Pharmachemistry-1 Notes

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-I
PATEL PATEL
SAMBRAMA college of pharmacy, MANDYA Pharmaceutical Chemistry-I
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY -1
S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. Definitions 3
2. Official compounds 4-5
3. Antioxidants 6
4. Anti-dote 7
5. Dental products 8
6. Respiratory stimulants 9
7. Gastro intestinal agents 10-13
8. Expectorants 14
9. Inhalant 15
10. Topical agents 16-17
11. Emetics 18
12. Buffers 19
13. Quality control 20-29
14. Radio-pharmaceuticals 30-33
15. Quantitative analysis 34-42
Compounds with its synonym, formula &

16. 43-44
uses
17. Storage conditions 44
18.
19.
20.
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SAMBRAMA COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,MANDYA
CHAPTER – 1
DEFINITIONS
1. OFFICAL COMPOUNDS: It constitutes an important section of
pharmacopoeia which gives all necessary information of drugs and compounds
that are official. The information includes the title, subtitle, molecular formula,
molecular weight, tests for identification, tests foe purity, description the
official compound is one & solubility, method of assay, category & dose it
applicable.
2. ASSAY: The quantitative estimation of the amount of drug present in a given

sample constitutes as assay. The percentage purity of the sample is determined
by caring out its assay.
3. LIMIT TEST: Limit tests are quantitative or semi-quantitative tests

designed to identify and control small quantities or impurities which are likely
to present in the substance.
Limit test involves simple comparison of
opalescence, turbidity or colour with standards prescribed in pharmacopoeias. If
the opalescence, turbidity or colour of the test sample is less than the standard
then the given sample passes the limit test and vice versa.
4. ACID &BASE:
Arrhenious theory:
i) Acid: Generates [ H+ ] ion in the solution
ii) Base: Generates [ OH-] ion in solution
Eg: Acid + Base Salt + Water
Eg: HCl+NaOH NaCl + H20
Bronsted-Lowery theory:
i) Acid: Anything that donates a H+ {Proton donar}
ii) Base: Anything that accepts a H+ {Proton acceptor}
Eg: Acid + Base Acid + Base
Eg: HNO2 + H2O NO2+ + H3O+
Lewis theory:
i) Acid: Accepts an electron pair. Ex. of Lewis acids are H+, Na+, k+, AL+3
ii) Base: Donates an electron pair. Ex. of Lewis acids are OH-, Cl-, CH3COO-
Buffer: Solution which resists any change in its pH value on dilution or on

addition of small quantity of an acid or alkali.
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CHAPTER - 2
OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS
ALUMINUM
Official Compounds of aluminum are-
i) Aluminum hydroxide gel - Al (OH)3
Use: Antacid.
ii) Potash alum - KAl(SO4)2.12H2O
Use: Astringent
iii) Aluminum sulphate - Al2(SO4)3
Use: Astringent
iv) Aluminum phosphate gel -AlPO4
Use: Antacid
v) Aluminum phosphate gel (B.P)
Use: Antacid
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MAGNESIUM
Official compounds of magnesium are
i) Light Magnesium Oxide –MgO
Use:-Antacid
ii) Heavy Magnesium Oxide - MgO
Uses: Antacid
iii) Light Magnesium Carbonate-MgCO3
Uses: Antacid
iv) Heavy Magnesium Carbonate-MgCO3
Uses: Antacid
v) Magnesium Trisilicate - 2MgO. 3Sio2. XH2O
Uses: Antacid
vi) Magnesium Sulphate - MgSO4. 7H2O
Use: as saline cathartic
vii) Magnesium Hydroxide - Mg(OH)2
Use: as antacid & Laxative
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IRON
Official compounds of Iron are:
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i) Ferrous sulphate - FeSo4
ii) Ferrous Gluconate - C12 H22O14Fe,2H2O
iii) Dried Ferrous Sulphate - FeSo4

iv) Iron and Ammonium Citrate
v) Ferrous Succinate
vi) Ferric Chloride - FeCl3
vii) Iron Phosphate
viii) Iron Dextran Injection
ix) Iron Sorbitol Injection
USES
Iron Preparation is used as Haematinic.
It is used in Anemias caused due to Iron Deficiency.
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Iodine:
Official compounds of Iodine are:
i) Sodium Iodide - NaI

ii) Potassium Iodide - KI
Sod.Iodide & Pot.Iodide : Are used in Thyroid Disorders.
Used in a cough mixture as an expectorant.
iii) Radioactive iodine and sodium Iodide.
It is Used for Diagnosis of Thyroid disorder.
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Calcium:
Official compounds of Calcium are:
i) Calcium acetate - C4H6CaO4
ii) Calcium Chloride - CaCl2. 2H2O
iii) Calcium gluconate - C12H22CaO14.H2O
iv) Calcium Hydroxide - Ca(OH)2
USES
It used as a Source of Calcium.
It used as a Protective agent and dentifrices.
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CHAPTER - 3
ANTI-OXIDANTS
Antioxidants are the agents which inhibit the Process of oxidation of

Ingredients used in Pharmaceutical preparations.
Ex.: Sodium bisulphate, Sodium Metabisulphate, Sulphur dioxide.
CLASSIFICATION
1. True antioxidants
2. Reduction agents
3. Antioxidants synergists
1. True anti–oxidants: These are effective against auto-oxidation but

in-effective against redox reactions.
Ex: Tocopherol.
2. Reducing agents: These have lower redox potential and are more readily
oxidized than the drug.
Ex: Ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulphate.
3. Antioxidants synergists: They enhance the action of true antioxidants.
Ex. Citric Acid
Properties of antioxidants
 They should be effective in low concentrations.
 They must have desired redox potential.
 They should be pharmacologically inert.
 They should be easily soluble in the preparation.
 They should be physiologically and chemically compatible with
ingredients in the preparation.
Importance/Uses
 Used in pharmaceutical preparations to prevent the oxidation of active
ingredients.
 Used to prevent the rancidity of fats and oils.
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CHAPTER - 4
ANTIDOTE
Antidotes are agents used to counter act the effects of poisons & toxic
substances.
Poisoning may be due to heavy metals like arsenic & lead, overdose of drugs or
contamination of food & water. In addition, the inhalation of toxic gases and
consumption of insecticides are also common causes of poisoning.
Example: Sodium Nitrite, Activated Charcoal, Copper Sulphate.
CLASSIFICATION: Based on mechanism of action

