Mercedes Benz launched cheaper cars for $31,500, however this price isn’t low, just low
compared to other Mercedes Benz cars).

In other cases, it involved redesigning existing brands to offer more quality for a given price or
same quality for less price.

-Everyday low pricing (EDLP): Charging a constant, everyday low price with few or no
temporary price discounts. (Ex. ALDI, Eroski, Walmart…)

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-High-low pricing: Charging higher prices on an everyday basis but running frequent
promotions to lower prices temporarily on selected items (sale days, early-bird savings,
bonus earnings for credit-card holders…). (Ex. Kohl’s)

-Value-Added Pricing: Attaching value-added features and quality services to

differentiate a company’s offers and charging higher prices. (Ex. Philips lighting is energy
efficient…)

2. Cost-Based Pricing: Setting prices based on the costs of producing, distributing, and selling the
product plus a fair rate of return for effort and risk. (Product driven) The company designs a good
product (for them), adds up the costs, and sets a price that covers costs plus a target profit. Marketing
must then convince buyers that the product’s value at that price justifies its purchase. If the price turns
out to be too high, the company must settle for lower markups or lower sales (lower profits).

A company’s cost may be an important element in its pricing strategy (Walmart tries to become the low-
cost producers). Companies with lower costs can set lower prices that result in smaller margins but
greater sales and profits.

However, other companies like Apple, pay higher costs so they can add value and claim higher prices
and margins.

Types of Costs:

Fixed costs (overhead): Costs that do not vary with production or sales level. (Rent, interest, executive
salaries…)

Variable costs: Costs that vary directly with the level of production (number of units produced). (raw
materials and other inputs)

Total costs: The sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production. Management
wants to charge a price that will at least cover the total production costs at a given level of production.

Costs at Different Levels of Production

If a company produces 1,000 units per day it has a certain short-run average cost (SRAC). If it thought it
could produce 2,000 units per day, it should consider building a larger plant that is more efficient. Thus,
the SRAC would be lower than that of producing 1,000 units per day. The same thing would happen if
they produce 3,000 units per day. However, if they wanted to produce 4,000 units per day, the plant
would be less efficient due to diseconomies of scale (too many employees to manage…). So, the SRAC
would be higher.

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Costs as a Function of Production Experience

If the company produces 3,000 units per day, the workers gain experience and the company becomes
more efficient and gains economies of scale.

Experience (learning) curve: The drop in the average per-unit production cost that comes with
accumulated production experience.

If this curve exists, the company’s unit production cost will fall, and faster if the company makes and
sells more during a given time period (but the market has to be ready to buy the higher output). Pricing
strategy: set prices lower, sales will increase, and costs will decrease through experience. Then, it can
further lower the price. (Risk = product has a cheap image, or competitors may try to match low price).

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Cost-Plus Pricing

Cost-plus pricing (markup pricing): Adding a standard markup to the cost of the product. This markup
gives the profit.

Markup

Price

Product cost

Break-Even Analysis and Target Profit Pricing

Break-even pricing (target return pricing): Setting price to break even on the costs of making and
marketing a product or setting price to make a target return.

It uses a break-even chart to show the total cost and total revenue expected at different sales volume
levels.

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3. Competition-Based Pricing: Setting prices based on competitors’ strategies, prices, costs, and market
offerings. Consumers will base their judgments of a product’s value on the prices that competitors
charge for similar products.

The goal is not to match or beat competitors’ prices. Rather, the goal is to set prices according to the
relative value created versus competitors. If a company creates greater value for customers, higher
prices are justified.

Other Internal and External Considerations Affecting Price Decisions

Internal factors affecting pricing:

-The company’s overall marketing strategy, objectives, and marketing mix: Price decisions must
be coordinated with product design, distribution, and promotion decisions to form a consistent
and effective integrated marketing mix program. Companies often position their products on
price and then tailor other marketing mix decisions to the prices they want to charge. Price is a
crucial product-positioning factor that defines the product’s market, competition, and design.
Target costing: Pricing that starts with an ideal selling price, then targets costs that will ensure
that the price is met.

-Organizational considerations: Management must decide within the organization who should
set prices. In small companies this is done by the top management, but in large companies
pricing is handled by divisional managers.

External factors affecting pricing:

-The nature of the market and demand: Both consumer and industrial buyers balance the price
of a product or service against the benefits of owning it. Thus, before setting prices, the
marketer must understand the relationship between price and demand for the company’s
product.

Pricing in Different types of Markets:

 Pure competition: The market consists of many buyers and sellers trading in a uniform
commodity. No single buyer or seller has much effect on the going market price. Sellers in these
markets do not spend much time on marketing strategy. (Example: wheat, copper, financial
securities)
 Monopolistic competition: The market consists of many buyers and sellers trading over a range
of prices rather than a single market price. Sellers try to differentiate offers for different
customer segments, and use price, branding, advertising, and personal selling to set their offers
apart. (Example: Wrigley’s Skittles uses social media to advertise and clever “Taste the Rainbow”
slogan)
 Oligopolistic competition: The market consists of only a few large sellers. Each seller is alert and
responsive to competitors’ pricing strategies and marketing moves. (Example: cable providers-
AT&T, Comcast, Time Warner…)
 Pure monopoly: The market is dominated by one seller, who may be a government monopoly
(U.S. Postal Service), a private regulated monopoly (a power company), or a private unregulated
monopoly (De Beers and diamonds).

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Analyzing the Price-Demand Relationship:

Each price the company might charge will lead to a different level of demand.

Demand curve: A curve that shows the number of units the market will buy in a given time period, at
different prices that might be charged.

The demand curve shows the number of units the

market will buy in a given time period at different
prices that might be charged. In the normal case,
demand and price are inversely related—that is, the
higher the price, the lower the demand. Thus, the
company would sell less if it raised its price from P1 to
P2. In short, consumers with limited budgets probably
will buy less of something if its price is too high.

The type of market makes a difference. In a monopoly, the demand curve shows the total market
demand resulting from different prices. If the company faces competition, its demand at different prices
will depend on whether competitors’ prices stay constant or change with the company’s own prices.

Price Elasticity of Demand:

Price elasticity: A measure of the sensitivity of demand to changes in price. If demand hardly changes
with a small change in price, we say demand is inelastic. If demand changes greatly, we say the demand
is elastic.

If demand is elastic, sellers will consider lowering their prices. A lower price will produce more total
revenue. This practice makes sense as long as the extra costs of producing and selling more do not
exceed the extra revenue.

-The economy: Economic factors such as a boom or recession, inflation, and interest rates affect
pricing decisions because they affect consumer spending, consumer perceptions of the
product’s price and value, and the company’s costs of producing and selling a product. After the
Great Recession of 2008 to 2009, many companies opted for price cuts, but some others tried
redefining their value propositions to hold the same price.

-Environmental factors: The company must consider what impact its prices will have on other
parties in the environment (resellers, government, social concerns).