Basic BJT Applications

1. Switch
Consider the circuit shown on Figure 8. If the voltage 𝑣𝑖 is less than the voltage required
to forward bias the base-emitter junction then the current 𝐼𝐵 = 0 and thus the transistor
is in the cutoff region and 𝐼𝐶 = 0. Since 𝐼𝐶 = 0, the voltage drop across Rc is zero and
so 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 .

If the voltage 𝑣𝑖 increases so that 𝑉𝐵𝐸 forward biases the base-emitter junction the
transistor will turn on and

Equation (1.8) is the load line equation for this circuit. In graphical form it is shown on
Figure 9.
In graphical analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits, a load line is a line drawn on the
characteristic curve, a graph of the current vs the voltage in a nonlinear device like a
diode or transistor. It represents the constraint put on the voltage and current in the
nonlinear device by the external circuit. The load line, usually a straight line, represents
the response of the linear part of the circuit, connected to the nonlinear device in
question. The points where the characteristic curve and the load line intersect are the
possible operating point(s) (Q points) of the circuit; at these points the current and
voltage parameters of both parts of the circuit match.

Quiescent (Q or bias) point is the operating point of a transistor. It is a point where the
dc voltage and/or current, when applied to the device, cause it to operate in a desired
fashion. The Q-point is fixed by selecting a proper dc biasing of the transistor used.
Biasing of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is the process of applying external
voltages to it. In order to use the BJT for any application like switching or amplification,
the two junctions of the transistor CB and BE should be properly biased according to
the required application. Depending on whether the two junctions of the transistor are
forward or reverse biased, a transistor is capable of operating in three different modes
as previously described.

Therefore, to have a BJT operate as a switch, it is biased to operate in cutoff mode to

represent an open switch, and biased to operate in saturation mode to close the switch.

2. Power amplifiers

An Amplifier is a device that increases the power of a signal. Power amplifiers are
expected to deliver large signal power to their loads, and as such have to handle large
currents. Hence, power amplifiers are those with a high power output stage. They are
sometimes called large signal amplifiers and audio amplifiers.
To obtain a large power at the output, the input signal voltage must be large. This is
why, in electronic circuits, a voltage amplifier always precedes it. During operation, a
power amplifier takes power from a dc power source and converts it into useful ac
signal power.

There are different classes of amplifiers such as class A, class B, class AB, class C, and
class D. These amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the input cycle
for which the amplifier operates in its linear region. Each class has a unique circuit
configuration because of the way it must be operated. The emphasis is on power
amplification.

Power amplifiers are normally used as the final stage of a communications receiver or
transmitter to provide signal power to speakers or to a transmitting antenna.

Why power amplifiers? They are used to drive a load of high power e.g. Cell phones
(require about 1W at the antenna) and audio systems (Require tens to hundreds of watts
of power). Ordinary voltage/current amplifiers are not equipped for such applications.

Characteristics of power amplifiers

 They experience small load resistance
 They deliver large current levels
 They require large voltage swings
 They draw a lot of power from the supply
 They dissipate a large amount of power, hence they require heat sinks.

Classification of Power amplifiers

Power amplifiers are classified according to the percentage of time that the collector
current is nonzero i.e. the amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation
for a full cycle of input signal.

Recall: For a BJT to act as an amplifier, it must be biased in such a way that the EB
Junction is forward biased and the BC junction is reverse biased, and hence acts in the
active mode.

Output characteristics with a load line

CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIERS
When an amplifier is biased such that it always operates in the linear region where the
output signal is an amplified replica of the input signal, it is a class A amplifier.

In this type of amplifier, the Q-point and the input signal are chosen such that the output
signal is obtained for a full input cycle (Class A amplifiers conducts current throughout
the entire cycle of the input signal (360º)). This happens when the Q-point is
approximately in the middle of the load line. Therefore, the transistor remains in the
active region and never enters the cut-off and saturation regions of operation for all
values of input signal.

When Q-point is at the center of the load line, the collector current 𝐼𝐶 can vary from its
Q-point value I𝐶𝑄 , up to its saturation value 𝐼𝑐(𝑠𝑎𝑡) , and down to its cutoff value of zero.
Likewise, the collector-to-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 can can swing from its Q-point value
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 , up to its cut off value 𝑉𝑐𝑒(𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓), and down to its saturation value of near zero.
This operation is indicated in figure 1a. Therefore, a maximum class A signal can be
obtained.