Physiological antidotes: - they act by producing opposite pharmacological
effects to that of the poison.
Ex: Atropine.
Chemical antidotes: - they combine with the poison to convert into a complex
and make it ineffective.
Ex: EDTA in heavy metal poisoning.
Mechanical Antidotes
They act by absorption of the poison in the GIT, which in then expelled by
emesis or eliminated through faces.
Ex: Activated charcoal
Commonly used in-organic antidotes are sodium nitrate (NaNO2) and NaS2O3.
CYANIDE POISOINING
Cyanide poisoning normally occurs accidently or when cyanide poison is taken
intentionally for suicidal intension. In cyanide poisoning cyanide ion combines
with ferric ion of cytochrome oxidase an enzyme responsible for electron
transfer reactions. This leads to stoppage of cellular respiration and metabolic
reaction. Cyanide poisoning is usually fatal, if not treated immediately.
In cyanide poisoning sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate injections are

given to counteract the effects of cyanide poisons. Sodium thiosulphate reacts
with cyanide ions and convert into sodium thiocyanate which is less toxic than
cyanide. While sodium nitrite reacts with ferrous iron of haemoglobin and
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converts into ferric iron of methaemoglobin and thus reduces the concentration
of cyanide ions
CHAPTER - 5
DENTAL PRODUCTS
DENTAL PRODUCTS
Drugs used in the treatments of dental disorders are called dental
products they include dental caries, dentifrices, desensitizers, dental cement.
TYPES OF DENTAL PRODUCTS
1. Dental caries: Dental caries means tooth decay when food materials adhere
to the surface of the teeth or get lodged between the teeth; micro-organisms
grow on them and produce acid like lactic acid, these acids attached the enamel
of the teeth and form small cracks on their surface. Further degradation of food
by bacteria & dissolution of enamel by acid, leads to the formation of fissures &
Pockets resulting in painful cavities in the teeth.
In order to prevent dental caries and to maintain clean and healthy
teeth, it is necessary to use antiacaries agents like sodium fluoride, stannous
fluoride.
2. Dentifrices: Substance used for the cleaning and polishing of teeth, in the
form of the tooth paste or powder is called dentifrices. They are used to remove
food particles, plaque & tartar the surface of teeth their abrasive action.
Ex: Dibasic calcium phosphate CaHPo4
3. Desensitizers: These are substance that reduces pain & sensitivity of teeth to
extreme heat & cold.
Ex: Strontium chloride – SrCl2
Zinc Chloride – ZnCl2
4. Dental cement: Substance that are used as a temporary filling for dental
cavities, Clipped or broken teeth.
Ex: Zinc oxide – ZnO
Calcium sulphate – CaSO42H2O
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CHAPTER -6
RESPIRATORY STIMULANTS
RESPIRATORY STIMULANT
Respiratory stimulants are drugs used to restore normal respiration in conditions
where the lungs are un-able to sufficiently eliminate carbon-dioxide (Co2) &
take up oxygen (O2).
Respiratory stimulants belong to the class of drugs known as central
nervous system stimulants. One of the important features of this stimulating
activity is the “respiratory stimulation”. This is brought about by stimulation of
chemo – receptor and the vasomotor centers.
In – organic compounds mainly act by irritating the epithelial layers of air
passages, namely trachea, bronchi & Lungs which leads to respiratory
stimulation.
Ammonical salts & preparations are especially useful as respiratory
stimulants because they give out ammonia gas which irritate the respiratory
tract & act as reflex stimulant.
Ex: Ammonium carbonate
Ammonium Carbonate:
Preparation:
It is prepared by subliming a mixture of ammonium sulphate and
calcium carbonate.
(NH4)2 SO4+CaCo3 (NH4)2 Co3 + CaSO4
Properties:
White power, freely soluble in water & partly soluble in alcohol.
Storage
It is stored in well closed air tight container because it decomposes easily
into ammonia and CO2.
Uses: Used as respiratory stimulant & expectorant.

In the preparation of aromatic sprit of ammonia.
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CHAPTER - 7
GASTRO INTESTINAL AGENTS
G.I.T AGENTS
Drug used in the treatment of disorders of the gastro-intestinal tract are called
GIT of agents.
Classification:
These are classified into 4 major groups depending on their action.
1. Acidifying agents : Dilute HCL
2. Antacids : NaHCO3, MgO, Al(OH)3.
3. GIT Protective & Adsorbents : Kaolin.
4. Saline cathartics : MgSo4, Sodium Sulphate.
ACIDIFYING AGENTS
Drugs which increase acidity are known as acidifying agents. In a normal
person, hydrochloric acid is secreted which helps in the digestion of food.
If due to some reason, there is no secretion of hydrochloric acid
in the stomach the condition is called as achlorhydria.
Thus in order to counteract the effect of achlorhydria dilute
hydrochloric acid is used.
Uses: dilute hydrochloric acid is used in the treatment of achlorhydria
ANTACIDS
These are drug or preparations which are used to neutralize excess HCl
secretions (hyper chlorhydria) in the stomach. They give relief from pain due to
hyper chlorhydria.
Example: Sodium bicarbonate, Aluminium hydroxide gel, Calcium carbonate,
Magnesium trisilicate, Magnesium oxide
Ideal requirements of antacids are:

 Antacids should not be absorbable or cause
systemic alkalosis.
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 Antacids should not be e laxative or cause
constipation.
 Antacids should show its effect rapidly and
over a long period of time.
 The reaction between antacid and gastric
hydrochloric acid should not produce large volume of gas.
 The antacid should probably inhibit pepsin,
the proteolytic enzyme.
Antacids are classified as follows:
i) Systemic antacids:These are absorbed into systemic circulation and cause

systemic alkalosis. They are used to treat systemic acidosis.
Ex: NaHCO3
ii) Non-Systemic antacids:These do not dissolve in gastric fluids & hence do

not get absorbed into systemic circulation. They are considered ideal antacid.
They may be further divided into.
a) Aluminum containing compounds.

Ex: Al(OH)3gel, AlPO4
b) Calcium containing antacids.
Ex: CaCo3
c) Mg Containing antacids.
Ex: MgCo3, Heavy & Light MgCO3 & magnesium trisilicate.
Use: - Antacid
Storage- Stored in well closed container in a cool place.
COMBINATION ANTACID PREPARATION

No any single antacids meet the ideal requirements of antacid. Calcium and
Aluminium compounds have undesirable constipating effect whereas
Magnesium has laxative effect.
So in market antacid preparations containing combination of above antacid
is observed so as to balance the constipating effect of calcium and
aluminium with the laxative effect of magnesium.
Examples:
 Aluminium hydroxide gel : Magnesium
hydroxide combinations
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 Aluminium hydroxide gel : Magnesium
trisilicate combinations
G.I.T PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENT

Protective & absorbents are a class of gastro-intestinal agents used internally
to treat the disturbances in the normal functioning of the GIT which results
in dysentery or diarrhea.
GIT protective and adsorbents absorb gases, bacterial toxins and other
poisons, excess fluids & micro-organisms from the gastrointestinal tract and
also provide a protective coating on the intestinal mucosa. This gives relief
from pain and weakness that result frequent watery stools with or without
blood & mucous seen in amoebic dysentery and non-specific diarrhea, this
loss of fluid and electrolytes can cause severe dehydration and electrolyte
imbalance.
Organic compounds used as protective & absorbents are
Kaolin - Al2 O3 2SlO2 2H2O
Bismuth sub-carbonates – [(BIO)2CO3 H2O]
CATHARTICS
These are drugs used for the treatments of serve constipation to bring about
evacuation of bowels.
Purgatives act similarly but are generally mild in their nature of action; while
laxatives are milder than purgatives.
Ex: 1. Magnesium sulphate : Mg SO4.7H2O

(Epson salt)
2. Sodium potassium tartrate : CHOH COON4
(Rochelle salt)
CHOH COOK.4H2O
3. Mercurous chloride : HgCl2

(Calomel)
Cathartics or purgatives act by four different mechanisms:
i) Stimulant: Act by local irritation on

intestinal tract and bring stimulation of peristaltic activity. Ex: Senna,
castor oil
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ii) Bulk Purgatives: Increases the bulk of
intestinal contents. Ex: Ispagol Methyl cellulose
iii) Lubricants: They lubricate the bowel and

bring smooth clearance of the fecal material. Ex: Glycerine, Liquid
Parrafin.
iv) Saline Cathartics: Act by increasing the

osmotic load of the gastrointestinal tract by absorbing large quantity
of water and thus stimulate peristalsis. Ex: Salts of Magnesium,
sulphate tartrate etc.
Mechanism of action:
When orally administered, Saline cathartics are retained in the GIT
where they drew water from systemic circulation by osmosis & thereby increase
the intestinal bulk. This acts as mechanical stimulus, which produces increased
peristaltic movements causing evaluation of bowels. So they are also called
osmotic cathartics.
Magnesium sulphate
Mol. Formula - MgSO4 7H2O
Synonym - Epsom salt
Preparation
Magnesium sulphate is prepared by neutralizing MgO by dilute H2SO4
MgO+H2SO4 MgSO4 +H2O
Properties:
1. Colourless, odourless, bitter taste.
2. Freely soluble in a water.
3. It effloresces in warm, dry air, losing its water of crystallization.
Storage:
It effloresces in warm dry air & should be stored in well closed air
tight container uses.
Uses:
Used as saline cathartic in constipation.
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CHAPTER - 8
EXPECTORANTS
Expectorants are drug used to remove excessive sputum from the
respiratory tract. These drugs reduce the viscosity of sputum or increase the
volume of secretions thereby facilitating their expulsion from the respiratory
tract, by coughing.
Expectorants are used in cough preparations.
Ex-NH4Cl, Kl
Classification:
Expectorants are broadly classified as :
a) Sedative type: These are stomach irritants

and produce their effect through stimulation of gastric reflexes.
Ex: Ipecac
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)
b) Stimulant type: Produce their effect by

stimulation of secretory cells of respiratory tract directly or in directly.
Ex: Eucalyptus oil, Lemon oil.
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CHAPTER - 9
INHALANTS
Inhalants are the drugs or chemicals which are in vapour form and are inhaled
in the body.Inhalation of gases cause changes in physiological functions and
bring pharmacological actions.
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides are the gases used as inhalants.
OXYGEN (O2)
Oxygen contains not less than 99.0% v/v of O2, with trace of other gases like
argon, nitrogen or hydrogen.
Uses: a) Oxygen is required for respiration of human beings.
b) Oxygen is given by inhalation to correct hypoxemia conditions in
chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, pulmonary edema etc.
c) In the treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning.
d) Used as a diluents of volatile and gaseous anaesthetics
Storage:Oxygen is stored in metal cylinder. The shoulder of the cylinders is
painted black with a white shoulder and the name and symbol O2 is stenciled on
the shoulder.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide contains not less than 99.0% w/w of CO2.
Uses: a) CO2 regulates the acid-base balance of the blood and tissues.
b) CO2 is used as respiratory stimulant.
c) CO2 5 – 7 % in oxygen has been used in the treatment of carbon
monoxide poisonings.
Storage:It is stored under compression in steel cylinders painted grey. and the
name and symbol CO2 is stenciled on the shoulder.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

Synonym – Laughing gas
It should not contain less than 99.0% v/v of N2O
Uses: a) Used as a general anaesthetic
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b) It produce muscle relaxant
c) Used as anaesthetic for minor dental and surgical operations.
Storage:It is stored in blue metal cylinder under compression and temperature
not exceeding 370 C. The metal cylinder is painted blue. The name and symbol
N2O should be stenciled in paint on the shoulder of the cylinder.
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CHAPTER - 10
TOPICAL AGENTS
Topical agents are the compounds that act locally on skin or mucous membrane
to produce effects like protective, antimicrobial, astringent, emollient etc.
Classification
1. Topical protective & adsorbents
Ex – Zinc oxide (ZnO)
2. Anti-microbial agent
Ex- Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Potassium Permeganate (KMnO4)
3. Astringents
Ex- Potash alum KAI (SO4)2 12H2O
Zinc sulphate – ZnSO4
4. Miscellaneous compounds
Ex- Bees wax, lanolin.
TOPICAL PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENTS
Topical protective are soothing substances that protect the skin & mucous
membranes form irritation, itching & mild inflammation.
Ex- Dusty powders like talc, silicon polymers, and calamine.
Adsorbents: are chemically inert substance that absorbs secretions like sweat,
excess oil, pus & Micro – organisms.
Ex: Purified talc, bentonite.
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
Anti–microbial include a number of agents that act against micro – organisms
they include.
 Germicides: It is a chemical agent which destroys pathogenic
microorganisms. It is further divided into bactericide (against
bacteria), virucide (against virus), fungicide (against fungi) etc.
 Antiseptics: These are the substances that kill or prevent the

growth of microorganisms when applied on living tissue.
Ex:Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Boric acid (H3BO3), Iodine (I2)
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 Disinfectants: These are the substances that kill or prevent the
growth of microorganisms when applied on non living objects. Ex:
Phenol
 Bacteriostatic: It is a chemical agent which inhibits the
multiplication of bacteria.
 Bactericide: It is a chemical agent which kills the bacteria but not
necessarily bacteria spores.
ASTRINGENTS
Astringents precipitate proteins when applied to damaged skin & mucous

membranes and form a protective layer on the area to which they are applied.
EX: Potash alum {KAI(SO4)212H2O}, Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4), Zinc chloride
(Zn Cl2).
An astringent compounds shows following action:

 Styptic action: Stopping of bleeding by constriction of small blood
vessels.
 Antimicrobial: By precipitating superficial protein.
 Antiperspirant: By decreasing secretions (like sweat) by reducing
pore size of the skin.
 Anti-inflammatory: By decreasing supply of blood to the tissues.
Zinc sulphate.
Mol. Formula: ZnSO4 7H2O
Synonym: white vitrol
Preparation:
It is prepared by boiling metallic zinc with dilute H2SO4 until liberation
of H2O gas.
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 +H2
Storage:It is stored in well closed air tight container.

Use: Astringent, Germicidal
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CHAPTER - 11
EMETICS
Emetics: are drugs that are used to induce vomiting or emesis, which
results in the emptying of gastric contents through the oral cavity.
Emetics are given in the case of ingestion of poisons.
Ex: Antimony potassium tatrate. Copper sulphate;
Antimony potassium tatrate :

Synonym: Tartar emetic
Mol. Formula: C4H4O7SbK. ½H2O
Preparation
By boiling a solution of antimony trioxide & Potassium acid
tartrate, the solutions filtered and evaporated to crystallization.
2CH(OH)COOH 2CH(OH)COO(SbO) + H2O

+ Sb2O3
CH(OH)COOK CH(OH)COOK
(Pot. Acid tartarate)
Uses: Used as an emetics
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CHAPTER - 12
BUFFERS
BUFFERS
A Solution which resists the change of PH value on the addition of a small of
acid or base is called a buffer solution.
Classification (or) Types of Buffers Solutions
 Acidic Buffer : The solution containing a mixture of weak acid (ex.