Figure 1a

If the Q-point is not centered on the ac load line, the output signal is limited as can be
seen in figure 1b, which shows an ac load line with Q-point moved away from the center
toward cutoff. The output variation is limited by cutoff in this case. The collector
current can only swing down to near zero and an equal amount above 𝐼𝐶𝑄. The collector-
to-emitter voltage can only swing up to its cutoff value and an equal amount below
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 . This situation is illustrated in figure 1b(a). If the amplifier is driven any further
than this, it will “clip” at cutoff as shown in figure 1b(b)

Figure 1b: Q-point closer to cutoff

Figure 1c shows an ac load line with the Q-point moved away from center toward
saturation. In this case, the output variation is limited by saturation. The collector
current can only swing up to near saturation and an equal amount below 𝐼𝐶𝑄 . The
collector-to-emitter voltage can only swing down to its saturation value and an equal
amount above 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 . This situation is illustrated in figure 1c(a). If the amplifier is driven
any further, it will “clip” at saturation as shown in figure 1c(b).
Figure 1c: Q-point closer to saturation.

The above analysis shows the importance of having the bias point in the middle of
the load line in order to produce an output signal that is an amplified replica of
the input.

Figure 1: Waveforms of Class A amplifier

From fig 3, it can be seen that for a full input cycle, a full output cycle is obtained. This
means that the input is reproduced without any distortion. However, Class A amplifiers
have very low efficiency.

Class B Operation
The Q-point and the input signal are chosen such that the output signal is obtained only
for half a cycle when a full input cycle is applied. This means that the Q-point is shifted
onto the X-axis i.e. the transistor is biased to cut-off. Hence, the transistor remains in
the active region only for half a cycle of the input signal. This is what is reproduced at
the output as summarized in fig 4.

In the negative half of the input signal, the transistor enters the cut-off region and no
signal is produced at the output. Therefore, the collector current flows for only 180 0
(half cycle) of the input signal. This results in a distorted output signal. However, this
can be eliminated by using two transistors, each conducting for half a cycle. Note that
the efficiency of class B operation is higher than for class A.

Figure 2: Waveforms of Class B amplifier

Class C operation
For class C operation, the Q-point and the input signal are selected such that the output
signal is obtainable for less than 180 0 for a full input cycle. This happens when the Q-
point is below the X-axis (The transistor is biased beyond cut off). This leads to the
transistor to remain on for less that 180 0 of the input signal, which results in a higher
distortion. For the remaining cycle, the transistor is in cut-off region and hence no
output signal is produced. This is shown in fig 5.

Figure 3: Waveforms of Class C amplifier

Class C amplifiers are not suitable for audio frequency power amplifiers due to the high
distortion of the input signal. However, due to their efficiency of close to 100%, they
are used in tuned circuits used in communication areas and in RF circuits with tuned
RLC loads.

Class AB operation
This is a compromise between class A and class B amplifier operation. The Q-point is
above the X-axis but below the midpoint of the load line. This results in the output
signal to be obtained for greater that 180 0 but less than 3600 of the input cycle as shown
in fig 6. For this reason, the output signal in class AB is distorted. The efficiency is
higher than class A but less that class B. Class AB is important in elimination of cross-
over distortion.

Figure 4: Waveforms of Class C amplifier

Note: As the Q-point moves away from the mid point of the load line towards the X-
axis, the efficiency increases.

Comparison of Amplifier Classes

ANALYSIS OF CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

It has already been stated that class B amplifiers conduct for only half a cycle of the
full input signal. To get a full output cycle across the load, therefore, requires use of
two transistors. Each of these transistors conducts for an alternate half cycle of the input
signal

Depending on the types of transistors used, two configurations result.

 Push Pull Class B amplifier, where both the transistors are the same type e.g.
npn or pnp
 Complementary symmetry class B transistor, where the transistors are
complementary to each other. i.e. one is npn while the other is pnp.
Push Pull Class B Amplifier
The Push Pull Class B Amplifier circuit requires two transformers, an input transformer
known as driver transformer and one connected to the load called output transformer.
Both transformers are centre tapped as shown in the fig 13.

Figure 5: Push Pull Class B Amplifier

Generally, both Q1 and Q2 are npn transistors. If pnp transistors are used instead, the
supply voltage would be  VCC . Both transistors are in common emitter configuration.

Operation: With respect to the centre tap of the driver transformer, for the positive
cycle of the input signal, point A will be positive while point B will be negative. This
results in the voltages in the two halves of the secondary to be equal but opposite. Hence,
the input signal applied to the bases of Q1 and Q2 will be 1800 out of phase.

As shown in fig 14, when point A is positive, Q1 is driven into active region while Q2
is driven into cut-off region, and vice-versa.

Figure 6: Basic push pull operation

Complementary symmetry class B amplifier

Figure 7: Complementary symmetry class B amplifier circuit

As shown in fig 17, the circuit has two transistors, Q1 being npn and Q2 being pnp. It is
also driven by two power sources,  VCC .

In the positive cycle of the input signal, Q1 is driven into the active region hence starts
conducting, while Q2 is driven into cutoff region. This results in the positive half cycle
at the load. During the negative input signal cycle, Q2 gets driven into conduction while
Q1 is switched off. Therefore, this will lead to a negative half cycle on the load. Note
that when there is no input signal, both Q1 and Q2 will be off. This results in no signal
at the output leading to crossover distortion.