Acetic acid) and its salt (ex. Sodium acetate) is known as acidic
buffer.
 Basic Buffer: The solution containing a mixture of weak base (ex.
Ammonia) and its salt (ex. Ammonium chloride) is known as basic
buffer.
Properties of Buffers Solution
 The pH of buffer solution is constant
 The pH of solution does not change on dilution.
 The pH does not change even after addition of small quantity of
acid or base.
Buffer System in Pharmacy
 Hydrochloric acid buffer (pH 1.2 – 2.2 in 0.1 unit intervals)
 Acid Phalate Buffer (pH 2.2 – 4.0 in 0.2 unit intervals)
 Neutralised Phthalate Buffer (pH 4.2 – 5.8 in 0.2 unit intervals)
 Phosphate Buffer (pH 5.8 – 8.0 0 in 0.2 unit intervals)
 Alkaline Borate Buffer (pH 8.0 – 10.0 0 in 0.2 unit intervals)
Role of Buffer in Pharmacy

a) Solubility: pH plays an important role in solubility behavior of compounds.
The required pH is adjusted by buffers.
Ex: Amines and alkaloids are soluble in acidic pH media but almost insoluble
in alkaline pH media.
b) Colour: Colour of many dyes is pH dependent.

Ex. Red colour of cherry is maintained in acidic pH which becomes pale yellow
to colourless in alkaline pH.
c) Stability: Ex. Ascorbic acid and penicillin are unstable in alkaline pH but
stable acidic pH
d) Patient comfort: Injectables are irritating and may damage tissues, if their pH differs
greatly from that of our body fluids pH.
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CHAPTER - 13
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality of a product is the sum of all its properties and characteristics relating
to its efficacy, safety and acceptability for meeting a specific therapeutic
response.
Quality control includes inspections involved beginning with receipt of raw

materials and continuing throughout the production and packaging operations,
testing of finished products, documentation upto distribution.
IMPORATNCE OF QUALITY CONTROL
 Assures purity and safety of medicines.

 Helps in preparing new drug applications and setting up of standards
of drugs.
 It enables the machine settings, adjustment and modification
processes and machinery.
 It helps to keep up the quality of the products during manufacturing
by taking corrective steps.
 It also aids in locating and identifying the process faults and defects of
products and helps to control scrap and wastes.
 It helps in continuous production of a quality product and better
utilization of labour and materials.
 It may give idea to lower the cost of product, maintaining its quality.
METHODS USED FOR QUALITY CONTROL
A) ANALYTICAL CONTROL: The Pharmacopoeas of the various

countries prescribe „Test of Purity‟ for the subatance, so as to ensure their
reasonable freedom from the undesirable impurities. Some of them are
given below:
 Colour, odour and taste
 Physico-chemical constant: Determination of melting point,
boiling point, refractive index, optical rotation.
 Spectral Data: Infrared(IR) absorption spectroscopy, Nuclear
magnetic resonance(NMR) spectroscopy, Mass spectroscopy etc.
 Light Absorption: Measurement of light absorption in the visible
and ultra-voilet region.
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 Viscosity, jell strength, swelling power
 Polymorphism and particle size
 Solubility
 Acidity, alkalinity, pH
 Humidity: Estimations of the moisture or humidity content of
crude drug.
 Insoluble constituents: Pure substance gives a clear solution,
whereas in the prescence of insoluble impurities a turbidity may
appear.
 Limit Test: Limit test for chloride, sulphate, iron etc.
 Assay: Trtrimetric method, gravimetric method etc.
 Ash, water insoluble ash
B) INSPECTION CONTROL: The physical inspection of product of

various intermediate stage. Ex. Packing line inspection.
C) ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL: Microbiological monitoring of air

and water to control the level of particulate and microbial matter in
parenterals and sterile ophthalmic products.
IMPURITIES
Impurity is the undesirable foreign material which may be toxic or may not be
toxic, present in the pharmaceutical substances.
Chemical purity implies the freedom from impurities but it is rather difficult to
obtain an almost 100% pure substances.
SOURCES OF IMPURITIES
The type and amount of impurity present in pharmaceutical substances depend

upon several factors:
Raw material used in the manufacture

Process used in the manufacture
Material of the plant
Inadequate storage
Manufacturing hazards
Deliberate adulteration
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a) Raw material used in the manufacture: The raw materials used for
the manufacture of pharmaceutical products, often contain impurities.
These impurities may come in the final product.
Example:
i) Metalic zinc may be present as impurity in Zinc oxide sample.
ii) Sodium chloride prepared from rock salt will almost contain traces of
calcium and magnesium compounds.
b) Process used in the manufacture: For example,
i) Tap water is frequently used in various manufacturing process. This

tap water contains chloride, calcium and magnesium which may come
as impurities in the final product.
ii) During manufacturing process, because of wide use of strong acids
(HCl, H2SO4). Chloride and Sulphate ions are very commonly
occurring impurities.
c) Material of the plant: The manufacturing equipments (or) utensils

are made up of metals like copper, aluminium, iron or stainless steel.
Due to solvent action on the equipments, the traces of metals are
introduced as impurities.
d) Inadequate storage: Stored products may be contaminated with dust,

insects and even animal and insect excreta. Due to careless storage
some chemical substances undergo chemical changes and decompose.
Ex: Ferrous sulphte is slowly converted into insoluble ferric oxide by
air and moisture.
e) Manufacturing hazards: Include Particulate contamination, process

errors, cross contamination, microbial contamination, packing errors
etc.
f) Deliberate adulteration: Mostly drug are mixed with cheaper drug.

Ex: KBr is used as sedative is often mixed with NaBr.
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ERRORS
There are two main classes of errors which affect the accuracy. They are
1. Determinate error
2. In-determinate errors
1. Determinate error:
These errors are determinate and can be either avoided.
Determinant errors may be due to:-
a. Instrumental errors:
By using faulty equipment. Ex- Weight Balance.
b. Operative error:
These are errors which are made by individual analyst. Ex:
Mathematical errors in calculation.
c. Chemical error :
This error due to impurities present in chemicals and reagents
d. Methodology errors:
This error arises due to the applying of faulty method.
Ex – Incomplete reaction.
2. Indeterminate errors:
The indeterminate errors are often called accidental or random errors and
are revealed by small difference in measurements made by person. These
errors cannot be determined.
LIMIT TEST
Limit test are quantitative or semi-quantitative tests designed to identify and

control small amount of impurities, which are likely to be present in the
substance. They involve simple comparisons of opalescence, turbidity or colour
produced in the test with that of fixed standards.
Some of the limit tests are performed in a special apparatus known as Nessler
cylinder.
24
1. LIMIT TEST FOR CHLORIDE
Principle: Limit test for chloride is based upon the simple reaction between
silver nitrate and soluble chlorides (if present in the sample) to give insoluble
silver chloride in the presence of dilute nitric acid.
The insoluble silver chloride makes the solution opalescent and the extent of
opalescence is compared with a standard opalescence produced in a standard
solution having a known amount of chloride.
If the opalescence produced in the test is less intense than that of standard
opalescence, the sample passes the limit test for chloride and vice versa.
Chemical reaction:
Cl- + AgNO3 AgCl + NO3-

silver nitrate Dil. HNO3 silver chloride
Role of reagent:
Dilute nitric acid is used to prevent the opalescence of other acid

radicals with silver nitrate solution.
Procedure:
SAMPLE SOLUTION STANDARD SOLUTION
1ml of sample is dissolved in water Pipette out 1ml of standard NaCl
1 and transfer to a Nessler cylinder 1 solution and transfer to Nessler
cylinder.
2 Add 10ml of dilute HNO3 2 Add 10ml of dilute HNO3
3 Dilute to 50ml with water 3 Dilute to 50ml with water
Add 1ml of AgNO3 solution stir Add 1ml of AgNO3 solution stir
4 immediately with a glass rod and 4 immediately with a glass rod and
kept aside for 5 minutes. kept aside for 5 minutes.
The opalescence produced by a given amount of the substances is compared

with the standard opalescence.
If the opalescence produced in the sample is less than the standard opalescence,
the sample passes the limit test and vice versa.
25
2. LIMIT TEST FOR SULPHATE
Principle:
Limit test for sulphate depends upon the interaction of soluble sulphates (if
present in the sample) with barium chloride in the presence of alcohol and
potassium sulphate to produce turbidity due to formation of insoluble barium
sulphate (BaSO4) precipitate.
Chemical Reaction:
dil. HCl
SO-24 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2Cl
Barium chloride Barium sulphate
Role of Reagent:
Barium Sulphate reagent (It consists of barium chloride, alcohol and a very
small amount of Potassium Sulphate)
a) Barium Chloride: To produce turbidity
b) Alcohol: Prevents supersaturation and thereby produce uniform turbidity.
c) Potassium Sulphate: Increase the sensitivity of the test by giving ionic
concentration in the reagent.
Procedure:
SAMPLE SOLUTION STANDARD SOLUTION
Dissolve the specified quantity of a Pipette out 1ml of 0.1089%w/v
1 substance in water and transfer to a 1 solution of Pot. Sulphate (standard
Nessler cylinder solution) in Nessler cylinder
2 Add 2ml of dil. HCl 2 Add 2ml of dil. HCl
3 Dilute to 45ml with water 3 Dilute to 45ml with water
Add 5ml of Barium sulphate Add 5ml of Barium sulphate
4 reagent stir immediately and kept 4 reagent stir immediately and kept
aside for 5 minutes aside for 5 minutes
Note: dil. HCl is added, except where HCl is used in the preparation
of standard solution (or) test sample solution. Dil.HCl is added to
dissolve other impurities like carbonates & phosphates are also
present in the sample.
The turbidity/precipitate produced by a given amount of the substances is

compared with the standard turbidity.
If the turbidity produced in the sample is less than the standard turbidity, the
sample passes the limit test and vice versa.
26
3. LIMIT TEST FOR IRON
The limit test for iron is based on the reaction between iron and thioglycolic
acid to produce deep pink to reddish purple colour due to the formation of
ferrous thioglycollate complex in ammonical solutions.
Chemical Reaction:
CH2SCOOH
3+
2Fe + 2CH2(SH)COOH + 2Fe +2 + 2H
Ferric ions Thioglycolic acid
CH2SCOOH
CH2SH O.CO
Fe2+ + 2CH2(SH)COOH Fe
Ferrous ions Thioglycolic acid
CO.O HSCH2
Ferrous thioglycollate complex
Role of Reagent:
a) Thioglycollic acid- Strong reducing agent which reduce ferric to ferrous ion
and form ferrous thioglycollate complex.
b) Citric acid- Prevents precipitation of iron with ammonia.
c) Ammonia- Purple colour is developed only in alkaline medium, so ammonia
solution is added
Procedure:
SAMPLE SOLUTION TEST SOLUTION
The specified quantity of sample is Pipette out 2ml standard ferric
1 dissolved in water and transferred 1 ammonium sulphate solution into a
to a Nessler cylinder Nessler cylinder
2 Add 2ml of 20%citric acid 2 Add 2ml of 20%citric acid
3 Add 0.1ml of thioglycolic acid 3 Add 0.1ml of thioglycolic acid
4 Make up the solution alkaline by 4 Make up the solution alkaline by
adding the ammonia. adding the ammonia.
5 Make up the volume upto 50ml by 5 Make up the volume upto 50ml by
adding water. adding water.
6 Allow to stand for 5 minutes 6 Allow to stand for 5 minutes
The colour produced by a given amount of the substances is compared with the
standard colour.
If the intensity of colour produced by the sample is less than the standard
colour, the sample passes the limit test and vice versa.
27
4. LIMIT TEST FOR ARSENIC
Principle:
The limit test for arsenic is based on the reaction of the arsenic in the arsenious
state to the arsine gas (ASH3) with zinc and hydrochloric acid in the presence
of Potassium iodide.
The arsine gas stains the mercuric chloride paper to yellowish brown stain
which is compared with standard stain.
Note: The arsenic acid is reduced to arsenious acid by reducing agents like
Potassium iodide, stannous acid.
Chemical Reaction:
i) Arsenic impurity is first converted into Arsenic acid (H3AsO4) or Arsenious

acid (H3AsO3) depending upon the valency state in the sample.
As H3AsO4 + H3AsO3
Stannated Hcl Arsenic acid Arsenious acid
ii) If any Arsenic acid is formed, it is reduced to Arsenious acid

Stannous chloride
H3AsO4 H3AsO3
Arsenic acid KI Arsenious acid
iii) The arsenious acid is further reduced to Arsine gas with the help of
hydrogen (obtained in the reaction between Zn and HCl)
Reduction
H3AsO3 + 6H AsH3 + 3H2O
Arsenious acid Arsine gas
iv) Arsine gas react with mercuric chloride paper to produce yellowish brown
stain due to formation of Mercuric Arsenide.
AsH2
HgCl2 + 2AsH3 Hg + 2HCl

Mercuric chloride Arsine gas
Paper
AsH2
Mercuric Arsenide
28
Role of Reagents
i) Granulted Zinc and Hcl – Gives nascent hydrogen

ii) Stannous Chloride – essential for complete evolution of arsine gas.
iii) Potassium iodide – Reducing agent (helps in reducing pentavalent
Arsenic acid to trivalent Arsenic acid)
iv) Lead-Acetate Cotton Plug – It is used to trap any hydrogen
sulphide (which react with mercuric chloride paper producing a
dark stain) which may be evolved along with arsine gas.
Apparatus (Gutzeit Apparatus)

It consist of a width mouthed bottle of 120ml capacity fitted with a rubber bung
through which insert a glass tube of length 200.0mm and internal diameter of
6.5mm and external diameter of 8.0mm. The lower part of the tube is
constricted to an internal diameter of 1.0mm and 15.0mm from its tip, is a
lateral orifice of 2.0mm in diameter. The upper end of the tube is closed with
rubber bung. The mercuric chloride paper is placed between the bungs and
clapped together with a clip.
29
Procedure:
 The glass is packed with lead acetate cotton.
 The solution of the sample is placed in the wide mouthed bottle
 To this add 1.0 g of Potassium iodide, 5ml of stannated hydrochloric

acid solution and 10.0 g of zinc.
 Immediately placed the glass tube in position and kept it in a water-

bath for 40 minutes by maintaining a temperature 0f 40oC.
 After 40 minutes, the yellow stain produced on the HgCl2 paper is

compared with the standard stain produced by treating 1.0ml of the
arsenic standard solution diluted to 50ml with water in the same
manner.
 If the intensity of the yellow stain produced by the test solution is less
than that of standard stain, the sample passes the limit test for arsenic
and vice –versa
LIMIT TEST FOR LEAD
Principle: It is based on the voilet colour colour produced in chloroform due to

the reaction between lead impurity and dithizone which result in the formation
of lead dithizonate. The intensity of final voilet colour produced in the
chloroform medium is compared with standard.
LIMIT TEST FOR HEAVY METALS (Lead, Antimony, Bismuth,

Tin & Cobalt)
Principle: It is based on the reaction between hydrogen sulphide and heavy

metals in an acidic medium to produce the metal sulphides (Brown Colour). It
is compared with standard containing definite quantity of lead nitrate.
30
CHAPTER - 14
RADIO PHARMACEUTICALS
Radioactivity: Act of spontaneous emission of energy or rays by an unstable
atom is called as radioactivity.
Radioactive substances: The substances having the property of emitting rays or

energy are called as radioactive substances.
Types of radiation: The radiation emitted by the radioactive isotopes is in the

form of
a) Alpha Particles
b) Beta particles
c) Gamma rays
Properties
S.No. Property Alpha Beta Gamma
Positive
1. Charge Negatives Neutral
charge
Negligible mass like
Equal to Equal to an
2. Mass electromagnetic
helium electron
radiations.
3. Ionization Very high Moderate Low
Penetration
4. Low Moderate Very high
power
1/10 of the 9/10 the
Equal to velocity of
5. Velocity velocity of velocity of
light
light light
Measurement of radioactivity
Following are the various devices for the measurement of radioactivity:
1. Ionisation Chamber
2. Geiger-Muller counter
3. Scintillation counter
4. Proportional counter
5. Autoradiography
31
GEIGER-MULLER COUNTER
It is use full to detect alpha, beta and gamma particles. It consists of:
 A cylinder chamber made up of stainless steel or glass coated with silver
on the inner side which act as cathode.
 A central tungsten wire act as anode
 Te space in the chamber is filled with a mixture of argon gas
 Radiations enter the chamber through a thin section of outer wall called
as mica window which causes ionization of some argon atoms.
 A high voltage (800-1300 V) is maintained between the electrode
 Due to ionization of gas the electrons and positively charged ions are
attracted anode and cathode respectively.
 Movements of these ions through the tube constitute a flow of current.
 The flow of current is amplified and recorded electronically.
Fig. Geiger- Muller Counter
32
Biological effect of radiation

The effect of radioactive upon biological tissues depends upon a
number of factors such as:
 Ability of the radiation to penetrate tissue
 The energy of radiation
 The particular tissue
 Surface area of the tissue exposed
 Dose rate of the radiation
Acute effect:
Exposure to high levels of radiations causes nausea, vomiting,
weakness, diarrhea ulceration of GIT, Decrease in number of blood cells,
anemia and finally death.
Chronic effects:
Low dose radiation over prolonged periods has harmful effects on
biological system it accelerates the process of ageing and shortens the life
span. It includes cancer in healthy individuals.
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF RADIO-ISOTOPES
Storage:
i) Radio isotopes must be stored in specially protected remote areas.
ii) The store room should be made of non-absorbent materials.
iii) Alpha & beta emitters must be stored in thick glass or perspire
containers and gamma emitters must be stored in lead containers.
iv) The area must be regularly monitored for radioactivity.
v) The store house must be under the supervision of a qualified
person.
Handling
i) Protective clothing or shielding must be used while handling the
radioactive material.
ii) All operations must be performed in a fame cupboard.
iii) The distance between the operator and the radio–nuclide
must be maximized.
iv) No eating, drinking or smoking is allowed in the area.
v) Persons must be regularly monitored for radiations before
leaving the area.
vi) Disposal of radio–active waste must be done with care to
33
avoid atmospheric.
Radio-pharmaceuticals:The radio–active isotope preparations used in

pharmacy and medicine are called radio pharmaceuticals.
sEx. Gold (Au198) Solution, Sodium Iodide(I131) Capsule etc
Application of Radio isotopes in pharmaceuticals/medicine
i) Calcium ( Ca44 & Ca45): used to study bone structure and in the treatment of
carcinoma of bone.
ii) Cobalt (Co60): used for the sterilization of surgical materials.
iii) Cyanocobalamin (Co57): used in the diagnosis of pernicious anemia.
iv) Iron (Fe55 & Fe59): used to measure red cell life span.
v) Sodium Iodide (I131) Capsule and Solution: used as a diagnostic and
therapeutic agent in thyroid disorders.
vi) Sodium Phosphate (P32) Solution: used in the treatment of chronic
granuocytic leukemia.
vii) Hydrogen (H2 & H3): used to determine total body water.
RADIO- OPAQUE CONTRAST MEDIA

X-rays are electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength and have high
penetration power. X-rays are capable of passing through most of our soft
tissues (composed of elements of very low atomic number like C, H, N, O) and
hence cause darkening on X-rays film.
Whereas X-rays are impermeable to Bone and teeth (composed of elements of
high atomic number like Ca, P) and hence bony structure caste shadow on X-
rays film and bony tissue can be distinguished.
Therefore, radiopaques are chemical compounds containing the element of high
atomic number which will stop the passage of X-rays. If such compounds are
administered and the X-rays are allowed to pass through the particular part, the
X-rays get absorbed by such compounds and are used for describing the body
structure of that particular part in the form of sketch or image.
Example- Barium Sulphate (BaSO4)
Barium sulphate (BaSo4)
Synonym-Barium meal
Preparation
By Treating dilute solutions of Ba Salts with H2SO4
BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2HCl
Application:
34
 It is used for the preparation of Barium meal, which is barium
sulphate suspension in water
 It is employed for the diagnosis of ulcer and tumors in the GIT Trac
CHAPTER - 15
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Quantitative analysis is concerned with the determination of how
much of a particular constituent is present in a sample.
Quantitative analysis is carried out by following methods:

1. Volumetric (titrimetric) analysis
2. Gravimetric analysis
3. Instrumental analysis
4. Gasometric analysis
1. Volumetric analysis: It involves the determination of volume of

standard solution that reacts quantitatively and completely with the
solution of the substance to be determined.
Terms used in volumetric analysis:
Titrate: The substance to be determined is called as the titrate.
Titrant: The substance of known concentration is called the titrant
Titration: The process of determining the volume is called as

titration.
End point: The point at which the reaction is completed is called the
end point.
Indicator: Some auxiliary substance which is used to detect the end

point of the titration is called as the indicator.
35
Standard solution: The solution of known concentration is known as
the standard solution.
CLASSIFICATION
Volumetric analysis is classified into 5 branched based upon chemical
reaction involved.
1. Acid base titration: When the neutralization reaction is
involved, then the titration is called as acid base or
neutralization titration.
2. Redox titrations: Titration in which reduction-oxidation

reaction involved is called as redox titrations.
3. Precipitation titrations: Titration in which formation of

precipitate reaction is involved.
4. Complexometric titrations: Titration in which formation of

stable complex reaction involved.
5. Non-aqueous titrations: When the reaction takes place in non-

aqueous solvent i.e. organic solvents
1. ACID BASE TITRATIONS
i) Sodium bicarbonate (Baking powder)

 Acid base titration
 Titrate: Sodium bicarbonate
 Titrant: Sulphuric acid (0.5N)
 Indicator: Methyl orange
 End point: Appearance of yellow colour
Principle:
36
Sodium bicarbonate is assayed by acid base titration. The sodium
bicarbonate is titrated with sulphuric acid solution using methyl
orange as indicator. The end point is the colour change from pinkish
red to yellow colour.
Chemical Reaction:
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H20 + 2C02
ii) Boric acid (H3BO3)

 Titrate: Boric acid
 Titrant: Sod. Hydroxide (1N NaOH)
 Indicator: Phenolphthalein
 End point: Pale pink colour
Principle:
Boric acid is an assayed by acid base titration. Boric acid is a weak
acid and cannot be directly titrated with strong alkali, so it is
converted into strong acid by treating with glycerol.
Glycerol reacts with boric acid and converts it into glycerol boric acid
which is strong acid. Now it can be titrated with standard sodium
hydroxide solution using phenolphthalein as indicator. The end point
is the appearance of permanent pale pink colour.
Reaction:
37
iii) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

 Titrate: Ammonium chloride
 Titrant: Sodium hydroxide (0.1N NaOH)
 Indicator: Phenolphthalein
 End Point: Pale pink colour
Principle:
Ammonium chloride is assayed by acid base titration. Specified
weight of sample (ammonium chloride) is dissolved in water and
treated with formaldehyde solution liberating equivalent amount of
hydrochloric acid (HCl). This HCl is determined by titrating with
standard sodium hydroxide by using phenolphthalein as an indicator.
Note: Ammonium chloride forms weak acidic solution in water and

cannot be directly titrated with strong alkali. So it is first treated with
formaldehyde solution which converts the ammonium chloride to
hexamine and liberates HCl. This HCl is determined by titrating with
standard sodium hydroxide by using phenolphthalein as an indicator.
Chemical reaction:
4NH4Cl + 6HCHO (CH2)6N4 + 4HCl + 6H2O

Ammonium Formaldehyde Hexamine Hydrochloric
38
Chloride acid
2. REDOX TITRATIONS
i) Ferrous sulphate (FeS04)

 Redox(permanganate) titration
 Titrate: Ferrous sulphate
 Titrant: Potassium permanganate( KMnO4)
 Indicator: KmN04 is self indicator
 End point: Appearance of pink colour
Principle:
Ferrous sulphate is assayed by redox titration. It is directly titrated
against standard solution of potassium permanganate in the presence
of acidic medium by sulphuric acid.
Note: Acidic medium is necessary for the reaction and to prevent
precipitation of KMn04
Chemical reaction:
2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 + 10FeSO4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 +
5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
ii) Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
 Redox(permanganate) titration
 Titrate: Hydrogen peroxide solution
 Titrant: Potassium permanganate( KMnO4)
 Indicator: KmNO4 is self indicator
 End point: Appearance of faint pink colour
39
Principle:
It is assayed by redox titration. Hydrogen peroxide is directly titrated

against standard solution of KMnO4 solution in the presence of dil.
H2SO4
Chemical reaction:
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2O2 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2
iii) Chlorinated lime (Bleaching Powder) - CaOCl2

 Redox (iodimetry) titration
 Titrate: Chlorinated lime
 Titrant: 0.1 N Sodium thiosulphate
 Indicator: Starch
 End point: till a faint colour remains
Principle:
It is assayed by redox (iodometric) titrations. The aqueous solution of
chlorinated lime is treated with acetic acid in the presence of
potassium iodide. The acetic acid reacts to liberate chlorine from the
sample which displaces equivalent amount of iodine from the pot.
Iodide. This liberated iodine is now titrated against standard
thiosulphate using starch as an indicator.
Chemical reaction:
CaOCl2 + 2CH3COOH (CH3COO)2Ca + HCl + HOCl
HCl + HOCl H2O + Cl2
2KI + Cl2 2KCI + I2
40
I2 + 2Na2S2O3 Na2S4O6 + 2NaI
iv) Copper sulphate (CuSO4)

 Redox (iodometric) titration
 Titrate: copper sulphate
 Titrant: Sodium thiosulphate
 Indicator: Starch
 End point: Till a faint blue colour remains
Principle:
It is assayed by redox (iodometric) titration. An aqueous solution of
sample (CuSO4) is treated with acetic acid in the presence of
potassium iodide.
Cupric iodide is formed which is unstable and decomposes into
cuprous iodide and iodine. The liberated iodine is determined by
titration with sodium thiosulphate using starch as an indicator.
Note: Acetic acid is used to provide pH 4 to 5.5
Chemical reaction:
CuSO4 + 2KI CuI2 + K2SO4

2CuI2 2CuI + I2
I2 + 2Na2S2O3 Na2S4O6 + 2NaI
41
3. COMPLEXO METRIC TITRATIONS
i) Calcium gluconate
 Complexo metric titrations
 Titrate: Calcium gluconate
 Titrant: Di-sodium edentate
 Indicator: screened indicator (mixture of murexide & napthol
green)
 End point: Untill the solution is deep blue in colour
Prnciple:
It is assayed by complexometric titration. The sample is treated with

hydrochloric acid and to this solution sodium hydroxide is added to
maintain pH (about 10) and is directly titrated with standard edentate
solution using screened indicator.
Chemical reaction:
42
4. PRECEPITATIO TITRATIONS
i) Sodium chloride
 Precipitation titration
 Titrate: Sodium chloride
 Titrant: silver nitrate solution
 Indicator: Potassium chromate
 End point: Brick red ppt.
Principle:
It is assayed by precipitation titration. Aqueous solution of the sample

is direct titrated by standard silver nitrate solution using potassium
chromate solution as the indicator. At the end point,it gives brick red
precipitate due to formation of silver chromate.
Chemical reaction:
NaCl + AgNO3 Agcl + NaNO3
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 Ag2CrO4 + 2KNO3

Silver chromate
43
(brick red ppt)
CHAPTER – 16
COMPOUNDS (with its synonym, formula & uses)
CHEMICAL SYNONYM CHEMICAL USES
COMPOUND FORMULA
Plaster of Paris Gypsum CaSO4.½H2O Surgical aids
Potassium chloride KCI Electrolyte replenisher
Potassium iodide KI Expectorant
Pot. Permanganate KMnO4 Antiseptic & Oxidising
agent
Sod. Bicarbonate Baking Soda NaHCO3 Systemic antacid
Sod. Hydroxide Caustic soda NaOH Pharmaceutical aids
Sod. Pot. Tartarate Rochelle salt C4H4KNaO6.4H2O Saline cathartics
Sod. Thiosulphate Hypo Na2S2O3.5H2O Antidote in cyanide
poisoning
Sod. Na2S2O5 Antioxidant
Metabisulphate
Sod. Fluoride NaF To prevent dental
caries
Stannous Fluoride SnF2 To prevent dental
caries
Talc 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O Dusting powder, filter
medium, glidant in
tablets
Titanium dioxide TiO2 Topical protective
Zinc Sulphate White vitrol ZnSO4.7H2O Astringent, antiseptics
44
Zinc oxide Zinc paste ZnO Mild astringent
Pot. Aluminium Alum KAI(SO4)2.12H2O Astringent
sulphate
Aluminium Al(OH)3 Antacid
hydroxide
Ammonium NH4Cl Expectorant, Diuretics
chloride
Aqueous iodine sol. Lugol’s Solution Antiseptics
Barium sulphate Barium meal BaSO4 Radio-opaque contrast
media
Borax Sod.Tetra Na2B4O7.10H2O Antibacterial
borate
Boric acid H3BO3 Local anti-infective
Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime CaOH2 Antacids
Calcium carbonate Precipitated CaCO3 Non systemic antacid
chalk
Calcium chloride CaCl2 Electrolyte replenisher
Calcium gluconate C12H22O14Ca.H2O Calcium replenisher
Copper sulphate Blue vitrol Used as a emetics
Chlorinated lime Bleaching CaOCl2 Electrolyte replenisher
powder
Dicalcium CaHPO4.2H2O Source of calcium &
phosphate phosphorus
Ferrous sulphate Green Vitrol FeSO4.7H2O Haematinic
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Oxidising agent
Light Kaolin Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O Adsorbent
Magnesium Milk of Mg(OH)2 Antacid & Laxative
hydroxide magnesia
Magnesium sulphte Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O Saline cathartic ,
sedative
Mercurous chloride Calomel HgCl Cathartic
Magnesium oxide MgO Antacid
Nitrous oxide Laughing gas N2O General anaesthetic
45
CHAPTER - 17
STORAGE CONDITIONS
1. ZnSO4
In well closed, air tight containers.
2. Aqueous iodine solution
It is volatile and attacks cork and rubber. It should be stored in
air tight glass container in a cool place
3. MgSO4 7H2O
It should be stored in well closed, air tight container.
4. Oxygen
5. FeSO4
FeSO4 on exposure to air and moisture, slowly gets oxidized
to ferric state and becomes reddish brown in colour, so it
should be stored in well filled air tight container.
6. Al (OH)3
It should be stored in a will closed container in a cool place
7. H2O2
46
It is easily decomposed to water or oxygen. So stored in light
resistance container in cool place.
8. CO2
It is stored under compression in steel cylinders painted grey.
and the name and symbol CO2 is stenciled on the shoulder.
9.N2O
It is stored in blue metal cylinder under compression and
temperature not exceeding 370 C. The metal cylinder is painted
blue. The name and symbol N2O should be stenciled in paint
on the shoulder of the cylinder.
IDENTIFICATION OF IONS
Cations
1. Sodium
a) Moister the sodium salt with HCl and introduce an platinum
wire. Keep
busen flame. It burns with a yellow colour in the flame.
b) Boil the salt solutions with K2 Co3 Solution. No opt is
obtained. Add
potassium anti-monate (2KH2 SbO4) to the above solution
& boil.
White ppt of disodium antimonite is formed
Nacl + KH2SbO4 NaH2SbO4 + KCl
(Pot antimonite) (D.S.
antimonite)
2. Potassium.
47
a) Potassium self moistured with con HCl &introduced on a
platinum loop into
the flame. It gives an violet colour to the frame.
b) Aquous salt solution when acidified with diluted acetic acid
and treated with
sodium cobalt nitrate,
3. Calicum
a) Sample + water +Hvl+Naoh+NHCO3 white ppt is obtained,
b) Sample solution + ammonium oxalate solution
While ppt
4. Iron
a) Sample solution +potassium ferrocyanide blue
colour
b) Sample + HCl+ammonium thaiocyanate blood-
red colour
Divide into two portions.
Take Ist portion + Solvent ether pink
colour
Take 2nd Solution + Potassium chromate solution
Red ppt
5. Silver
a) Sample solution + dilute HCl Curdy white ppt is
obtained
b) Sample solution + Potassium chromate solution
Red ppt
Anions
1. Chlorine:
a) Chloride salt + dil HNO3 + AgNO3 White ppt
Cl + AgNO3 AgCl + NO3
b) Sample + Potassium discromater + H2SO4 are taken in
test tube filter paper is taken and moistened with
48
diphenylcarbozide solution and placed over the opening of the
test tube. The filter paper turns to violet red.
2. Carbonate
a) Treat the solution of the salt with Mg SO4 solution. A
While ppt forms in
cold Na2CO3 + MgSO4 MgCO3 + NaSO4
b) The substance is suspended in water in test tube acetic acid
is added & heated. It releases the gas and collected gas in
Ba(OH)2. it produces white ppt it dissolve in HCl.
3. Sulphate
Sample + water + HCl + Bacl2 White
Ppt indicates the presence of SO4
SO4 + Ba + + BaSO4
Sample solution + lead acetate solution White ppt
NaSO4 + (CH3 COO) pb pbSO4 + 2CH3
COONa
4. Nitrates.
a) Sample + water + H2SO4 + FeSO4 Brown
colour is produced.
b) Sample + Nitrobenzene + H2SO4 in test tube Kept aside
for 5 minutes and
cooled in water bath.
To it add NaOH and acetone, the upper layer shows
violet colour.
5. BiCarbonates
a) Sample + boil CO2 is formed
b) Sample Solution + MgSO4 No ppt
On Boiling a white ppt is formed.
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Pharmachemistry-1 Notes

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Pharmachemistry-1 Notes

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PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-I

S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

Compounds with its synonym, formula &

2. ASSAY: The quantitative estimation of the amount of drug present in a given

3. LIMIT TEST: Limit tests are quantitative or semi-quantitative tests

Buffer: Solution which resists any change in its pH value on dilution or on

iii) Dried Ferrous Sulphate - FeSo4

i) Sodium Iodide - NaI

Antioxidants are the agents which inhibit the Process of oxidation of

Ex.: Sodium bisulphate, Sodium Metabisulphate, Sulphur dioxide.

1. True anti–oxidants: These are effective against auto-oxidation but

Example: Sodium Nitrite, Activated Charcoal, Copper Sulphate.

CLASSIFICATION: Based on mechanism of action

In cyanide poisoning sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate injections are

TYPES OF DENTAL PRODUCTS

Ex: Ammonium carbonate

Uses: Used as respiratory stimulant & expectorant.

Uses: dilute hydrochloric acid is used in the treatment of achlorhydria

Ideal requirements of antacids are:

Antacids are classified as follows:

i) Systemic antacids:These are absorbed into systemic circulation and cause

ii) Non-Systemic antacids:These do not dissolve in gastric fluids & hence do

a) Aluminum containing compounds.

COMBINATION ANTACID PREPARATION

G.I.T PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENT

Ex: 1. Magnesium sulphate : Mg SO4.7H2O

3. Mercurous chloride : HgCl2

Cathartics or purgatives act by four different mechanisms:

i) Stimulant: Act by local irritation on

iii) Lubricants: They lubricate the bowel and

iv) Saline Cathartics: Act by increasing the

a) Sedative type: These are stomach irritants

b) Stimulant type: Produce their effect by

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

TOPICAL PROTECTIVE AND ADSORBENTS

 Antiseptics: These are the substances that kill or prevent the

Astringents precipitate proteins when applied to damaged skin & mucous

An astringent compounds shows following action:

Storage:It is stored in well closed air tight container.

Ex: Antimony potassium tatrate. Copper sulphate;

Antimony potassium tatrate :

2CH(OH)COOH 2CH(OH)COO(SbO) + H2O

Uses: Used as an emetics

 Acidic Buffer : The solution containing a mixture of weak acid (ex.

Role of Buffer in Pharmacy

b) Colour: Colour of many dyes is pH dependent.

Quality control includes inspections involved beginning with receipt of raw

IMPORATNCE OF QUALITY CONTROL

 Assures purity and safety of medicines.

METHODS USED FOR QUALITY CONTROL

A) ANALYTICAL CONTROL: The Pharmacopoeas of the various

B) INSPECTION CONTROL: The physical inspection of product of

C) ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL: Microbiological monitoring of air

The type and amount of impurity present in pharmaceutical substances depend

Raw material used in the manufacture

b) Process used in the manufacture: For example,

i) Tap water is frequently used in various manufacturing process. This

c) Material of the plant: The manufacturing equipments (or) utensils

d) Inadequate storage: Stored products may be contaminated with dust,

e) Manufacturing hazards: Include Particulate contamination, process

f) Deliberate adulteration: Mostly drug are mixed with cheaper drug.

Limit test are quantitative or semi-quantitative tests designed to identify and